Central tropical Andes. Andes Mountains - detailed information with photo

The Andes are a major inter-oceanic divide. To the east of the Andes flow the rivers of the Atlantic Ocean basin. The Andes originate the Amazon itself and many of its major tributaries, as well as tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana, the Magdalena River and the Patagonia River. To the west of the Andes flow mainly short rivers belonging to the Pacific Ocean.

The Andes also serve as the most important climatic barrier in South America, isolating the territories to the west of the Cordillera Main from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, to the east - from the influence of the Pacific Ocean.

The mountains lie in 5 climatic zones:

• equatorial
• subequatorial,
• tropical,
• subtropical,
• moderate.

They are distinguished by sharp contrasts in moistening of the eastern (leeward) and western (windward) slopes.

Due to the considerable length of the Andes, their individual landscape parts differ from each other. By the nature of the relief and other natural differences, as a rule, three main regions are distinguished - the Northern, Central and Southern Andes.

The Andes stretched through the territories of 7 states of South America:

• Venezuela,
• Colombia,
• ecuador,
• Peru,
• Bolivia,
• Chile,
• Argentina.

Vegetation and soils

The soil and vegetation cover of the Andes is very diverse. This is due to the high altitudes of the mountains, a significant difference in the moisture content of the western and eastern slopes. Altitudinal zonality in the Andes is clearly expressed. There are three altitudinal belts - tierra caliente, tierra fria and tierra elada.

In the Andes of Venezuela, deciduous forests and shrubs grow on mountainous red soils.

The lower parts of the windward slopes from the northwestern Andes to the Central Andes are covered with mountainous equatorial and tropical forests on lateritic soils (mountain hylaea), as well as mixed forests of evergreen and deciduous species. The external appearance of the equatorial forests differs little from the external appearance of these forests in the flat part of the mainland; various palm trees, ficuses, bananas, cocoa tree, etc.

Higher (up to altitudes of 2500-3000 m), the nature of the vegetation changes; Bamboos, tree ferns, coca shrub (which is the source of cocaine), cinchona are typical.

Between 3000 m and 3800 m - alpine hylaea with stunted trees and shrubs; epiphytes and creepers are widespread, bamboos, tree-like ferns, evergreen oaks, myrtle, heather are characteristic.

Above - predominantly xerophytic vegetation, paramos, with numerous Compositae; moss swamps on flat areas and lifeless rocky spaces on steep slopes.

Above 4500 m - a belt of eternal snow and ice.

To the south, in the subtropical Chilean Andes - evergreen shrubs on brown soils.

In the Longitudinal Valley there are soils resembling chernozems in composition.

The vegetation of the alpine plateaus: in the north - mountain equatorial meadows of paramos, in the Peruvian Andes and in the east of Pune - dry alpine-tropical steppes of halka, in the west of Pune and in the entire Pacific west between 5-28 ° south latitude - desert types of vegetation (in the Atacama Desert - succulent vegetation and cacti). Many surfaces are saline, which hinders the development of vegetation; in such areas, mainly wormwood and ephedra are found.

Above 3000 m (up to about 4500 m) - semi-desert vegetation, called dry puna; grow dwarf shrubs (tholoi), cereals (feather grass, reed grass), lichens, cacti.

To the east of the Main Cordillera, where there is more rainfall, there is steppe vegetation (puna) with numerous grasses (fescue, feather grass, reed grass) and cushion-shaped shrubs.

On the humid slopes of the Eastern Cordillera, tropical forests (palm trees, cinchona) rise to 1500 m, stunted evergreen forests with a predominance of bamboo, ferns, and lianas reach 3000 m; at higher altitudes - alpine steppes.

A typical inhabitant of the Andean highlands is polylepis, a plant of the Rosaceae family, common in Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Chile; these trees are also found at an altitude of 4500 m.

In the middle part of Chile, the forests are largely reduced; once forests rose along the Main Cordillera to heights of 2500-3000 m (mountain meadows with alpine grasses and shrubs, as well as rare peat bogs, began higher), but now the mountain slopes are practically bare. Nowadays, forests are found only in the form of separate groves (pines, araucaria, eucalyptus, beeches and plane trees, in the undergrowth - gorse and geraniums).

On the slopes of the Patagonian Andes south of 38°S. - subarctic multi-tiered forests of tall trees and shrubs, mostly evergreen, on brown forest (podzolized to the south) soils; there are many mosses, lichens and lianas in the forests; south of 42°S - mixed forests (in the region of 42 ° S there is an array of araucaria forests). Beeches, magnolias, tree ferns, tall conifers, and bamboos grow. On the eastern slopes of the Patagonian Andes - mostly beech forests. In the extreme south of the Patagonian Andes - tundra vegetation.

In the extreme southern part of the Andes, on Tierra del Fuego, forests (from deciduous and evergreen trees - for example, southern beech and canelo) occupy only a narrow coastal strip in the west; above the forest border, the snow belt begins almost immediately. In the east and in places in the west, subantarctic mountain meadows and peat bogs are common.

The Andes are the birthplace of cinchona, coca, tobacco, potatoes, tomatoes and other valuable plants.

Animal world

The fauna of the northern part of the Andes is part of the Brazilian zoogeographic region and is similar to the fauna of the adjacent plains.

The fauna of the Andes south of 5 ° south latitude belongs to the Chilean-Patagonian subregion. The fauna of the Andes as a whole is characterized by an abundance of endemic genera and species.

The Andes is inhabited by llamas and alpacas (representatives of these two species are used by the local population for obtaining wool and meat, as well as pack animals), chain-tailed monkeys, a relic spectacled bear, pudu and gaemal deer (which are endemic to the Andes), vicuña, guanaco, Azar fox , sloths, chinchillas, marsupial opossums, anteaters, degu rodents.

In the south - blue fox, Magellanic dog, endemic rodent tuco-tuco, etc. There are many birds, among them hummingbirds, which are also found at altitudes of more than 4000 m, but are especially numerous and diverse in the "foggy forests" (moist tropical forests of Colombia, Ecuador , Peru, Bolivia and the extreme northwest of Argentina, located in the fog condensation zone); endemic condor, rising to a height of up to 7 thousand meters; and others. Some species (such as, for example, chinchillas, which were intensively exterminated in the 19th and early 20th centuries for the sake of obtaining skins; wingless grebes and the Titicaca whistler, found only near Lake Titicaca; etc.) are endangered.

A feature of the Andes is a large species diversity of amphibians (over 900 species). Also in the Andes, there are about 600 species of mammals (13% are endemic), over 1,700 species of birds (of which 33.6% are endemic) and about 400 species of freshwater fish (34.5% are endemic).

Ecology

One of the main environmental problems of the Andes is the deforestation, which is no longer renewable; The humid tropical forests of Colombia, which are being intensively reduced to plantations of cinchona and coffee trees, and rubber plants, have been particularly hard hit.

With a developed agriculture, the Andean countries face the problems of soil degradation, soil pollution with chemicals, erosion, as well as desertification of land due to overgrazing (especially in Argentina).

Environmental problems of coastal zones - pollution of sea water near ports and large cities (caused not least by the release of sewage and industrial waste into the ocean), uncontrolled fishing in large volumes.

As elsewhere in the world, the Andes are facing an acute problem of greenhouse gas emissions (mainly from electricity generation, as well as from the iron and steel industry). Oil refineries, oil wells and mines also make a significant contribution to environmental pollution (their activity leads to soil erosion, pollution of groundwater; the activity of mines in Patagonia adversely affected the biota of the area).

Due to a number of environmental problems, many animal and plant species in the Andes are endangered.

Attractions

• Lake Titicaca;
• Lauca National Park;
• Chiloe National Park; to Cape Horn National Park;
• Santa Fe de Bogota: Catholic churches of the 16th-18th centuries, National Museum of Colombia;
• Quito: Cathedral, Museum of Musical Instruments, Museum of Del Banco Central;
• Cusco: Cusco Cathedral, La Campa-nya Church, Haitun-Rumiyok Street (remains of Inca buildings);
• Lima: the archaeological sites of Huaca Hualyamarca and Huaca Pucllana, the archbishop's palace, the church and monastery of San Francisco;
• Archaeological complexes: Machu Picchu, Pachacamac, the ruins of the city of Caral, Sacsayhuaman, Tambomachay, Pukapukara, Kenko, Pisac, Ollantaytambo, Moray, the ruins of Pikiljakta.

• Bolivia's capital, La Paz, is the highest mountain capital in the world. It is located at an altitude of 3600 m above sea level.
• 200 km north of the city of Lima (Peru) are the ruins of the city of Caral - temples, amphitheatres, houses and pyramids. It is believed that Caral belonged to the oldest civilization of America and was built approximately 4000-4500 years ago. Archaeological excavations have shown that the city traded with vast areas of the South American continent. It is especially interesting that archaeologists have not found any evidence of military conflicts for about a thousand years in the history of Karala.
• One of the most mysterious monuments of history in the world is the monumental archaeological complex of Sacsayhuaman, located northwest of Cusco, at an altitude of about 3700 meters above sea level. The fortress of the same name of this complex is attributed to the Inca civilization. However, it has not yet been possible to establish how the stones of these walls, weighing up to 200 tons and fitted to each other with jeweler's precision, were processed. Also, the ancient system of underground passages has not yet been fully explored.
• The archaeological complex of Morai, located 74 kilometers from Cusco at an altitude of 3500 meters, is still admired not only by archaeologists. Here, huge terraces, descending, form a kind of amphitheater. Studies have shown that this building was used by the Incas as an agricultural laboratory, since the different heights of the terraces made it possible to observe plants in different climatic conditions and experiment with them. It used different soils and a complex irrigation system, in total, the Incas grew 250 plant species.

Inca Empire

The Inca Empire in the Andes is one of the most mysterious disappeared states. The tragic fate of a highly developed civilization that appeared in far from the most favorable natural conditions and died at the hands of illiterate aliens still worries humanity.

The era of great geographical discoveries (XV-XVII centuries) made it possible for European adventurers to quickly and fabulously get rich in new lands. Most often cruel and unscrupulous, the conquistadors rushed to America not for the sake of scientific discoveries and cultural exchange between civilizations.

The fact that the papal throne in 1537 recognized the Indians as spiritualized beings did not change anything in the methods of the conquistadors - they were not interested in theological disputes. By the time of the "humane" papal decision, the conquistador Francisco Pizarro had already managed to execute the Inca emperor Atahualpa (1533), defeat the Inca army and capture the capital of the empire, the city of Cuzco (1536).

There is a version that at first the Indians mistook the Spaniards for gods. And it is quite possible that the main reason for this misconception was not the white skin of the aliens, not that they were riding on unseen animals, and not even that they possessed firearms. The Incas were struck by the incredible cruelty of the conquistadors.

At the first meeting of Pizarro and Atahualpa, the Spaniards ambushed thousands of Indians and captured the emperor, who did not expect anything like this at all. After all, the Indians, whom the Spaniards condemned for human sacrifice, believed that human life is the highest gift, and that is why the human sacrifice to the gods was the highest form of worship. But in order to simply destroy thousands of people who did not come to the war at all?

That the Incas could offer serious resistance to the Spaniards is beyond doubt. After the murder of the captive Atahualpa, for whom the Indians paid a monstrous ransom - almost 6 tons of gold, the conquistadors began to plunder the country, mercilessly melting down Inca jewelry pieces into ingots. But the brother of Atahualpa Manco, appointed by them as the new emperor, instead of collecting gold for the invaders, fled and led the fight against the Spaniards. The last emperor, Tupac Amaru, was only able to be executed by Viceroy Francisco de Toledo of Peru in 1572, and even after that, the leaders of new uprisings were named after him.

Not much has survived from the Inca civilization to this day - after the death of hundreds of thousands of Indians, both at the hands of the Spaniards and from work in the mines, hunger, European epidemics, there was no one to maintain irrigation systems, high mountain roads, beautiful buildings. The Spaniards destroyed a lot to get building material.

A country whose inhabitants were accustomed to supply from public warehouses, in which there were no beggars and vagabonds, for many years after the arrival of the conquistadors became a zone of human disaster.

Different theories determine the age of the Andean mountain system from 18 million years to several hundred million years. But, more importantly for people living in the Andes, the process of formation of these mountains is still ongoing.

Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, glaciers in the Andes do not stop. In 1835, Charles Darwin observed the eruption of the Osorno volcano from the island of Chiloe. The earthquake described by Darwin destroyed the cities of Concepción and Talcahuano and claimed numerous victims. Such events in the Andes are not uncommon.

So, in 1970, a glacier in Peru literally in seconds buried the city of Yungay under itself with almost all the inhabitants, about 20,000 people died. In Chile in 2010, an earthquake claimed several hundred lives, left millions homeless, and caused enormous property damage. In general, serious disasters occur in the Andes with a frightening cycle - once every 10-15 years.

ANDES (Andes, from Anta, in the Inca language copper, copper mountains), Andean Cordillera (Cordillera de los Andes), the longest (estimated from 8 to 12 thousand km) and one of the highest (6959 m, Mount Aconcagua) mountain systems of the globe; frames South America from the north and west. In the north they are bounded by the basin of the Caribbean Sea, in the west they face the Pacific Ocean, in the south they are washed by the Drake Passage. The Andes is the main climatic barrier of the mainland, isolating the eastern part from the influence of the Pacific Ocean, the western part from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean.

Relief. The Andes consist mainly of the submeridional ranges of the Western Cordillera of the Andes, the Central Cordillera of the Andes, the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, the Coastal Cordillera of the Andes, separated by internal plateaus and depressions (see map).

According to the totality of natural features and orography, the Northern, Peruvian, Central and Southern Andes are distinguished. The northern Andes include the Caribbean Andes, the Colombian-Venezuelan and Ecuadorian Andes. The Caribbean Andes are elongated latitudinally and reach a height of 2765 m (Mount Naiguata). The Colombian-Venezuelan Andes have a northeast strike and are formed by the Western, Central and Eastern (height up to 5493 m) Cordillera. The ridges fan out north of 1° north latitude and are separated by the valleys of the Cauca and Magdalena rivers. The northern branches of the Eastern Cordillera cover the intermountain depression of Maracaibo. The isolated massif Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (altitude 5775 m, Mount Cristobal Colon) rises steeply above the Caribbean coast. Along the coast of the Pacific Ocean there is a lowland up to 150 km wide, with low (up to 1810 m) ridges, separated from the Western Cordillera by the valley of the Atrato River. The Ecuadorian Andes (1 ° north latitude - 5 ° south latitude), less than 200 km wide (the minimum width of the Andes), are elongated submeridionally and formed by the Western (height up to 6310 m, Mount Chimborazo) and Eastern Cordillera, separated by a depression - the Quito graben. Along the coast - lowlands and low mountains. The Peruvian Andes (5°-14° south latitude), up to 400 km wide, strike northwest. The coastal plain is almost non-existent. Western (height up to 6768 m, Mount Huascaran), Central and Eastern Cordillera are separated by the valleys of the Marañon and Huallaga rivers. In the Central Andes (Central Andean Highlands, 14°28° S), the strike changes from northwest to submeridional. The Western Cordillera (altitude up to 6900 m, Mount Ojos del Salado) is separated from the Central and Cordillera Real by the vast Altiplano basin. The Eastern and Central Cordillera are separated by a narrow depression with the upper reaches of the Beni River. The Coastal Cordillera stretches along the coast, framed from the east by the Longitudinal Valley. The Southern Andes (Chilean-Argentinean Andes and Patagonian Andes), 350-450 km wide, are located south of 28 ° south latitude and have mainly a submeridional strike. They are formed by the Coastal Cordillera, the Longitudinal Valley, the Main Cordillera (altitude up to 6959 m, Mount Aconcagua) and the Precordillera. To the south, the heights decrease to 1000 m (on Tierra del Fuego). The Patagonian Andes are strongly dissected by modern and ancient (Quaternary) glaciers into numerous massifs and ranges. The coastal Cordillera passes into the chain of islands of the Chilean archipelago with deep valleys and fjords, and the Longitudinal Valley into a system of straits. The Andes are part of the Pacific volcanic ring, and the shape of the relief is largely determined by volcanic forms - plateaus, lava flows, volcanic cones. There are up to 50 large active, 30 extinct volcanoes and hundreds of small volcanic structures. In the Northern Andes - the volcanoes Cotopaxi (5897 m), Huila (5750 m), Ruiz (5400 m), Sangay (5230 m) and others; in the Central Andes - Lullaillaco (6723 m), Misti (5822 m) and others; in the Southern Andes - Tupungato (6800 m), Liaima (3060 m), Osorno (2660 m), Corcovado (2300 m), Berni (1750 m), etc.

Geological structure and minerals. The Andes as the newest mountain structure was formed at the Alpine stage (in the Cenozoic) in connection with the evolution of the active margin of South America. In its position, the Andes inherit the Andean fold system that developed throughout the Phanerozoic, the largest of the systems in the eastern part of the Pacific mobile belt. The modern Andes are a typical marginal continental volcanic-plutonic belt. At earlier stages of development (the end of the Triassic - Cretaceous), island-arc systems of the West Pacific type existed here. According to the geological structure of the Andes, they have transverse and longitudinal zonality. From north to south, three segments are distinguished: Northern (Colombian-Ecuadorian), Central (with Peruvian-Bolivian and Northern Chilean-Argentinean subsegments) and Southern (Southern Chilean-Argentinean). The easternmost element of the Andes is the band of the Subandy Foredeeps, which gradually narrows to the south and consists of separate links separated by transverse uplifts. The troughs are filled with weakly deformed Eocene-Quaternary molasses. The Andean orogen thrust to the east consists of several large uplifts with a cover-fold structure (expressed in the relief by the Cordillera mountain ranges) and narrower intermountain troughs or plateaus (Altiplano) separating them, filled with thick Neogene-Quaternary molasses. The eastern (outer), partly central zones of the orogen are composed of fragments of the Early Precambrian metamorphic basement of the platform, its Paleozoic cover, Late Precambrian (Brazilides) and Hercynian metamorphic folded complexes. The structure of the western (inner) zones involves Mesozoic (partly Paleozoic) sedimentary, volcanic-sedimentary, volcanogenic complexes formed in volcanic island arcs, back-arc basins on the ancient active margin of South America, as well as ophiolites of various origins. These formations were attached (accreted) to the margin of South America in the Late Cretaceous. At the same time, there was an intrusion of giant multiphase granite batholiths (Coastal Cordillera of Peru, Main Cordillera of Chile, Patagonian). In the Cenozoic, chains of large terrestrial stratovolcanoes formed along the active continental margin. Three volcanic groups are currently active: northern (Southern Colombia and Ecuador), central (Southern Peru - Northern Chile) and southern (Southern Chile). The Andes retain high tectonic mobility, are characterized by intense seismicity associated with the subduction (subduction) of the Nazca plate under the South American plate.

The bowels of the Andes are extremely rich in minerals. The deposits of the Copper Belt of South America are associated with granite batholiths. Deposits of ores of silver, copper, lead, zinc, tungsten, gold, platinum and other rare and non-ferrous metals (deposits in Peru and Bolivia) are confined to Cenozoic volcanic and subvolcanic formations. Deposits of oil and natural combustible gas are associated with the band of foredeeps filled by Cenozoic molasses, especially in the north (Venezuela, Ecuador, Northern Peru) and the extreme south of the Andes (Southern Chile, Argentina). Large deposits of saltpeter, iron ores in Chile, emeralds in Colombia.

Climate. The Andes cross 6 climatic zones (equatorial, northern and southern subequatorial, southern tropical and subtropical, temperate), characterized by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the western (windward) and eastern (leeward) slopes. In the Caribbean Andes, 500-1000 mm of precipitation falls per year (mainly in summer), in the equatorial Andes (Ecuador and Colombia) on the western slopes - up to 10,000 mm, on the eastern - up to 5000 mm. The western slopes of the Peruvian and Central Andes and the interior of the Central Andes are characterized by a tropical desert climate, the eastern slopes receive up to 3000 mm of precipitation per year. To the south of 20 ° south latitude on the western slopes, the amount of precipitation increases, on the eastern slopes it decreases. The western slopes south of 35° south latitude receive 5,000–10,000 mm of precipitation per year, while the eastern slopes receive 100–200 mm. Only in the very south, with a decrease in altitude, there is some equalization in the moistening of the slopes. The snow line is located in Colombia at an altitude of 4700-4900 m, in Ecuador - 4250 m, in the Central Andes 5600-6100 (in Pune 6500 m is the highest on Earth). It decreases to 3100 m to 35 ° south latitude, 1000-1200 m - in the Patagonian Andes, 500-600 m - in Tierra del Fuego. South of 46° 30' south latitude, glaciers descend to sea level. Large glaciation centers are located in the Cordillera de Santa Marta and in the Cordillera de Merida (the total ice volume is about 0.5 km 3), in the Ecuadorian Andes (1.1 km 3), the Peruvian Andes (24.7 km 3 ), in the Western Cordillera of the Central Andes (12.1 km 3), in the Central Cordillera (62.7 km 3), in the Chilean-Argentine Andes (38.9 km 3), the Patagonian Andes (12.6 thousand km 3, in including the Uppsala Glacier). The Patagonian ice sheet is formed by two vast fields with a total length of 700 km, a width of 30-70 km, and a total area of ​​13 thousand km2.

Rivers and lakes. The Andes are interoceanic watershed, they originate the components and tributaries of the Amazon, as well as tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana and Patagonia rivers. In the Northern and Peruvian Andes, in narrow depressions located between the ridges, large rivers flow: Cauca, Magdalena, Marañon (the source of the Amazon), Huallaga, Mantaro, and others. Most of their tributaries and the rivers of the Central and Southern Andes are relatively short. The rivers of the Western and Coastal Cordillera between 20 ° and 28 ° south latitude have almost no permanent watercourses, the river network is sparse. The Central Andes have extensive areas of internal runoff. The rivers flow into lakes Titicaca, Poopo, and salt marshes (Coipasa, Uyuni, and others). In the southern, especially Patagonian, Andes, there are many large lakes of glacial origin (Buenos Aires, San Martin, Viedma, Lago Argentino, etc.) and hundreds of small ones (finally moraine and cirque).

Soils, flora and fauna. The position in several climatic zones, contrasts in the moisture content of the western and eastern slopes, and the significant heights of the Andes determine the great diversity of soil and vegetation cover and a pronounced altitudinal zonality. In the Caribbean Andes - deciduous (during the winter drought) forests and shrubs on mountain red soils. On the eastern slopes of the Colombian-Venezuelan, Ecuadorian, Peruvian and Central Andes there are mountain rainforests (mountain hylaea) on lateritic soils, including the Yungas natural region. On the western slopes of the Peruvian and Central Andes - the Tamarugal and Atacama deserts, in the interior highlands - Puna. In the subtropical Andes of Chile - evergreen dry forests and shrubs on brown soils, south of 38 ° south latitude - humid evergreen and mixed forests on brown forest, in the south - podzolized soils. High plateaus are characterized by special high-mountain types of vegetation: in the north - equatorial meadows (paramos), in the Peruvian Andes and in the northeast of Pune - dry cereal steppes (halka). The Andes are home to potatoes, cinchona, coca and other valuable plants.

The fauna of the Andes is similar to the fauna of the adjacent plains; endemic species include the relic spectacled bear, llamas (vicuna and guanaco), Magellanic dog (culpeo), Azar fox, pudú and uemul deer, chinchilla, Chilean opossum. Birds are numerous (especially in the Coastal Cordillera): condor, mountain partridge, geese, ducks, parrots, flamingos, hummingbirds, etc. It is possible that the horse, sheep, and goat brought to South America contributed to the desertification of the Andean landscapes.

There are 88 national parks in the Andes with a total area of ​​19.2 million hectares, including: Sierra Nevada (Venezuela), Paramilho, Cordillera de los Picachos, Sierra de la Macarena (Colombia), Sangay (Ecuador), Huascaran, Manu (Peru), Isiboro Secura (Bolivia), Alberto Agostini, Bernardo O'Higshns, Laguna - San Rafael (Chile), Nahuel Huapi (Argentina), as well as numerous reserves and other protected areas.

Lit .: Lukashova E. N. South America. Physical geography. M., 1958; American Cordillera. M., 1967.

M. P. Zhidkov; A. A. Zarshchikov (geological structure and minerals).

The longest mountain system

The Inca Empire in the Andes is one of the most mysterious disappeared states. The tragic fate of a highly developed civilization that appeared in far from the most favorable natural conditions and died at the hands of illiterate aliens still worries humanity.
The era of great geographical discoveries (XV-XVII centuries) made it possible for European adventurers to quickly and fabulously get rich in new lands. Most often cruel and unprincipled, the conquistadors rushed to America not for the sake of scientific discoveries and cultural exchange between civilizations.
The fact that the papal throne in 1537 recognized the Indians as spiritualized beings did not change anything in the methods of the conquistadors - they were not interested in theological disputes. By the time of the "humane" papal decision, the conquistador Francisco Pizarro had already managed to execute the Inca emperor Atahualpa (1533), defeat the Inca army and capture the capital of the empire, the city of Cuzco (1536).
There is a version that at first the Indians mistook the Spaniards for gods. And it is quite possible that the main reason for this misconception was not the white skin of the aliens, not that they were riding on unseen animals, and not even that they possessed firearms. The Incas were struck by the incredible cruelty of the conquistadors.
At the first meeting of Pizarro and Atahualpa, the Spaniards ambushed thousands of Indians and captured the emperor, who did not expect anything like this at all. After all, the Indians, whom the Spaniards condemned for human sacrifice, believed that human life is the highest gift, and that is why the human sacrifice to the gods was the highest form of worship. But in order to simply destroy thousands of people who did not come to the war at all?!
That the Incas could offer serious resistance to the Spaniards is beyond doubt. After the murder of the captive Atahualpa, for whom the Indians paid a monstrous ransom - almost 6 tons of gold, the conquistadors began to plunder the country, mercilessly melting down Inca jewelry pieces into ingots. But the brother of Atahualpa Manco, appointed by them as the new emperor, instead of collecting gold for the invaders, fled and led the fight against the Spaniards. The last emperor, Tupac Amaru, was only able to be executed by Viceroy Francisco de Toledo of Peru in 1572, and even after that, the leaders of new uprisings were named after him.
Not much has survived from the Inca civilization to this day - after the death of hundreds of thousands of Indians, both at the hands of the Spaniards and from work in the mines, hunger, European epidemics, there was no one to maintain irrigation systems, high mountain roads, beautiful buildings. The Spaniards destroyed a lot to get building material.
A country whose inhabitants were accustomed to supply from public warehouses, in which there were no beggars and vagabonds, for many years after the arrival of the conquistadors became a zone of human disaster.

Nature

The Andes pass through all climatic zones, so the flora and fauna of these mountain ranges is very diverse.

Different theories determine the age of the Andean mountain system from 18 million years to several hundred million years. But, more importantly for people living in the Andes, the process of formation of these mountains is still ongoing.
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, glaciers in the Andes do not stop. In 1835, Charles Darwin observed the eruption of the Osorno volcano from the island of Chiloe. The earthquake described by Darwin destroyed the cities of Concepción and Talcahuano and claimed numerous victims. Such events in the Andes are not uncommon.
So, in 1970, a glacier in Peru literally in seconds buried the city of Yungay under itself with almost all the inhabitants, about 20,000 people died. In Chile in 2010, an earthquake claimed several hundred lives, left millions homeless, and caused enormous property damage. In general, serious disasters occur in the Andes with a frightening cycle - once every 10-15 years.
The most severe climate is noted on the central plateaus of the Andes, where precipitation, if any, occurs even in summer in the form of snow. It is believed that these highlands are the most barren and driest in the world, which is quite due to the combination of rarefied dry air, fierce winds and dazzling sun.
The Andes perform the function of an interoceanic watershed: the rivers belonging to the Atlantic Ocean basin flow east of the Andes, and many of them originate in the mountains, the source of the Amazon itself, the largest river in the world, is located in the Andes. The rivers belonging to the Pacific Ocean are generally short and flow west of the Andes.
Also, the Andes, which are the longest in the world, are also a climatic barrier that isolates the Pacific coast of South America from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, and most of the continent from the influence of the Pacific Ocean. As a result of the great length of the Andes, their landscape parts differ significantly; according to various natural features, the Northern Andes (up to 5º S), Central Andes (5-28 "S) and Southern Andes (28-41º 30º S.) are distinguished. Another feature of this mountain system is a clearly defined altitudinal zonality, according to which three belts are distinguished - tierra caliente - the lower high-altitude forest belt, tierra fria - the upper forest belt and tierra elada - a belt with a harsh climate.
Depending on the distance from the equator and the height above sea level, both equatorial, tropical and subtropical forests with their abundance of vegetation (palms, bananas, ficuses, cocoa trees, bamboos, evergreen trees and shrubs) and temperate forests grow in the Andes. Subarctic forests and tundra vegetation are characteristic of high altitudes and southern latitudes. It is believed that many of the most important agricultural crops, such as tomatoes, potatoes, tobacco, come from the Andes.
There are many unique species in the animal world of the Andes. So, Andean camels, llamas, alpacas, vigoni and guanacos are not found anywhere else in the world. The Andes are home to over 900 amphibian species, about 600 mammal species, and over 1,700 bird species. Many of them are endemic.

general information

Location: bordering the continent of South America from the north and west

States in which the Andes are located: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina

The peoples inhabiting the Andes: Indians, Europeans, Mestizos, African Americans, Mulattos, Asians

Languages: mainly Spanish, as well as Quechua, Aymara, Guaraní and other Indian tribal languages

Religion: Primarily Catholic

Main seaports: Guayaquil (Ecuador), Valparaiso (Chile).

The most important airports: Simon Bolivar International Airport (Caracas, Venezuela); Eldorado International Airport (Santa Fe de Bogotá, Colombia), Mariscal Sucre International Airport (Quito, Ecuador), Jorge Chavez International Airport (Lima, Peru), El Alto International Airport (La Paz, Bolivia), Santiago International Airport (Chile).

The most important rivers are: Orinoco, Marañon, Ucayali, Medeira, Pilcomayo, Bermejo, Parana, Rio Salado, Colorado, Rio Negro.

Major lakes: Titicaca, Poopo.

Economy

The leading industry is mining: deposits of tungsten, silver, tin, oil are being developed (Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela, Chile); copper (Chile), gold and emeralds (Colombia), iron (Bolivia).

Agriculture: bananas (Ecuador, Colombia), potatoes, coffee (Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Ecuador), corn, tobacco, wheat, sugar cane, olives, grapes; sheep breeding, fishing on large lakes.

Climate and weather

Most of the precipitation (up to 820 mm per year) falls from May to November.

In highland Quito, the temperature is kept within +13ºС... +15ºС, but there are big differences between day and night.

Precipitation (up to 1200 mm per year) - from September to May.

In La Paz, the average monthly temperature in November is about +1ºС, in July - about +7ºС.
In Chile, the average temperature in the north of the country is from +12ºС to +22ºС, in the south - from +3ºС to +16ºС.

Attractions

■ Cape Horn National Park;
■ Santa Fe de Bogota: Catholic churches of the 16th-18th centuries, National Museum of Colombia;
■ Quito: Cathedral, Museum of Musical Instruments, Museum of Del Banco Central;
■ Cusco: Cusco Cathedral, La Campagna Church, Haitun-Rumiyok Street (remains of Inca buildings);
■ Lima: the archaeological sites of Huaca Hualyamarca and Huaca Pucllana, the archbishop's palace, the church and monastery of San Francisco;
■ Archaeological complexes: Machu Picchu, Pachacamac, the ruins of the city of Caral, Tambomachay, Pukapukara, Kenko, Pisak, Ollantaytambo, Moray, the ruins of Pikiljakta.

Curious facts

Copper Mountains - that's what the Incas call these longest mountains in the world. We are talking about the Andean Cordillera, known to us as the Andes. This mountain range is not comparable in length to any of the existing ones on our planet. The Andes are about 9,000 km long. They originate from the Caribbean Sea and reach Tierra del Fuego.

Width and height of the Andes

Aconcagua (pictured below) is the highest peak of the Andean Cordillera. The height of the Andes at this point is 6962 meters. Aconcagua is located in Argentina. What are the prevailing ones have a number of large peaks. Among them, Mount Ritakuva (5493 meters), El Libertador (6720 meters), Huascaran (6768 meters), Mercedario (6770 m) and others should be noted. There are areas where mountains reach a width of 500 km. As for their maximum width, it is about 750 km. The main part of them is occupied by the Puna plateau, which has a very high snow line, which reaches 6500 m. The average height of the Andes is approximately 4000 m.

Age of the Andes and their formation

According to experts, these mountains are quite young. A few million years ago, the process of mountain building ended here. Even in the Precambrian period, the origin of fossils began. Land plots then began to appear in place of the boundless ocean. The area where the modern Andean Cordillera is located was for a long time either sea or land, and the height of the Andes changed significantly. The mountain range completed its formation after the uplift of rocks. Huge folds of stone were pushed to an impressive height as a result of this process. By the way, this process is not finished. It continues in our time. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes sometimes occur in the Andes.

Rivers originating in the Andes

The longest mountains on our planet are at the same time considered the largest inter-oceanic watershed. The famous Amazon originates precisely in the Andean Cordillera, as well as its tributaries. It should also be noted that the tributaries of the large rivers of the states of Paraguay, Orinoco and Parana begin in the Andes. For the mainland, mountains are a climatic barrier, that is, they protect the land from the west from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, and from the east - from the influence of the Pacific Ocean.

Relief

The Andes are so long that it is not surprising that they are located in six climatic zones. Unlike the southern slopes, the amount of precipitation is high on the western slopes. It reaches 10 thousand mm per year. Consequently, not only the height of the Andes, but also their landscape varies significantly.

The Andean Cordilleras are divided by relief into 3 regions: the Central, Northern and Southern Andes. The main Cordilleras are separated by the depressions of such rivers as the Magdalena and the Cauca. There are many volcanoes here. One of them, Huila, reaches 5750 m. The other, Ruiz, rises to 5400 m. Cumbal, which is now active, reaches a height of 4890 m. The Ecuadorian Andes, belonging to the Northern, include a volcanic chain marked by the highest volcanoes. Chimborazo alone is worth something - it rises to 6267 m. The height of Cotopaxi is not much less - 5896 m. The highest point of the Ecuadorian Andes is Huascaran - 6769 m is the absolute height of the mountain. The Andes South are divided into Chile-Argentine and Patagonian. The highest points in this part are Tupungato (about 6800 m) and Medcedario (6770 m). The snow line reaches six thousand meters here.

Volcano Llullaillaco

This is a very interesting active volcano located on the border of Argentina and Chile. It belongs to the Peruvian Andes (Western Cordillera range). This volcano is located in the Atacama Desert, which is one of the driest places on our planet. The absolute height of the Andes at the point is 6739 m. It is the highest of all the existing ones. In the region of this volcano, the Andes mountains are very peculiar. Its relative height reaches 2.5 km. On the western slope of the volcano, the snow line exceeds 6.5 thousand meters, which is its highest position on the planet.

Atacama Desert

In this unusual place, there are areas where it has never rained. The Atacama Desert is the driest place on earth. The fact is that the rains cannot overcome, therefore they fall on the other side of the mountains. The sands in this desert stretch to the very tropics for thousands of kilometers. The cold fog rising from the sea is the only source of moisture for native plants.

San Rafael Glacier

Another interesting place that I would like to talk about is the San Rafael Glacier. It should be noted that in the south of the Alpine Cordillera, where it is located, it is very cold. At one time, this surprised the pioneers very much, since the south of France and Venice lie at the same latitude in the northern hemisphere, and here they discovered the San Rafael glacier. It moves along the slopes of the mountains, the peaks of which become sharper and steeper over time. Only in 1962 was its source discovered. An ice sheet of gigantic size cools the entire region.

Vegetation

The Andes are a unique place on our planet, and not only because of the impressive values ​​\u200b\u200bthat the width and height of the mountains have. The Andes are extremely picturesque. In different places they have their own zest. In the Andes of Venezuela, for example, shrubs and deciduous forests grow on red soils. Equatorial and tropical rainforests cover the lower slopes from the Northwest Andes to the Central. Bananas, ficuses, cocoa trees, palm trees, creepers and bamboos are found here. However, there are also rocky lifeless spaces, and many moss swamps. In places where the average height of the Andes exceeds 4500 m, there is an area of ​​\u200b\u200bperpetual ice and snow. The Andean Cordillera is known as the birthplace of coca, tomatoes, tobacco and potatoes.

Animal world

The fauna of these mountains is no less interesting. Llamas, alpacas, pudu deer, vicuñas, spectacled bears, blue foxes, sloths, hummingbirds, chinchillas live here. Residents of our country can find all these animals only in zoos.

One of the features of the Andes is a large variety of amphibian species (about 900). About 600 species of mammals live in the mountains, as well as about two thousand species of birds. The variety of freshwater fish is also great. There are about 400 species of them in local rivers.

Tourism and locals

Andean Cordillera, except for remote and difficult areas, is not an untouched corner of nature. Local residents cultivate almost every piece of land here. However, the road to the Andes for most tourists means a "departure" from modernity. For centuries, these places have maintained an unchanged way of life, which allows tourists to feel like they are in the past.

Travelers can follow ancient Indian trails, where, however, sometimes you need to stop to let a herd of guanacos, sheep or goats go ahead. No matter how many times you have already visited these local places are always mesmerizing. Meetings with the locals also turn out to be unforgettable. Their way of life is far from familiar to us. The huts in these places are built of raw bricks. Local residents often do without electricity. In order to get water, they go to the nearest stream.

Hiking in the mountains is not mountaineering in the usual sense of the word. Rather, it is walking along steep trails. However, they should be performed only by absolutely healthy and well-trained people with special equipment.

I have always been in awe of the sight of mountain peaks propping up the sky, bathed in sunlight. Powerful, monumental, unshakable Atlanteans, breathing calmness. And if I am faced with a choice between the sea, the forest, and huge stone masses, I will without hesitation prefer the latter. Only mountains can be better than mountains!

And there are few places on the planet where I have experienced such inspiration as near the majestic Andes. As part of the Cordillera mountain system that bisects the planet from the northernmost extremities of Canada almost to Antarctica itself, the Andes proudly bear the responsibility of keeping the waters of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans in the southern hemisphere from mixing. The highest, longest, youngest mountains in the world. Rising to a height of almost 7,000 meters, strewn with dormant and awake volcanoes, this huge prehistoric creature stretches for 9,000 kilometers and plunges its southern edge into turbulent waters, forming a complex pattern of straits and glaciers, where ships have died for many centuries. The Andes keep a lot of secrets, mysteries and dangers: the gold of the Incas is hidden somewhere, planes died somewhere.

This is where I come back every time an airline like Iberia, Lufthansa or Turkish Airways announces a sale.

Northern Andes

In the north, the Andes rise above the tropical rainforests of Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador, their character is difficult: the height of 4500-6000 meters and changeable weather require special skills from the tourist. But you can choose a simpler option: rent a car and go around the foothills of volcanoes and lakes, or take a ride on the longest cable car in the world (almost 2 kilometers) Teleferico de Merida in Venezuela.

Central Andes

On the territory of Peru and Bolivia, the Andes keep in their depths vast and fertile plateaus on which the Incas once built cities. But for me, the main treasures of these places are high-altitude lakes, full-flowing like Titicaca and turned into salt marshes like. You can spend some amazing days exploring the customs of the inhabitants of the island of Taquile on Titicaca, where men knit from colored wool. Or spending the night on the reed-woven islands of Uros under huge and bright stars at an altitude of 3800 meters. Or rushing with a breeze through a huge pit of salt. Or coming up with the most incredible compositions for photography in a place where there is no perspective. And, of course, enjoying the most memorable sunsets in life.

Southern Andes, Carretera Austral

A long and narrow strip of land called Chile and the endless Argentinean pampas stretch along the Andean ridges, the tops of which cling to clouds. Moreover, they cling in the literal sense: rain clouds driven by Pacific winds cannot overcome the mountain barrier and shed precious moisture on the southern Chilean side (northern Chile is not so lucky with the world's driest Atacama desert). The famous road, built in the mid-1970s under Pinochet, winds here - Carretera Austral, or "southern road". This is one of the most picturesque and interesting routes I have traveled, it gives me the opportunity to fully enjoy the beauty of mountain peaks, turbulent rivers, azure lakes and proud pines for 1240 kilometers.

The best time to travel is during the summer months (December to February) as ferries are closed at other times of the year and you won't be able to enjoy the full experience of the trip. Therefore, feel free to plan a big vacation for the January holidays and then, in addition to the famous South Road, you can see the huge Perito Moreno glacier, breathe in the famous Patagonian winds and find out why Tierra del Fuego is called that. By the way, the Northern and Central Andes are friendly to travelers all year round.

Where to start

The starting point of Carretera Austral is the Chilean city of Puerto Montt. This is a nice little village with a European spirit, from where tourists, after admiring the old mahogany cathedral, go to the Lake District, to the Villarrica volcano or to the island of Chiloe. Here you have to decide how you will conquer the South Road: the most daring go hitchhiking or on bicycles, while the rest rent a car.

From the island of Chiloe, you can take a ferry to the town of Chaiten and move either north or south.

Another option is to start from the south, from the village of Villa O "Higgins, which can be reached by ferry from Argentina, which runs several times a week from November to March and only takes on board pedestrians or cyclists (costs about $ 60, or 40,000 pesos) , or entrusting itself to the care of a travel company that not only organizes delivery to the ferry by bus, but also offers to see the glaciers on the lake "on the way" (the tour will cost from $130).

What to bring

1. Regardless of which method of transportation you choose, you need to have a supply of provisions with you, you will find supermarkets only in relatively large settlements, in other settlements - only village shops with a minimum set of products.
2. Do not forget a set of medicines you need and essentials (from a band-aid to toothpaste and repellents). Carretera Austral is not the place where you can take only a passport and a credit card.
3. Comfortable clothes and shoes are a must as there are so many amazing alluring places to explore!
4. Enough cash in local currency (Chilean pesos), you will not find ATMs until Coyaic itself, and cards are not accepted anywhere.

If you choose to travel on foot or by bike

Since the distances between settlements and campsites are large, you will need:

• tent,
• sleeping bag (in the mountains even in summer the nights are cold),
• gas-burner,
• pot and utensils,
• and other camping gear.

You can rent everything you need, including a bicycle, in Puerto Monte (the choice is very scarce, and the prices are very high) or in Santiago, where a huge number of rentals with good bicycles are open. To do this, you will need to present a passport and a bank card to hold a deposit (depending on the rental period from $ 250). The rental price starts from $30 per day or $120 per week.

If you choose to travel by car

You can rent a car in Puerto Monte or, as I did, in Santiago (in this case, you will need to lay down several days to drive along the magnificent highway for almost 1000 kilometers, stopping at wineries and stopping by national parks).

1. Prepare, in addition to ordinary rights, international rights (some rental agencies do not issue a car without them) and, of course, a bank card with a sufficient amount in the account to block the deposit.
2. Explore the websites of rental offices to choose the most suitable option. In no case do not watch small cars, only four-wheel drive! If possible, give up the options for cars that seem to have just come out of the salon, choose a car that has undergone a baptism of fire, because small stones will inevitably fly on a gravel road.
3. South of the Carretera Austral Andes are full of many magnificent landscapes, for example, you can admire the famous peak of Fitzroy and the beauty of the Torres del Paine National Park. But, since some regions of the country are occupied by impenetrable mountains, part of the journey will have to be done through the territory of Argentina. To do this, you will need special documents for the car. Be sure to contact the rental agency in advance - documents for crossing the border are prepared for several days. And be prepared for the fact that you will be charged a fee of $ 200 for registration.
4. You will rarely encounter gas stations along the way, so take every opportunity to replenish your gas supplies.

So, you are saddled with a four-wheeled beast (I, for example, got a red pickup truck, on the hood of which someone played tic-tac-toe with a nail) and are ready for adventure.

By sea

At the very beginning of the journey, three ferries will be waiting for you, which will go around the impregnable, densely forested mountain slopes (see the map below). The first ferry departs from La Arena every hour and costs about $15 (10,000 pesos) per car. In half an hour you will reach the peninsula, which can only be reached by sea. The second ferry leaves from the Ornopien settlement (it has several shops and you can stop for the night), located at the southern end of the peninsula, twice a day - in the morning and in the afternoon. It is better to check the schedule in Puerto Monte. This ferry takes 5 hours and costs $54 (35,000 pesos) and this price includes the third ferry, which leaves when all passengers on the second ferry have safely covered 10 kilometers of gravel.

By land

As a result of all sea travels, during which majestic mountains, forests and waterfalls will pass by, you will find yourself in the village of Kaleto Gonzalo. From here, boldly head south, stopping in picturesque places and climbing deep into the mountains. Your average speed will be 50 km/h, so you won't miss the signs for recommended hiking trails to particularly beautiful and amazing natural treasures and numerous national parks.

Carretera Austral ends at a dead end in the village of Villa O'Higgins, from where you can cross to Argentina (only those who travel on foot or by bicycle are taken on the ferry), or go back if you travel by car.

Where to go

All along the South Road you will encounter several opportunities to cross the border into Argentina: at the village of Santa Lucia, next to the Lago las Torres park, the town of Coyaki and before reaching Cochrane. I would highly recommend the latter option, as you will not only be able to see almost all of Carretera Austral, but also drive past a magnificent lake called Lago General Carrera in Chile and Lago Buenos Aires in Argentina.

Tourist infrastructure

You can spend the night in campsites, which are scattered along the entire Carretera Austral, or in settlements. Almost all locals rent rooms from $10 to $55 (8000-35000 pesos) per night for two and will be happy to feed you breakfast (and not always for an additional fee). Free campsites are just cleared areas. Those equipped with a toilet, hot showers and awnings will cost from $5 to $10 per night.

For example, on January 2nd, I stopped in the picturesque village of Via Cerro Castillo, where the whole large family of the owners gathered for dinner in the evening. Despite my poor knowledge of Spanish, I was invited to share a meal with everyone and enjoy a wonderful evening. The men prepared a traditional dish - they roasted a young lamb on the cross - a la cruz, and the women cut fresh vegetables and herbs. It was the most delicious lamb I have ever tasted in my life. And the glare of the fire on their open and friendly faces, songs to the accordion and majestic mountains under the shadow of the starry sky forever stuck in my memory.

Catering establishments are found only in the largest settlements: Ornopyrene, Koyaki, Cochrane. Elsewhere, the best you can expect are small grocery stores. I usually tried to have a hearty breakfast and dinner where I spent the night (if the hosts didn’t cook, then I asked permission to use the kitchen), and during the day I was rescued by pre-made sandwiches.

Southern Andes, Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego

On the western edge of the Patagonian steppes rise the Southern Andes. They are no longer as high as in the north, but no less beautiful for that. Along the entire foothills of the mountains there are delightful natural reserves, the main pearls of which are the giant Perito Moreno glacier, one of only two on the planet Earth that does not decrease, but grows, and the Torres del Paine park, the harsh beauty of which attracts travelers from all over the world. What marvels Patagonia has prepared and how to get to them is well written.

And further south, the red grass of Tierra del Fuego rustles under the wind, where, according to legend, the giants lived, and the Andes lower their tail dotted with peaks into the ocean, from which glaciers slide down like caps. Here, as the last stronghold of the mountains, Cape Horn rises from the water, landing on which is good luck. Few ships and fierce cold currents roam between this lone lighthouse outpost and Argentina.

The Andes are many-sided and unpredictable, they fascinate and fall in love, having seen them at least once, you will return again and again. After all, only the Andes can be better than mountains!