A scientist who traveled around Asia for 24 years. Let's go! Travel ideas for Asia, Africa and the East. On native land

A scientist who traveled around Asia for 24 years.

Norwegian explorer who first reached the South Pole.

The name of the famous Italian scientist and discoverer of America.

Russian explorer who discovered the strait between Asia and America, which was later named after him.

This man led the first Russian circumnavigation.

One of the Russian navigators who discovered Antarctica.

The name of the Portuguese navigator who was the first to circumnavigate Africa and sail to India.

An ancient Greek scientist who made one of the first geographical maps.

English traveler who discovered Victoria Falls.

Russian traveler - explorer of Asia.

Merchant-traveler who made the Sea Route to India.

Portuguese who made the first trip around the world.

One of the Norwegian navigators who first set foot on Antarctica.

Russian navigator who discovered in 1820. Antarctica.

One of two Russian navigators who discovered the sixth continent in 1820.

08.02.2016 13:00

There are countries where our tourists began to travel more often than before. Thailand, Vietnam, India, Israel, UAE, Jordan, Sri Lanka, China - they were the ones who accepted most of those who did not deny themselves a winter holiday by the warm sea. And here are some tips for anyone who is just planning it.

To Thailand: splash water and watch the bulls

Despite domestic political problems, Thailand has managed to achieve record growth in tourist flow: in 2015, more than 29 million visitors visited this country. By the way, a citizen of Russia became the 29 millionth tourist. As a prize, she received an air ticket with open dates, a voucher for five nights in one of the luxury hotels in Bangkok and a mobile phone.

According to the Tourism Authority of Thailand, more than half of Russian guests have already rested in this country and returned again. That is why the management hopes that tourists will want to see its different corners and pay attention to the calendar of Thai holidays. Among the most colorful, for example, is the Thai New Year (Songkran). It is celebrated especially vigorously in Chiang Mai (in 2016 it will take place on April 12), when on the streets everyone massively pours water on each other to wash away sins. The buffalo festival, 60 km from Pattaya, is also curious, the main event of which is the race of local farmers on bareback bulls (its dates are October 14-16).

To Japan: travel for free within the country
and touch the wonder

While European airlines are reducing flights to Russia, some Asian ones are increasing them. Japan Airlines (JAL) announced such plans. Now the Japanese fly to Moscow three times a week, from March 26 they intend to make four weekly flights, and from the summer - all five. Moreover, to encourage Russians to travel around Japan, the airline will provide them with a wonderful bonus - a free flight from Tokyo and back to one of the country's 33 cities. The main thing is to book domestic flights at the same time as international ones. And that is not all! If you want to visit several regions, you will be offered a national air pass. On it you can visit five cities, and each flight will cost about 80 euros. Full information on all special offers can be obtained from the Moscow office of JAL.

In Japan, travelers are waiting for a lot of interesting things this year. By tradition, the two most popular periods for our tourists are the sakura season (April - May) and the maple season (September - October). At this time, many folk festivals are held, connected both with religious rituals or historical events, as well as with planting rice or harvesting. For example, in May, Sanja Matsuri is celebrated in Tokyo. It originated in the 7th century, when the Sensoji Buddhist temple was built here. A whole story full of miracles is connected with its appearance. Every year it comes to life during the holiday in the form of performances.

In the first days of October, tourists are attracted by the vibrant harvest festival in Kyoto. It is called Kitano Tenmangu, like one of the city's temples, and is famous for its beautiful rituals. In early August, the Lantern Festival (Kato Matsuri) is held in Akito. Several teams made up of local residents compete to make paper lanterns of various shapes and then launch them into the sky. In general, in Japan, in addition to folklore, there are 15 more official national holidays. And this is not only the Day of the founding of the country (February 11) or the Constitution Day (May 3), but also Greenery Day (May 4), Culture Day (November 3) or Sea Day (the third Monday of July). Since 2016, Mountain Day will also be celebrated, and you have every chance to celebrate it for the first time on August 11 together with the Japanese.

To China: bathe in a hot spring
and look into the gorge of butterflies

China also has big plans for the Russians. In this country, they are primarily aimed at returning our tourists to the island of Hainan, from where they almost disappeared last year due to the bankruptcy of the Transaero airline and the cancellation of direct flights. A Russian-Chinese investment project worth 3 billion rubles was recently presented in Moscow. It will be implemented with the support of the Chinese government. As part of this project, charter flights from Moscow Vnukovo Airport to Phoenix Airport in Sanya, Hainan, will begin on March 3. The tour operator Rus-Tour, one of the initiators of the resumption of flights, announced that a tour package to Hainan, including air tickets, would cost from 35,000 rubles.

Moreover, Hainan, according to tour organizers, can become a full-fledged replacement for Turkish resorts. At least they are comparable in price. In addition, this region has no less ancient sights and nature reserves. These are hot springs, and the ethnic village of the Li and Miao peoples, and the Taoist Heavenly Grottoes Park, and Monkey Island, and Butterfly Gorge, and the Shell Museum, and the Shark Factory, and, of course, the largest center of Buddhism in Southeast Asia Nanshan. According to Wang Hai Tan, CEO of the Chinese tour operator Sanya Holiday, the project will help host more than 20,000 tourists from Russia in Hainan this year. The staff of all local hotels has Russian-speaking staff, almost all tours are conducted in Russian.

To Singapore: Eat well and say hello to the dragon

In 2015, there were significantly fewer Russian tourists not only in Japan and Hainan, but also in Singapore. The republic has just magnificently celebrated its 50th anniversary and is ready to actively develop tourism. It is rightfully ranked among the most modern, beautiful and prosperous countries in Asia. A high standard of living also implies an appropriate price level. So this country does not lay claim to the stormy streams of Russians who have lost cheap Turkish and Egyptian resorts. But it can offer a lot of interesting things to those who make business trips. Stunning cleanliness (a fine of $500 is imposed for a thrown cigarette butt), the beauty of the lines of modern architecture, ancient temples, parks full of not only greenery, but also a lot of technical wonders, amazing museums - this is what Singapore is famous for.

One of the most colorful annual events here will take place on February 19-20. The Chingai parade once arose as a protest against the ban imposed by the authorities on firecrackers and pyrotechnics, without which the local Chinese simply could not imagine the New Year holidays. Then the indignant citizens gathered and marched through the streets of cities dressed as lions, dragons and other figures from Chinese mythology. The procession was so beautiful and bright that it soon became a tradition. Now more than 10,000 people participate in it, and a procession is organized on the territory of the Formula 1 stadium, so you can watch it at the same time.

Gourmets who are not particularly constrained in their means should come to Singapore at the end of March. From the 24th to the 27th, the famous gastronomic festival Savour (“Taste”) will be held here. The best chefs of the country will hold tastings and master classes where you can learn how to cook the most delicious dishes according to their recipes. And 20 of the most reputable restaurants offer special menus during the days of the festival costing from 70 Singapore dollars.

To the Maldives: to be happy and sunbathe

The Maldives is also difficult to classify as a budget destination. However, the Ministry of Tourism of the Republic is determined to give a chance to visit the country not only to wealthy people, therefore, it launches the action "365 days of vacation in the Maldives for free." Applicants will have to fill out a detailed questionnaire, and then describe in detail and colors how they will praise their vacation in oral conversations with friends and on social networks. But they don't even have to embellish anything! The Maldives is a true paradise on earth, about which, by the way, FP.

The task of the participants of the future competition is to find in advance a lot of warm, but what's there - hot words that will touch the soul of the employees of the Ministry of Tourism so much that they will allocate one of the cherished tours to their author. In general, if you want to try your luck, follow the Maldivian news.

To Africa: wave to a zebra
and look into the eyes of the lion

Africa is also actively conquering the global tourism market. In Kenya, the development of tourism is overseen by President Uhuru Kenyatta himself. Recently, he publicly announced the liberalization of tariffs for visiting national parks. There are more than fifty of these parks in the country, and many boast the "big five", that is, leopards, elephants, lions, rhinos and buffaloes are found there. Kenya is not yet ready, like Canada, to completely abandon the sale of entrance tickets and let tourists into their national parks, as they say, for beautiful eyes. However, it was decided not to charge VAT on park fees and prohibit the administrations of these places from charging tourists more than $60 for an entrance ticket.

For wildlife lovers, the best time to visit Kenya is July and August. It is during these months that you can see a fantastic sight: millions of zebras and wildebeests migrate from the Serengeti to the Masai Mara. Given the massive interest in this spectacle from tourists from all over the world, it is worth booking a trip several months in advance.

To Israel: swim in the three seas
and listen to music

One of the first geographical maps was compiled by the ancient Greek scientist Hecateus (VI-V centuries BC). How different it was from modern maps! Europe, Asia and Africa (it was then called Libya) looked completely different on it, and there were no other continents and parts of the world at all. In those distant times, people still did not know much about the appearance of the Earth.

It took humanity centuries to find out what our planet really looks like. These centuries were marked by a series of remarkable geographical discoveries. We will talk about those of them, thanks to which new continents and parts of the world appeared on the map.

Discovery of America

This part of the world was discovered, one might say, by mistake. In the XV century. many European travelers were attracted to the distant countries of Asia, primarily India and China, famous for their untold riches. But the way to Asia was very long - it was necessary to sail around Africa. Christopher Columbus (1451 - 1506), an Italian from Genoa, decided to find a shorter route. He was sure that the Earth has a spherical shape and therefore Asia can be reached by sailing from Europe to the west. On August 3, 1492, Columbus with his crew (about 100 people) sailed from Spain on three ships. And on October 12, 1492, a sailor of one of the ships saw the land. Soon Columbus landed on the shore. He believed that he had reached India, and therefore called the locals he met here Indians. The discovered land turned out to be a small island.

Columbus continued his journey and discovered several more islands, including Cuba. In the spring of 1493 he returned to Spain, and in subsequent years he made three more trips to the same places. However, until the end of his days, the great navigator never found out that he had not reached Asia, but discovered a new part of the world - America. October 12, 1492 is considered the day of the discovery of America.

Discovery of Australia

For many centuries it was believed that far to the south there was a huge mainland inhabited by people and rich in gold, diamonds and pearls. And although no one has ever seen this continent, it was put on maps and called the Unknown Southern Land. Many sailors were busy searching for the legendary mainland. And when in the XVI century. managed to discover New Guinea, geographers considered this huge island a ledge of the Unknown Southern Land. On a modern map it is clearly seen that from New Guinea it is a stone's throw to Australia. The Dutch navigator Willem Janszon was the first to reach this mainland in 1606. He not only landed on the mainland, but also explored its coast for 350 km. At the same time, Janszon thought that he had only been to New Guinea. Like Columbus, he did not know until the end of his life that he had become the discoverer of a new continent. After Janszoon, other Dutch navigators discovered large sections of the northern, western and southern coasts of Australia.

It is curious that at the same time one of the Dutch captains first discovered and described a kangaroo - an amazing animal with a tiny cub in a bag. The open lands were called New Holland and were considered part of the Unknown South Land. And only after in the XVIII century. the great English traveler James Cook discovered and carefully examined the east coast of Australia, it became clear that this was an independent mainland. It was named Australia, which, as you remember, means "southern".

Discovery of Antarctica

In 1820, Russian navigators Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev discovered the sixth continent, Antarctica, on the sailing ships Vostok and Mirny. Their heroic voyage lasted 751 days. During this time, they came close to the coast of Antarctica 9 times, but the ice did not allow them to land on the mainland.

Only in 1894 did people first set foot on the land of Antarctica. These were Norwegians captain L. Christensen and sailor K. Borchgrevink, who managed to get through the ice to the shore in a boat.

ten great travelers

Robert Peary (1856-1920)
USA. Polar explorer. In 1909 he was the first to reach the North Pole.

Marco Polo (1254-1324)
Venice. For 24 years he traveled around Asia. From his book, Europeans learned about the amazing nature and unprecedented wealth of these countries.

Ferdinand Magellan (circa 1480-1521)
Portugal. At the head of a Spanish naval expedition he made the first round-the-world voyage. This journey proved the sphericity of our planet and the unity of the oceans.

Vasco da Gama (circa 1469-1524)
Portugal. He was the first to pave the sea route to India, having sailed his ships around Africa.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888)
Russia. Explored remote areas of Asia. Mapped more than 20 mountain ranges, a number of lakes and rivers.

David Livingston (1813-1873)
England. He explored remote areas of Africa, discovered one of the largest waterfalls - Victoria.

Afanasy Nikitin
Russia. Merchant from Tver. In the XV century. traveled to India, overcoming the Caspian, Arabian and Black Seas on the way there and back. He outlined his impressions in the book "Journey Beyond Three Seas".

Roald Amundsen (1872-1928)
Norway. Polar explorer. In 1911 he was the first to reach the South Pole.

Vitus Bering(1680-1741)
Russia. Explored the northern and eastern shores of our country. Opened the strait between Asia and America (Bering Strait).

Ivan Fedorovich Krusenstern (1770-1846)
Russia. He led the first Russian circumnavigation (1803-1806).

Test your knowledge

1. What parts of the world and continents were known to ancient Greek scientists?
2. How was America discovered?
3. How was Australia discovered?
4. How was Antarctica discovered?

Think!

Trace the routes of the four expeditions of X. Columbus on the map. During which of these expeditions did he visit only the islands, and during which - on the continents of America?

Ancient Greek scientists knew Europe, Asia, Africa (it was called Libya), although their outlines on the maps of that time are still very far from authentic. America was discovered in 1492 by X. Columbus, who was trying to find a shortcut to Asia. The Dutch navigator V. Jansson, who set foot on this continent in 1606, turned out to be the discoverer of Australia. Antarctica was discovered in 1820 by Russian navigators F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev.

Beginning with the first crusade, significant groups of Western European Christians came into contact with the Muslim-Christian Levant (Middle East). There, the crusaders clashed with Christians belonging to various Eastern churches. Of course, in the eyes of the crusaders, they were heretics, who were persecuted and massacred in Western Europe. But here in the Middle East, they seemed, and often actually were, allies of the Catholics against the Muslims. Therefore, the same popes who called for the organization of crusades against European heretics and blessed their massacres ordered the leaders of the crusaders in Syria and Palestine to spare the local Christians - followers of heretical creeds.

Abyssinia, the empire of "Tsar-priest Ivan"

The main distributors of Christianity in the countries of Central and East Asia and informers of Western Europeans about these countries were the Nestorians, mainly Syrian traders, who in the 7th century. appeared in northern China. Groups of Nestorians in the Middle Ages lived in the cities and oases of Central Asia, and by the XII century. Nestorian Christianity also spread among at least two numerous Mongol nomadic tribes: the Naimans in the west and the Kereites in the east. The presence of Christian communities in Asia began to be regarded by Catholic Europe as an important military and political factor, when the Muslim peoples - the Seljuk Turks and the Egyptians - went on the offensive against the Catholic states founded by the Crusaders in the Eastern Mediterranean.

It was then, in the middle of the 12th century, that a legend arose in Western Europe about the powerful Christian tsar-priest Ivan (“priest John” of medieval chroniclers). The reason for the emergence of this legend was the defeat of the Kara-Kitai Karakitais are part of the Eastern Khitan Mongols who left for Turkestan in 1125 after the defeat of the Khitan state of Liao. in 1141 the troops of the Turkaseljuk Sultan Sanjar north of Samarkand. After the victory over Sanjar, the Karakitays created the vast state of Karakidan in Turkestan. The news of this event was perceived in the Christian environment as a victory over the Muslims of some powerful Christian "Tsar Ivan". This confusing news was embellished with an additional legend: the Central Asian victorious king in the very first record that has come down to us from 1145 was called "priest king John."

In the XIII century. the legend of the Tsar-priest Ivan was widely spread in Catholic Europe. Everything that was done in Asian countries in favor of Christians or against Muslims was attributed with incredible exaggerations to his power and influence. The fact is that as a result of the Mongol conquests, strong Muslim states were defeated in Central and Western Asia. And along with the news of this defeat, which was attributed to “that very priest Ivan, about whose great power the whole world speaks” (Marco Polo), information penetrated into Western Europe that there were Christians among the Mongol khans, that the khans willingly accept Christians, and some severely persecute Muslims. Indeed, among the Mongols there were many Nestorian Christians, there were also in the family of Genghis Khan himself, and, moreover, they were very influential. On the other hand, the Crusaders themselves saw Christian Ethiopians in the "holy places" of Palestine and heard from them and their Asian co-religionists about the Christian East African country (Ethiopia). In Western Europe, it also began to be considered the country of the tsar-priest Ivan. The legend of the king-priest in the XIII-XIV centuries. strongly influenced the organization of embassies and missions to the countries of Central and South Asia, and in the XV century. played a prominent role in the history of Portuguese geographical discoveries.

P Embassy of Carpini and Rubruk

ri Genghis Khan and his successors, the great khans of Ogedei and mongke, the early military-feudal Mongol Empire reached dimensions unheard of in human history. As a result of a series of predatory campaigns, the Mongol nobility, who led the squads of their military servants - nukers, by the middle of the 13th century. conquered northern China, Southern China was conquered by the Mongols later, in 1275-1280. Turkestan, Iranian Plateau, Mesopotamia, Transcaucasia and Eastern Europe. The Mongol campaigns were accompanied by a monstrous ruin of the conquered countries and the destruction of their productive forces. Huge war booty fell into the hands of the Mongol feudal elite. The headquarters of the khans, surrounded by feudal lords, became vast markets where it was very profitable to sell jewelry, fabrics, furs, various curiosities and other luxury items. Europeans learned about this and appreciated the benefits of trade with the wealthy Mongols, partly from the words of West Asian merchants, partly from the first ambassadors sent to Central Asia by the Pope and the French king.

Pressed into the Eastern Mediterranean by the victorious Muslim troops, the Christian rulers of the ephemeral feudal states founded by the crusaders in the Middle East turned to their Western European patrons, the pope and the Catholic kings, for help. And they considered the Mongols as their likely allies in the fight against the Muslims. So in the 40's and 50's. 13th century missions were sent from Western Europe to the Mongol khans, and the ambassadors were assigned, in addition to diplomatic and religious assignments, also special intelligence tasks. Dad Innocent IV used for this purpose the most educated mendicant monks of the recently organized orders - the Dominican and Franciscan.

Franciscans sent by the Pope Giovanni del Plano Carpini And Benedict Pole(from Wroclaw) went to the capital of the Mongols, Karakorum The city of Khara-Khorin was founded by Genghis Khan on the upper Orkhon north way. They left Lyon (France) in 1245, crossed Central Europe, Russian lands, at that time already captured by the Mongols of the Kypchak (Golden) Horde, the Caspian steppes and part of Central Asia. They ended up in Karakorum in 1246, when from all the regions of Asia conquered by the Mongols, they went to the headquarters of the newly elected great khan Guyuk delegations arrived from conquered settled peoples and nomadic tribes. About 4 thousand envoys gathered took an oath of allegiance to their ruler. Plano Carpini and his companions used this exceptionally favorable circumstance to collect information about the Mongol Empire and the peoples inhabiting it. Papal ambassadors here first got acquainted with the Chinese and the art of Chinese artisans. At the headquarters of Guyuk Khan, Plano Carpini met a group of Russians, including the Grand Duke Yaroslav Vsevolodovich(who was soon poisoned), the father of Alexander Nevsky. In the spring of 1247 the Franciscans took the same northern route and returned safely to Lyon. Plano Carpini presented the Pope with a "Historical Review" (in Russian translation "History of the Mongols") about the customs of the Mongols, their life, religion and state structure. His review is supplemented and refined by data recorded at the pope’s court from the words of his companion Benedict Pole: “The order from the supreme high priest,” Plano Carpini writes in the introduction, “was carried out with care both by us and ... by brother Benedict, who was a participant in our disasters and interpreter.

Shortly after Carpini, in 1249, the ambassador of the French crusader king visited Karakoram Louis IX Saint Dominican monk André Longjumeau. An account of his journey has not been preserved, and there are only rare mentions of him in the stories of his contemporaries, in particular Rubruk. Longjumeau traveled to Karakoram through Syria, Iraq, Iran and the Caspian deserts.

Important geographical information was collected by another (Franciscan) mission to Karakorum - a Flemish Guillaume (Willem) Rubruk. She was sent from Akka (Northern Palestine) by Saint Louis IX after an unsuccessful campaign in Egypt. The king hoped to find in the great khan an ally against the Muslims. In the winter of 1252 - 1253 Rubruk crossed the Black Sea and landed in the Crimean port of Soldaya (now Sudak). From here he moved east in May 1253. and two months later he reached the lower reaches of the Volga by oxen. Rubruk confirms that it flows into the closed Caspian Sea, and not into the bay of the Northern Ocean, as almost all ancient geographers, except for Herodotus and Ptolemy, believed: two, namely the north [and] ... the west.” Rubruk points out that the mountains rise in the west (Caucasus), in the south (Elburz) and in the east of the Caspian Sea, probably the eastern mountains mean a distinct cliff - the Western Chink of Ustyurt, crossed by Longjumeau. In mid-September, the Franciscan moved again to the east. He made the further way from the Caspian Sea on horseback.

From Rubruk's report, it is only possible to determine his route in the most general terms. He was driving east somewhat north of the Aral Sea and the Syr Darya. After a long journey through the endless steppes, where only occasionally woody vegetation was found near the rivers, he reached the mountains (Karatau), and having crossed them, he ended up in the valley of the river. Chu. Then the path went through the mountains (Zaili Alatau) to the valley of the river. Or, “flowing to a large lake” (Balkhash), and along the northern foot of the Dzungarian Alatau to Lake Alakol. From there, the monk probably penetrated through the Dzungarian Gates into the valley of the Black Irtysh. Further, the road passed through a semi-desert and the traveler met only the Mongols, located along a large tract. At the end of December 1253, on the boundless plain, Rubruk saw Karakorum, the temporary headquarters of Mongke, the great Khan of the Mongols. Here he met European craftsmen, including Russians and even one French jeweler. The Mongolian capital, surrounded by an earthen rampart, did not impress him, with the exception of the court of the great khan. The monk was struck by something else - the presence, in addition to pagan, probably Buddhist temples, two mosques and one Christian (Nestorian) church - proof of the religious tolerance of the Mongols, which was incomprehensible to medieval Catholics.

Möngke Khan gave the ambassador a letter to the French king. In this letter, he called himself the ruler of the world and demanded an oath of allegiance from the French if they wanted to live in peace with him. Rubruk's companion, the Italian monk Bartolomeo (from Cremona), remained at the local Christian church. Rubruk went back in the summer of 1254. This time he went to the lower Volga by the northern route, so that Balkhash remained to the south of him. In autumn, he moved south along the western coast of the Caspian Sea through the Caspian Gates, crossed the Armenian Highlands, crossed the Eastern Taurus and, going to the Mediterranean Sea, arrived in Lebanon to his monastery in mid-August 1255.

Rubruk was the first in European literature to point out one of the main features of the relief of Central Asia - the presence of the Central Asian Highlands. This conclusion was drawn from observations of the direction of the Asian roars encountered on the way: “During the whole journey, I noted only one thing, which I was told about in Constantinople ... Baldwin de Geno who was there: ... he went up all the way ... and never came down. For all the rivers flowed from east to west, either straight or not straight, that is, with an inclination to the south or to the north. Rubruk also described, of course, in general terms, according to interrogated data, a number of countries in Central and East Asia. He pointed out that Catai (Northern China) adjoins the ocean in the east. He was the first of the Europeans to correctly suggest that the grays of ancient geography and the Cathays are one and the same people. He collected, albeit scarce and sometimes incorrect, information about the Manchus, Koreans and some peoples of North Asia.

In the history of acquaintance of Western Europe with Asia, the mission of the XIII century. nevertheless, they did not play a very big role, especially in the study of the geography of the mainland. True, the records of the Franciscan ambassadors about the life of the inhabitants of the countries they visited, about the religion and military organization of the Mongols, etc., are still of great interest and are important historical documents. But the powers of observation of these cassocked diplomats and spies were limited by their scholastic Catholic education.

Marco Polo and his "Book"

Western European merchants on their way to Asia usually received special diplomatic or espionage assignments from their governments or from the Roman Church. But the merchants in the first place were the interests of buying and selling: what valuable goods can be bought with the greatest benefit for themselves in this or that Asian country, where and to whom it is more profitable to sell. And these trading interests were closely related to questions of the financial order (taxes and duties) and supervision over the ways and means of communication, over trading points, etc. In a word, the merchants were primarily interested in the "practice of trade." So it was named in the XIV century. the famous Italian reference book - a guide to the countries of Asia, compiled by a Florentine Francesco Balducci Pegolotti. And it is characteristic that this practical guide for a traveling merchant has a different name - "The Book of Country Descriptions." From such directories, the branch of geography later developed, which in the 19th century. in Western European countries it was called "commercial geography", or "geography of trade", or "economic geography", as it is still understood by many bourgeois scientists.

Medieval Arabic (more precisely, Arabic-speaking) geographers began compiling such manuals long before the 13th century. But according to its main content, the book of the Venetian traveler to China, Marco Polo, which in the earliest version, dictated in 1298 in a Genoese prison, should be attributed to the first Western European works of this type, was called “The Book of the Diversity of the World”. However, the “Book” of Marco Polo differs sharply from the later dry compilations in that it is mainly compiled from personal observations, and for the rest, with few exceptions, from the stories of his father. Niccolo, uncles Maffeo(older Polos) and oncoming people, and not from literary materials. This difference is also explained by the prison environment in which the "Book" was created: it was written down by another prisoner - a Pisan Rusticano as a chain of live stories addressed to direct listeners. Hence the style of Marco Polo characteristic of the "Book" and the diversity of its content. The description of the journey, in the truest sense of the word, is only a short "Prologue" and a few of the chapters of the "Book". Basically, it is filled with characteristics of Asian countries, localities, cities, customs and life of their inhabitants, the court of the great Khan of the Mongols and the Chinese Emperor Kublai. In this geographical material, which is of the greatest interest, historical chapters are inserted in several short stories-legends.

The older Polos not once, like Marco himself, but crossed Asia three times, two times from west to east and once in the opposite direction, during the first trip. Niccolo and Maffeo left Venice around 1254 and, after a six-year stay in Constantinople, left from there with trading purposes to the Southern Crimea, then moved in 1261 to the Volga. From the middle Volga, the Polo brothers moved southeast through the lands of the Golden Horde, crossed the Trans-Caspian steppes, and then through the Ustyurt plateau went to Khorezm, to the city of Urgench. Their further path ran in the same southeast direction up the valley of the Amu Darya to the lower reaches of the Zarafshan and up along it to Bukhara. There they met with the ambassador of the conqueror of Iran, Ilkhan Hulagu, who was heading to the great Khan Kublai, and the ambassador invited the Venetians to join his caravan. With him they went "to the north and northeast" for a whole year. Along the valley of Zarafshan they climbed to Samarkand, crossed into the valley of the Syr Darya and went down to the city of Otrar along it. From here, their path lay along the foothills of the Western Tien Shan to the river. Or. Further to the east, they went either up the Ili valley, or through the Dzungarian Gates, past Lake Alakol (east of Balkhash). Then they moved along the foothills of the Eastern Tien Shan and reached the Khami oasis, an important stage on the northern branch of the Great Silk Road from China to Central Asia. From Hami they turned south, into the valley of the river. Sulehe. And further east, to the court of the great khan, they followed the same path that they did later with Marco. Their return route is not clear. They returned to Venice in 1269.

In 1271, the Polo merchants, together with Marco, who was then 17 years old, went to Palestine, to Akka. In the autumn of 1271, they crossed from there to Ayas (near the Gulf of Iskenderon), then crossed the central part of Asia Minor and the Armenian Highlands, turned south to Kurdistan, and went down the Tigris to Basra. Further, most likely, the Venetians went north to Tabriz, and then crossed Iran in a southeast direction through Kerman to Hormuz, hoping to get by sea (through India) to China. But the ships in Ormuz seemed very unreliable to them - they returned to Kerman and made a difficult journey straight north through the desert of Deshte-Lut to the city of Cayenne. From there they reached Balkh by an unknown route. Moving east, along the southern foothills of the Hindu Kush, the travelers entered the high-mountainous Afghan Badakhshan and reached the outskirts of the Pamirs. In his "Book" Marco Polo gives a brief but remarkably accurate description of the Pamirs and the Alai Valley.

Turning to the northeast, the Venetians descended into the Kashgar oasis, and then went around the Takla Makan desert from the south, moving along the northwestern foothills of Tibet, from oasis to oasis to the lower reaches of the river. Cherchen. Through the sands of Kumtag, from well to well, they went to the valley of the river. Sulehe, and from there through the country of the Tanguts (northeastern Tibetans) to the city of Ganzhou (Zhangye). The Venetians lived there for a whole year for an unexplained reason - "on a matter that is not worth talking about." It is possible that it was at this time that Marco Polo visited the city of Karakorum, the northernmost point where he visited. (Everything that Marco says about North Asia is not based on personal observations, but on interrogation.) From Ganzhou, the Venetians moved further southeast through the "Tangut large region, where there are many kingdoms", to the city of Xining. And the last section of their journey - from the city of Xining to the temporary headquarters of the great khan - Klemenfu, which was located north of Khanbalik (Beijing), - ran first along the valley of the middle Yellow River, and then through the steppe.

For more than 15 years Marco lived in China with his father and uncle (circa 1272-1292). Being in the service of the Great Khan, he apparently crossed Eastern China several times and in different directions. Traveling around China then did not present any difficulties, especially for Khubilai's messengers, during which an excellent communication service was organized - horse and foot (speedy) mail. According to the “Book” of Marco Polo, only two of his main routes through China can be determined relatively accurately, both from Khanbalik. One route - the eastern one - led along the coastal strip directly south through the countries of Katai (Northern China) and Manzi (Central and Southern China) to the cities of Qingsai (Hangzhou) and Zeitong (Quanzhou). Another path led to the southwest, to Eastern Tibet and the regions bordering on it.

Famed by the Venetian under the distorted name of Qingsai, the city of Hangzhou, lying south of the mouth of the great Chinese river, was one of the largest cities in China in the Middle Ages. But the overly exaggerated description of Kinsai with his “12 thousand stone bridges” naturally aroused the distrust of some contemporaries towards the addicted Million (Million) - this is how the Venetians called their fellow countryman, probably for his passion for exaggerations (real and imaginary).

After spending many years in the service of Khubilai, the Venetians returned to their homeland by sea - around South Asia and through Iran: they accompanied, on behalf of the great khan, two princesses - Chinese and Mongolian, who were married to the Ilkhan (the Mongol ruler of Iran) and his heir, to the capital of the Ilkhans Tabriz. In 1292, the Chinese flotilla moved from Zeytun to the southwest, across the Chin (South China) Sea. During this passage, Marco heard about Indonesia - about "7448 islands" scattered in the Chin Sea, but he only visited Sumatra, where the travelers spent five months. From Sumatra, the flotilla moved to about. Sri Lanka past the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. Sri Lanka (like Java) Marco incorrectly ranks among the "largest in the world" islands, but truthfully describes the life of the Sri Lankans, the deposits of precious stones and the famous pearl fishing in the Polk Strait. From Sri Lanka, ships sailed along Western India and Southern Iran, through the Strait of Hormuz to the Persian Gulf.

Marco also talks about African countries adjacent to the Indian Ocean, which he apparently did not visit; about the great country of Abasia (Abyssinia, that is, Ethiopia), about the islands of Zangibar and Madeigascar located near the equator and in the southern hemisphere. But he confuses Zanzibar with Madagascar, and both islands with the East African maritime region, and therefore gives much false information about them. Yet Marco was the first European to report on Madagascar. After a three-year voyage, the Venetians brought the princesses to Iran (about 1264), and in 1295 they arrived home. According to some reports, Marco participated in the war with Genoa and around 1297, during a naval battle, he was captured by the Genoese. In prison in 1298 he dictated The Book, and in 1299 he was released and returned to his homeland. Almost all the information given by biographers about his subsequent life in Venice is based on stories, some of which even date back to the 16th century. Documents of the XIV century. very little has come down to us about Marco himself and his family. It has been proven, however, that he lived out his life as a wealthy, but far from rich, Venetian citizen. He died in 1344.

In the XIV-XV centuries. The "Book" of Marco Polo served as one of the guides for cartographers. Its geographical nomenclature is largely repeated on many maps, including such well-known maps of the world as the Catalan map of 1375 and the circular Fra Mauro of 1459. But, of course, cartographers also used other sources, often much less reliable than the "Book ” in general, a truthful Venetian. The "Book" of Marco Polo played a very important role in the history of great discoveries. Not only that, the organizers and leaders of the Portuguese and the first Spanish expeditions of the XV-XVI centuries. used maps compiled under the strong influence of Polo, but his composition itself was a reference book for outstanding cosmographers and navigators, including Columbus. The “Book” of Marco Polo is one of the rare medieval writings - literary works and scientific works that are being read and re-read at the present time. It entered the golden fund of world literature, translated into many languages, published and republished in many countries of the world.

Western European missionaries and travelers of the XIV-XV centuries

at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. several Catholic missions to South and East Asia are known, which provided geographical material, in some part supplementing the "Book" of Marco Polo. Around 1289 an Italian Franciscan friar Giovanni Montecorvino was sent by the pope to Tabriz. Two years later, he went from Hormuz by sea to the Coromandel coast of Hindustan, and there he arrived among the local Christians (Thomists) for more than a year. In his letters-reports, Montecorvino gave a good description of South India, the life of its people, trade and navigation in a monsoonal climate. From there he moved by sea to China in 1293 and lived mainly in northern China for about 35 years. However, his letters from China are geographically less interesting than those from India.

A motley mixture of truth and fiction is the description of a 12-year journey through Asia (1318-1330) by a Franciscan Odorico of Pordenone. From Hormuz, he reached the Indian region by sea around 1322. Thana (in the area where Bombay later grew up), traveled to both coasts of South India and Sri Lanka. From there, around 1324, he arrived on the northwestern coast of about. Sumatra (Odoriko writes "Sumoltra", but refers this name only to the kingdom in the southern part of the island). Java, to which he then moved, Odoriko characterizes as the most abundant and prosperous region. In those days, it was ruled by one supreme sovereign; he had seven kings in vassal dependence. From Java, Odoriko was the first European to come to about. Kalimantan was the first to note that in the seas of Southeast Asia there are "a good 24 thousand islands" - according to modern data, about 20 thousand, and much more with reefs. He visited South Vietnam and South China, reached Hangzhou, and from there - Khanbalik, where he lived for three years. On the way back, Odoriko crossed all of Asia in a westerly direction. From Khanbalik and the basin of the middle Yellow River, he passed to the Red Basin of the river. The Yangtze, penetrated into Tibet, described the capital of the country, Lhasa, where, according to him, he lived for a long time (some historians legitimately doubt this). This description of his travels ends. It is only known that Odoriko returned to his homeland in 1330 and died on January 14, 1331, without finishing his book. It is a jumbled account of the various countries and cities of Asia, of its peoples and wonders.

In Europe at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. it became known that all the Muslim states of Western Asia and Northern India were conquered by the Mongol ruler of Central Asia Tamerlane(the name is so distorted by Europeans Timur-leng, i.e., Timur the Lame). He was considered the most powerful lord of the world; European sovereigns dreamed of enlisting him as an ally in the fight against Muslims in Europe and North Africa. That is why the Castilian king, who is especially interested in this, Enrique III posted at the beginning of the 15th century. two embassies to Timur in his capital Samarkand. At the head of one was Ruy Gonzalez Clavijo, who during a three-year journey (1403-1406) kept a detailed diary, first published in 1582 under the title "The History of the Great Tamerlane". Being a very important primary source for the study of the state of the Near East and Central Asia at the beginning of the 15th century, Clavijo's "History" also provides new geographical material, supplementing the news of Marco Polo mainly in Central Asia and neighboring regions of Northern Iran. His information on personal observations, as a rule, is truthful and accurate; some questioning data are erroneous, in particular, reports that the Amu Darya "flows into the Baku Sea", i.e. into the Caspian.

The Merchant of Venice Niccolo Conti from 1419 he lived in Damascus (Syria), where he studied Arabic. In 1424, he began his travels with trading purposes in Asia. From Damascus, Conti traveled to Hormuz and moved by sea to Northwestern India, to the port of Cambay. Having visited several cities in this region, he sailed south along the entire western coast of Hindustan, visited Sri Lanka, then went by sea along the entire eastern coast of India to the mouth of the Ganges. From Bengal, he went east by land, crossed the deserted mountains separating India from Northwestern Indochina, entered a wide plain, reached "a very large river - Dawa" (Irrawaddy). Having descended along it to the mouth, Conti returned by sea to Cambay, from there he headed further west, visited about. Socotra, in Aden, in one of the northern Ethiopian ports, in the Arabian harbor of Jeddah (the port of Mecca) and through Egypt and Tripoli returned to Italy in 1444. Pope Eugene IV became so interested in Conti's wanderings that he even forgave him such a grave sin as renunciation of his faith, and ordered his secretary, a well-known humanist Poggio Bracciolini, write down his stories in Latin (“Four books on the variability of fate”).

In 1468, the Shah of Shirvan, a country on the western shore of the Caspian Sea, sent ambassadors to the Moscow Grand Duke Ivan III. Not earlier than April 1468, when the ambassadors went on their way back, two ships landed in Tver (Kalinin), equipped by Russian merchants headed by Afanasy Nikitin. In July, the Tatars attacked the caravan near Astrakhan and plundered it. At the same time, the Russians lost their ships and almost all property. Some of them reached the Shirvan possessions in different ways and asked to return them to their homeland under guard, but the shah refused, referring to the fact that there were too many of them. “And we, crying, parted in all directions,” says Nikitin in his notes “Journey Beyond the Three Seas,” “whoever had something in Rus', he went to Rus', and who was supposed to be there, he went wherever his eyes look ... »

Nikitin, as shown L. S. Semenov, did not “should”, i.e., did not collect goods on credit, but he lost all his property and therefore decided to bargain in foreign countries. From Baku, "where the fire is unquenchable," in September 1468, Nikitin sailed to the Caspian, Iranian region of Mazanderan. He stayed there for more than eight months, and then, having crossed the Elburz mountains, he moved south. Athanasius traveled slowly, sometimes for a month he lived in some place, engaged in trade. In one of the southern Iranian cities, he heard about how expensive thoroughbred horses are in India and how cheap valuable goods are for Rus'. He bought a stallion, deciding to visit India, and headed for the Persian Gulf, however, more than once turning off the direct path to Gurmyz (Ormuz). After more than two years in Iran, on April 23, 1471, Nikitin boarded a ship going to the Indian port of Chaul, at 18 ° 30 "N. But he did not succeed in selling his horse profitably, and in June he set off through the Western Ghats to inland, 200 miles from the sea, to the east, to a small town in the upper reaches of the Sina (Krishna basin), and from there to the northwest, to Junnar, at 74 ° E. He spent two months there and in September, although the rainy period did not end, he led the stallion even further, for 400 versts, to Bidar, at 18 ° N. latitude, the capital of the Besermen (Muslim) state of Bahmani, which then owned almost the entire Deccan to the river Krishna in the south, - “a large city, crowded". Then he visited three neighboring cities and returned to Bidar in November. He managed to sell his horse only in December 1471. Nikitin describes the magnificent departures of the local sultan, his courtyard, surrounded by walls with seven gates. He sees terrible poverty around, on which other European travelers did not pay attention: “... rural e people are very poor, and the boyars are rich and luxurious; they carry them on a silver stretcher...” Nikitin also notes the discord between Hindus and Muslims (“they don’t eat or drink with besermens”), and the caste division of Hindus (“faiths in India 84”), and differences in the life and food of individual castes. In 1472, from Bidar, Athanasius completed the route to the sacred city of Parvat, on the right bank of Krishna. He left Bidar in April 1473, lived for five months in one of the cities of the "diamond" region of Raichur and decided to return "to Rus'".

Nikitin was disappointed with the results of the trip: “The infidel dogs deceived me: they talked about a lot of goods, but it turned out that there was nothing for our land ... Pepper and paint were cheap. Some carry goods by sea, while others do not pay duties on them. But they won't let us carry it without duty. And the duty is large, and there are many robbers on the sea. Athanasius spent about three years in India, witnessed the wars between the two largest powers of the subcontinent at that time, and his notes clarify and supplement the Indian chronicles characterizing the events of 1471-1474. In "Journeying ..." he also gives brief, but mostly reliable information about some "shelters" where he himself did not get: about the capital of the powerful South Indian state of Vijayanagar and its main port Kolekot (Kozhikode), about Sri Lanka as a a country rich in precious stones, incense and elephants; about the “considerable pier” of Western Indochina Pegu (the mouth of the Irrawaddy), where Indian dervishes live - Buddhist monks selling precious stones, and about porcelain products from China and Machina (China).

Exhausted in India, Nikitin set off at the end of 1473 on his way back, which he described very briefly. He boarded the ship at Dabhol (Dabul) in January 1474, having paid two gold coins for the passage to Hormuz. “And I sailed ... on the sea for a month and did not see anything, only the next month I saw the Ethiopian mountains ... and there were five days in that Ethiopian land. By the grace of God, evil did not happen, we distributed a lot of rice, pepper, bread to the Ethiopians, and they did not rob the court. The "Ethiopian Mountains" refers to the northern high coast of the Somali Peninsula. The ship reached Muscat, passing about 2000 km against the wind and current, and spending much more time on this path than noted in the text of the Journey ...

After an almost three-month voyage, Athanasius landed in Hormuz, where he stayed for 20 days. Then he moved northwest through the mountainous regions of Iran and, trading in spices, went to Tabriz, visited the main headquarters of the nomadic "white sheep" Turkmens, and then crossed the Armenian Highlands and reached the Black Sea near Trebizond by early October 1474. For his gold undertook to transport to the Genoese Kafa (Feodosia), but "due to a strong and evil wind" the ship reached it only on November 5. Further, Nikitin did not keep records. Here he spent the winter of 1474–1475. and probably corrected his observations. In the spring of 1475, together with several merchants, Athanasius moved north, most likely along the Dnieper. From a brief introduction to his “Journey ...”, included in the “Lviv Chronicle” under 1475, it is clear that he, “before reaching Smolensk, died [in late 1474 - early 1475], and wrote the scripture with his own hand , and his handwritten notebooks were brought by guests [merchants] to Moscow...”

"Walking..." in the 16th-17th centuries repeatedly corresponded: at least six lists have come down to us. But until the 17th century we are not aware of any new attempts in Rus' to establish direct trade with India. And it is unlikely that those Russians who read "Walking ..." could be prompted to travel to India by the words of the truthful Nikitin that there "there is no goods on the Russian land." His journey from an economic point of view proved to be a disadvantageous undertaking. But Nikitin was the first European who gave a completely truthful, of great value description of medieval India, which he described simply, realistically, efficiently, without embellishment. By his feat, he convincingly proves that in the second half of the 15th century, 30 years before the Portuguese “discovery” of India, even a lonely and poor, but energetic person could make a trip to this country from Europe at his own peril and risk, despite a number of exceptionally unfavorable conditions. Indeed, Nikitin did not have the support of a secular sovereign, like the Portuguese Covilhã who traveled shortly after him. He did not have a powerful ecclesiastical authority behind him, as behind his predecessors, the monks of Montecorvino and Odorico from Pordenone. He did not renounce his faith, like the Venetian Conti. The only Orthodox Christian among Muslims and Hindus, Nikitin did not meet everywhere with help and hospitality, like Arab merchants and travelers among their co-religionists.

Afanasy Nikitin was completely alone, very homesick and longing to return home. “And God save the Russian land ... There is no country like it in this world, although the fugitives [princely governors] of the Russian land are unjust. May the Russian land be well-organized, for there is little justice in it.”

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Marco Polo is a Venetian merchant, a famous traveler, a writer who wrote the famous "Book of the Diversity of the World", in which he told the story of his journey through Asian countries. Not all researchers agree with the reliability of the facts presented in the book, but to this day it remains one of the important sources of knowledge on the history, ethnography and geography of the Asian states of the Middle Ages.

The book was used by navigators, cartographers, explorers, writers, travelers and discoverers. She traveled with Christopher Columbus on his famous voyage to America. Marco Polo is the first European who went on a risky journey through unknown countries.

Childhood and family

Marco's birth documents have not been preserved, so information about this period of his biography is inaccurate. It is believed that he was a nobleman, belonged to the Venetian nobility, had a coat of arms. Born in 1254, on September 15, in the family of the Venetian merchant Niccolo Polo, who traded in jewelry and spices. He did not know his mother, as she died in childbirth. The boy was raised by his father and aunt.

The homeland of the famous traveler could also be Poland and Croatia, which dispute this right, citing certain facts confirming both versions as evidence. The Poles claim that the surname Polo is of Polish origin, Croatian researchers are sure that the first evidence of the life of the famous traveler is in their land.

Whether Marco Polo was educated is not known for certain. The issue of his literacy is also controversial, since the famous book was written under dictation by a cellmate, the Pisan Rusticiano, with whom he was held prisoner in a Genoese prison. At the same time, in one of the chapters of the book it is written that during his travels he made notes in his notebook, tried to be attentive to what was happening and write down everything new and unusual that he encountered. In the future, traveling around the world, he learned several languages.

Travel and discovery

The father of the future navigator, by virtue of his profession, traveled a lot. On trips around the world, he discovered new trade routes. It was the father who instilled in his son a love of travel, talking about his wanderings and adventures. In 1271, his first journey took place, on which he went with his father. Jerusalem was his final destination.

In the same year, a new pope was chosen, who appointed the Polo family (father, brother Morfeo and son Marco) as official envoys to China, where at that time the country was ruled by the Mongol Khan. The first stop on the Mediterranean coast was the port of Layas - a place where goods were brought from Asia, where they were bought by merchants from Venice and Genoa. Further, their path passed through Asia Minor, Armenia, Mesopotamia, where they visited Mosul and Baghdad.

Then travelers go to Persian Tabriz, where in those days there was a rich pearl market. In Persia, part of their escort was killed by robbers who attacked the caravan. The Polo family miraculously survived. Tormented by thirst in the hot desert, on the verge of life and death, they reached the Afghan city of Balkh and found salvation in it.

The eastern lands in which they ended up, continuing their journey, abounded in fruits and game. In Badakhshan, the next region, numerous slaves mined precious stones. According to one version, in these places, because of Marco's illness, they stopped for a year. Then, overcoming the prisons of the Pamirs, they went to Kashmir. Polo was surprised by the local sorcerers who influence the weather, as well as by the beauty of the local women.

After that, the Italians were the first of the Europeans to be in the Southern Tien Shan. Then the caravan headed northeast through the oases of the Takla-Makan desert. The first Chinese city on their way was Shangzhou, followed by Guangzhou and Lanzhou. Polo was greatly impressed by the local rites and customs, flora and fauna of this country. It was a great time of his amazing travels and discoveries.

The Polo family lived with Khan Kublai Khan for 15 years. Young Marco liked the khan for his independence, fearlessness and good memory. He became close to the Chinese ruler, participated in public life, making important decisions, helped recruit an army, suggested using military catapults, and much more.

Carrying out the most difficult diplomatic assignments, Marco visited many Chinese cities, learned the language and never ceased to be amazed at the achievements and discoveries of this people. He described all this in his book. Shortly before returning to his homeland, he was appointed ruler of the Chinese provinces of Jiangnan.

Khubilai did not want to let go of his assistant and favorite, but in 1291 he sent him and all the Polos to accompany a Mongol princess who had married a ruler from Persia. The path passed through Ceylon and Sumatra. In 1294, while still on their journey, they received news that Kublai Khan had died.

The Polos decide to return home. The path across the Indian Ocean was very dangerous, only a few managed to overcome it. Marco Polo returned to his homeland after 24 years of wandering in the winter of 1295.

On native land

Two years after the return, the war of Genoa and Venice begins, in which Polo also participates. He is captured and spent several months in prison. Here, according to his stories about the journey, the famous book was written.

There are 140 versions of it written in 12 languages. Despite some speculation, Europeans learned from it about paper money, coal, sago palm, places where spices are grown and much more.

Personal life

Marco's father remarried and had three more brothers. After captivity, Mark's personal life is also going well: he married a noble and wealthy Venetian Donata, bought a house, gave birth to three daughters and received the nickname Mr. Million. The townspeople consider him an eccentric liar, not trusting stories about distant wanderings. Mark lives a prosperous life, but yearns for travel, especially China.

His only joy is the Venetian carnivals, as they resemble the magnificent Chinese palaces and luxurious khan's outfits. After returning from Asia, Mark Polo lived another 25 years. At home, he is engaged in trade. The book, written in prison, made him famous during his lifetime.

Polo died in 1324 at the age of 70 in Venice. He was buried in the church of San Lorenzo, destroyed in the 19th century. His luxurious house burned down in a fire at the end of the 14th century. About Mark Polo, his life and travels, many exciting films and series have been shot, causing genuine interest among our contemporaries.

• The struggle for the right to be called the birthplace of Marco Polo between Italy, Poland and Croatia.
• He wrote a book about his travels, which made him famous.
• In the last years of his life, stinginess is revealed in him, which leads him to legal proceedings with his own family.
• Marco Polo gave free rein to one of his slaves and bequeathed part of his inheritance. In this regard, many assumptions have arisen about the reasons for such generosity.
• In 1888, the Marco Polo Butterfly was named after the great traveler.