Overcoming blockage and obstacles with a horizontal traverse. Technique for overcoming the slope (ascent, traverse, descent) with self-insurance on a rope railing. Overcoming grassy slopes, screes, moraines

Technique for overcoming the slope (ascent, traverse, descent) with self-insurance on a rope railing.

In the practice of mountain tourism, to overcome objectively dangerous slopes, tourists often use the method of railing insurance - they climb and descend the slope with self-belay while moving along vertical (inclined) railings; movement along the slope (slope traverse) with self-insurance on horizontal railings. Of course, before the group starts moving, the railing must be fixed on the slope by the leader (the first participant to overcome the slope). In this case, the leader passes dangerous sections of the slope using mutual insurance. Our task does not include a detailed consideration of the organization of the leader's insurance. Necessary and sufficient information for you about the technique of mutual belay on the slopes is presented in the lecture "Tourist belay technique" and in the subsequent section of this lesson.

How is self-insurance of a tourist carried out while moving up the slope along the vertical railing? In this lesson, we consider only the technique of climbing and descending the fixed rope on mountain slopes of medium steepness, along which tourists move in steps. In this case, the railing rope serves both as a means of insurance and as a means of additional support, facilitating movement along the slope. In general, overcoming such slopes does not represent a significant technical difficulty.

When moving along the vertical railing, the tourist provides his own insurance with the help of a self-insurance loop made of a specialized rope (the so-called cord with a diameter of 6-8mm with a diameter of a railing rope of 10-12mm) (Fig. 15). On the one hand, the loop is connected to the individual safety system (ISS) of the tourist, on the other hand, it is tied to the railing with a grasping knot. The self-insurance loop can be connected to the ISS (or only to the chest harness, harness) using a double conductor knot (see above) and a carabiner. To tie the self-insurance loop to the railing, one or another grasping knot is used, depending on the condition of the rope: the Prusik knot, the Bachmann knot, the Austrian grasping knot. We have already mentioned earlier (see the previous section of the lesson) that the Prusik knot is actively used in tourism for organizing self-insurance, but it has its limitations (it is often not fixed on the railing rope when a tourist falls off during descents, ascents on difficult, steep slopes). However, for the organization of self-insurance on the technically simple slopes we are considering, it is quite acceptable. The Austrian grasping knot is more reliable and versatile, and the Bachmann knot, unlike the Prusik knot, is well fixed on an icy and wet rope. After connecting to the rope with a lanyard loop, the tourist moves up the slope, leaning on the rope with one hand (below the grasping knot), with the other hand pushing the weakened grasping knot along the railing (Fig. 15).

How is self-belaying of a tourist carried out while moving down the slope along the vertical railing? For the descent of tourists on a slope of medium steepness, requiring the organization of insurance, the technique of descent along the fixed rope in a sports way is often used. At the same time, the railing rope, as well as on the ascent along the railing, performs two functions - it serves as a support for the tourist; serves as a means of insurance.

Support on the railing during descent in a sports way is created due to the friction of the rope passing through the arms and back of the tourist (Fig. 16, 17). It is important, at the same time, that the tourist's hands be protected with gloves or mittens, in order to avoid injury to the skin from the rope moving through the hands. This technique of working with a rope allows you to control the speed of descent down the slope and increases the stability of the descent. At the same time, support on the railing rope only reduces the likelihood of a tourist falling, but does not completely exclude it. Therefore, the organization of self-insurance of a tourist when descending an objectively dangerous slope is mandatory! We have already considered the method of organizing a tourist's self-insurance while moving along a vertical railing (connecting a tourist to the railing with a self-insurance loop from a cord and a grasping knot).

The technique of descending the vertical railings in a sporty way. The rope passes behind the back of the tourist and performs a supporting function. Self-belaying is carried out with the help of a cord loop tied on the railing with a grasping knot and connected to the tourist's safety system.

The technique of descending the railing rope in a sports way. The rope passes behind the back of the tourist (performs a supporting function). Drawing courtesy of Ludmila Sudanova.

Attention! From the point of view of safety, when climbing and descending the vertical railing, the following requirements for the organization of self-insurance must be observed.

The length of the self-insurance loop should not be excessive, otherwise, if the tourist falls off, the jerk force on the cord will increase (it may not withstand it), and if the tourist hangs on the self-insurance, the grasping knot will be so far away that it will be difficult to get and loosen it.

· The grasping knot, when moving along the rope, should always be higher up the slope relative to the tourist himself. Then, in the event of a breakdown, the moment of the “flight” of the tourist and the significant jerk efforts attributable to the cord are excluded. The self-insurance loop in the event of a tourist falling off should be instantly loaded and tightened on the railing rope. Passport maximum breaking force of the cord is 600-700kgf. The dynamic force on the cord, acting, for example, when a body with a mass of 80 kg falls and a jerk factor of 1.5-2 is close to this value and will most likely lead to its rupture.

· When the hiker is moving down the slope, the grasping knot should move easily along the railing rope, but it should not be held in a fist. In the event of a breakdown, the knot, clamped by hand, slips along with it, without dragging on the railing.

How is self-insurance of a tourist carried out when traversing the slope along the railing? In the movement of a tourist on horizontal railings located along the slope, the principle of organizing self-insurance is special. The depth of the fall of a tourist connected to a stretched horizontal railing during a fall is limited by the length of the railing rope sagging under the weight of the fallen. If the sections of the railing between the points of their fastening are relatively short (for example, up to 10 m) and there is no significant "weakness" of the rope (the rope is stretched, although not too tight), then the depth of the fall of the tourist during the fall will be relatively small (for example, up to 2 m ). In contrast to the fall of the leader climbing the slope with the lower belay, when falling on the horizontal railing, there is practically no effect of free fall: the fallen tourist immediately “loads” the correctly fixed railing rope and hangs on it.

In view of the foregoing, a rope of considerable length hung along the slope should be fixed not only at its ends, but also at a number of intermediate points (the so-called intermediate points for fixing horizontal railings). Sections of the railing (for example, up to 5-10m), between the fixing points, we will designate as separate "railing branches". The tourist connects to the horizontal railings with the help of an ISS self-insurance mustache (made from the main rope or a tape of equal strength) and a carabiner. The tourist thereby moves along the slope, fastened to the railing rope with a carabiner sliding along it (walks on a kind of “leash”). When moving from one branch of the railing to another (from one railing to another), it is important for a tourist not to lose insurance for a moment and to be constantly connected to the rope. For this purpose, when moving along horizontal railings, two lanyards of a self-insurance are usually used. At the point of transition from one branch of the railing to another, at first the free mustache of the lanyard is connected to the next branch and only then disconnected from the previous branch.

Self-insurance technique when traversing the slope along the horizontal railing. Two lanyard lanyards are used to pass through an intermediate railing attachment point (hook) without losing the lanyard

Finishing the section devoted to self-insurance of tourists while moving along the railing, we once again focus your attention on the correctness of its organization. When driving on a dangerous slope along the railing, the tourist must observe the following safety rules.

· Fasten to the rope at each section of the railing (with a sliding carabiner on horizontal railings, or a self-insurance loop tied with a grasping knot on vertical and inclined railings).

· When moving from one branch of the railing to another, first fasten to the next branch, and only then unfasten from the branch used (not for a second losing insurance in an objectively dangerous place).

· Only one person can move on one branch of the railing (between the fixed ends of the railing rope). Otherwise, if one tourist falls off, there will be a danger of the second one falling off, and the fixing points of the railing (for example, rock hooks) may not withstand the forces of the fall (fly out of the slope).

Moving along the route, a group of tourists on foot may, and almost certainly, encounter various obstacles. Therefore, one of the important qualities of tourists is the ability to successfully overcome obstacles. The extent to which the group is able to realize this quality depends on its safety during the passage of the route and the successful completion of the journey within the time limits stipulated by the control time. Along the way, tourists can meet obstacles of various difficulty overcoming. They will be discussed further.

When driving on low, forested mountains or hills, the route of movement is selected along gentle ridges. There are several reasons for this: it is easier to walk there, easier to navigate and harder to get lost, in contrast to moving along the overgrown intermountain. Going out onto free areas of slopes overgrown with grass, meadows or scree, in the process of movement, it is necessary to avoid concave landforms, which can be dangerous in terms of landslides and rockfalls. Driving up steep slopes requires mastering some simple movement techniques.

Passing steep slopes. For confident movement on steep slopes, hiking shoes should have non-slip and, preferably, non-smooth, grooved soles. Climbing uphill, the leg should be placed on the entire foot. In this case, it is useful, using any bulge of the relief, or a stone lying steadily on the slope, to try to maintain a horizontal position of the foot. When lifting, the toes of the feet must be spread apart, and the more, the steeper the slope. A long ascent is carried out, moving in turn one or the other side to the slope. Moving along the grassy slope, the foot of the leg, which is located above, is placed across the slope on the entire sole, while the foot of the other leg is turned toe down at a certain angle. Descent on steep slopes is performed on half-bent legs. Descent from not very steep slopes, if there is a trail, can be done by running. At the same time, throwing the legs forward, the body is somewhat thrown back. When descending by running, the backpack behind your shoulders should not be heavy.

Overcoming forest thickets, blockages. Movement through the thickets of the forest, high and hard grass cover or dense bushes requires each participant in the campaign to pay attention and repeat the movements of the one in front. It is necessary to hold the branches or stems taken aside so that they do not hit the walking comrade from behind. To protect against injury from branches, stems or knots, tourist clothing must be long-sleeved. In order to protect the face and eyes, one hand is kept in front of you at all times. To overcome fallen trees, blockages, it is necessary to carefully step over them and in no case jump over them. It is advisable not to step on them due to the fact that they can be covered with slippery mold. When moving in the thicket, it is advisable to remove all objects sticking out, protruding beyond the backpack and clothing of the tourist, as they will cling to everything.

Overcoming wetlands. Usually swampy sections of the route pass along the gats. In their absence, the swampy area is crossed by tourists, stepping or jumping, one after another from bump to bump. For ease of movement, self-insurance and depth measurement, everyone should have a pole in their hands. When overcoming the quicksand, the interval between people should be increased, but within the reach of the pole next to the walking tourist.

Overcoming water barriers. The water barrier can be overcome in several ways. Crossing over bridges and graves. Overcoming water obstacles in ordinary hiking is usually carried out on existing bridges and treasures. There is some difficulty in crossing the luggage, which do not have railings and are unstable. In this case, one of the experienced members of the group is sent first for verification. After that, he insures other tourists when crossing with a pole or hand. The greatest difficulty is the crossing of a suspended log that sways horizontally. In this variant, after performing several intense squats, horizontal vibrations can most often be extinguished or transferred to a vertical plane. Such fluctuations already represent less inconvenience for the crossing of tourists. In some cases, to facilitate movement, a rope railing or a pole is held near the luggage at shoulder level.

Ford crossings. The place of the crossings is chosen after advance reconnaissance on the widest possible, and hence smaller area.

Wading without using a rope. Crossing a ford without a rope is carried out on rivers with a relatively calm course in several ways: - alone. In this case, a pole is used, which rests against the bottom against the current; - together. At the same time, they stand facing each other, putting outstretched arms on each other's shoulders, and cross sideways; - by a group. In this option, 3-4 people, hugging each other's shoulders, form a circle, or form a wall so that taller and stronger tourists take places on the sides. If there are stones sticking out of the water, it is necessary to cross a little downstream of them, where the flow force will be weaker. Crossing a rocky or unexplored bottom must be shod, removing excess clothing. Feeling the bottom with your foot, each step is done carefully.

Crossing wade using ropes. A ford crossing using ropes is arranged on rivers with a rapid current. The strongest and most enduring of the tourists is the first to overcome the water barrier. His task is to deliver and secure a rope on the opposite bank, with the help of which the rest will be transported. The rope is fixed on the tourist so that the knot is on the back. This will allow him to swim in case the current knocks him off his feet. In addition, a carabiner with a safety rope is attached to the crossing tourist, the second end of which is held in the hands of two insurers. The delivered end of the rope on the opposite bank is attached to any natural, for example, rock, tree, or artificial, for example, from stakes, support. After that, the rope is pulled over the surface of the water. Tourists cross in turn one after another, clinging to this rope with the help of a chest harness and a carabiner. It is most convenient to move sideways, facing against the current, fingering the rope with your hands. Such a crossing usually takes a lot of time, so on the opposite bank you need to light a fire to warm people and dry things. In the absence of a ford, they cross water barriers using swimming.

Crossing using the reception by swimming. Crossing using the swim technique can be carried out on a river with a calm current and only by those who know how to swim well. Wide sections with a gentle drop in the bottom level are convenient for crossing. Before the start of the crossing on the opposite bank, taking into account the drift, they mark landmarks and swim towards them at an angle to the current. One should never try to cross a river by the shortest route. Things are recommended to be laid on a small raft and pushed in front of you. Another option for organizing the crossing is that with the help of one of the tourists, the end of the rope is delivered and fixed to the opposite shore, which is pulled over the water and used both to transport things on a raft and to help other members of the group in crossing. Now they don't have to swim downstream. The crossing is carried out on the spot. Tourists can cross by holding on to a rope using any floating object, which can even be a bundle of brushwood or a well-packed waterproof material and a tightly tied backpack.

Proper overcoming of obstacles that may be encountered on the way of tourists is the key to their safety, health and successful completion of the trip.

Tactics - a set of means and techniques to achieve the intended goal. The main goal in a hiking trip is to pass the route with the least effort and with maximum safety. Depending on the situation, other goals and tasks will arise around these two defining main goals, but they do not have a decisive influence on the choice of tactics.

The choice of tactics is determined by the physical and technical training of tourists. It is impossible to build a tactically correct route without taking into account the real physical, technical and moral-volitional training of the group members. The choice of campaign tactics is made during the study of the campaign area and the development of its route. At the same time, it is planned to pass the route with overcoming known natural obstacles, based on the experience and capabilities of the group. During the development of the route, rational tactics should be taken into account. To do this, it is necessary to know the difficult sections of the route well and imagine in what ways and means they will be overcome (i.e., first, tourists "pass" the route mentally). Thus, a trip schedule is drawn up, which reflects the sections of the route, their characteristics, methods of overcoming and the approximate time of passage.

When developing a campaign tactics, tourists use all the data obtained at the stage of studying the area and the route of the campaign.

And the more this information, the more clearly you can plan the passage of the route. During the campaign, the tactics of the movement of the group may undergo changes in accordance with updated data on the nature of natural obstacles, the physical condition of the participants, and weather conditions.

According to their construction, tourist routes are divided into linear and circular (Fig. 33). In the first case, the start and end points of the route do not match; in the second case, they do. The second option is convenient in that it is easier to purchase return tickets, participants can leave things they don’t need during the trip at the starting point. Ultimately, the choice of the type of route is determined by the goals and objectives of the trip.

Without deviating from the main route, the group can make a radial exit to any point to complete a local history assignment, sightseeing, etc. Then the group returns to the route and continues to the end point.

In order to ensure the safety of the group members, when developing the route, fallback options are provided in case the group leaves the main route in case of any emergency (a member’s illness, impossibility of passing the pass or organizing a crossing, etc.). Such options should also be provided for not very difficult routes.

One of the elements of the route, as well as a factor in ensuring safety, is the organization of day trips - days of rest on the route to recuperate, explore unknown areas, and perform local history tasks. The day also serves as a reserve in case the group gets behind schedule for any reason. Then the time scheduled for the day is used to eliminate the backlog. For the same purpose, reserve days are planned (as a rule, on little-studied routes or on the assumption of worsening weather, for example, in the off-season).

Another tactic is throwing groceries onto the route in order to reduce the output weight of the backpack. It is also possible in a difficult area to carry cargo by "shuttle". This option is used in case of impossibility to overcome an obstacle with full equipment or in case of illness and injuries of participants. In this case, the group stops, and the cargo is transferred in parts. So, in particular, water tourists act, raising watercraft to the upper reaches of mountain rivers.

The order of movement of the group on the route. The correct organization of the movement of the group ensures the rhythm of the work of the body, the dosage of physical activity, the clarity in the actions of the group, which in general has a positive effect on the safety of the route. The order of movement of the group is determined by the terrain, the presence and nature of difficult areas, the presence of weakened participants.

As a rule, the first is the guide - the commander or guide (navigator) of the group. At the end of the column - closing. The weakest participants are usually placed behind the guides - these are girls or one of the weakened (sick) guys. Children should clearly explain the functions of the guide and trailer in the column. The guide can go at his own pace, a little ahead, and there is no need to constantly catch up with him with the whole column. He occasionally stops to orient himself, or moves a little ahead for reconnaissance, i.e. goes at a brisk pace. The column should go at an even pace, equaling the weakest.

The role of the closing is responsible. This role is entrusted to a member of the group who has at least a little experience or, if there are none in the group yet, to the most responsible of the boys. His task is to ensure that the group does not stretch, so that no one falls behind, to provide assistance to those lagging behind.

There is a clear rule - there should not be members of the group behind the closing one. If someone needs to stop, the trailer determines whether to stop the whole group or stop together. He must report this to the group leader. And only he makes the decision.

And where are the leader and his deputy during the movement? They determine their place depending on the situation. Under difficult conditions of orientation, one of them goes at the head of the column with a guide; they are ahead when overcoming natural obstacles, in the middle of the column, during the normal movement of the group. You can go with the last one for a while, as he often grumbles, is offended that he is the last one. By the way, walking at the end of the column, the leader sees all the children well.

It is desirable to exclude unnecessary conversations on the route. By talking, children imperceptibly churn their breath, get tired faster. At conversations the attention weakens. The child may stumble, not notice the branch at face level. This inevitably leads to injury.

Tourist system. The most convenient movement of the group is in a column one at a time. However, if the group is walking along a country road, then you can allow movement in a free formation. But at the same time, the leader has an additional concern - to prevent walking in a race or, on the contrary, to prevent the group from stretching, which occurs as a result of conversations started by the participants among themselves. When walking along the paths in the forest, in the mountains, you should only walk in a column, keeping the interval set by the group leader.

Study, reconnaissance of difficult sections of the route. Before forking paths, roads, changing the direction of movement, emerging obstacles (rivers, swamps, ravines, etc.), the leader stops the group and organizes reconnaissance in agreement with the leader. To clarify the location, direction of movement, the leader can send groups of 2-3 people in several directions, having previously instructed them, having determined the time of reconnaissance and return back - the control time. Before an obstacle, participants carefully study the possibility of overcoming it and clarify the tactics of action. At the same time, you should see if there is a need to overcome this obstacle or if you can get around it in an easier and safer way.

When moving, rebuilding of the column is possible due to difficult sections: descents, ascents, screes, etc. This decision is made by the leader of the group, and the participants are obliged to strictly follow his instructions. One of the simplest rearrangements is a column in which a boy walks in front of each girl to provide her with the necessary assistance.

Summing up the results of the day's transition and adjusting the plan for the next day. The clarity of the group's actions during the daytime transition is laid down in advance: the first time - when developing a schedule of movement while still at home, the second time - in the evening, on the eve of the next day. After analyzing the results of the past day, the leader, commander and guide specify the next section of the route and the tactics of its passage. At the same time, adjustments can be made taking into account weather conditions, the physical condition of the group members. The refined tactics are communicated to all members of the group, because, just imagining the task, the participants of the campaign act meaningfully, and do not meekly measure the kilometers of the way. Here, as nowhere else, A. Suvorov's winged saying "Every soldier must know his maneuver!" is appropriate.

Tourism technique is the rules and techniques of movement and overcoming natural obstacles encountered on the route. The main rule when building a route and moving along it is that if possible, it is better to bypass the obstacle.

Natural obstacles can be classified by:

landforms (plain, mountains, ravines);

type of vegetation (weak, dense, passable, difficult to pass, tall grass, elfin);

type of coverage (dirt, rocky path or road, grassy surface, hummock);

water networks (streams, rivers, swamps).

When driving through the forest, you need to use passing country roads, clearings, trails, glades. It is much easier to walk along the path, even if it is barely noticeable, than directly - in azimuth. In addition, the trail, as a rule, goes around obstacles or crosses them in a convenient place.

When moving through dense undergrowth, branches should be held so that they do not whip the face of the person walking behind. For the same purpose, members of the group should walk at intervals of 3-5 m, which allows them not to lose sight of the one in front. Those walking in front should warn with their voice about dangerous places: pits, protruding tree roots, logs lying across the path, slippery places.

If possible, do not step on fallen trees. Firstly, you can slip, and secondly, stepping on a tree, and then, sinking to the ground, we do unnecessary work, uselessly expend our energy. It is better to go around or step over fallen trees, while the group does not stop and, most importantly, does not lose pace. Even more carefully you need to go through the forest thicket, if there is a need to move in azimuth.

Overgrown deep ravines, ravines, often littered with windbreak, stones, with streams flowing along the bottom must be overcome, choosing the most gentle slopes.

It is quite difficult to move in the tundra zone and the middle mountains, where elfin grows - thickets of shrubs creeping along the ground with hard branches and a strong root system. It is quite low, and sometimes reaches a height above human height (for example, rhododendron). When entering such thickets, you should pre-determine the direction of movement and stick to it. At the same time, clothing should cover all parts of the body, it is better to tuck trousers under socks (you can prepare special “flashlights” for this that protect legs and trousers). In the same way it is necessary to act when moving through dwarf vegetation.

Movement in the taiga has its own characteristics. There are much fewer paths here than in the forest, and even more roads; much more blockages, windbreak. This complicates and slows down the movement. In addition, orientation on the route is also complicated. When moving, you should try to choose more free places, bypassing the rubble. If this is not possible, then it is necessary to overcome them carefully, helping each other.

Other natural obstacles are also possible on the route - swamps. Overcoming them requires significant physical and psychological efforts.

Bogs are divided into lowland, upland and "hanging". Lowland swamps are formed in the floodplains of rivers, when water bodies are overgrown and are fed mainly by groundwater. Raised (moss) bogs are more common on watersheds and are fed by atmospheric precipitation. "Hanging" swamps are more common in the mountains, on the slopes. They are formed by the release of keys and atmospheric precipitation.

According to the patency, swamps are classified into passable, difficult and impassable. Passable swamps are covered with dense grass interspersed with sedge. Impenetrable swamps are covered with moss, among which water is visible, cotton grass grows, dense bushes of willow, alder, birch. They move through such a swamp one at a time along mossy strips and ridges overgrown with low shrubs.

Impenetrable swamps are a great danger. They are covered with reeds or floating grass cover. It is better to get around such a swamp, even if you lose some time on it. If you really have to overcome it, then always with careful intelligence. Two tourists, without backpacks, are doing reconnaissance. When moving, each participant must have a pole held in a horizontal position. At the same time, it is necessary to go strictly in the footsteps of the scouts, put your foot smoothly, without jerking. It is safer to lay the path over bumps, near bushes and tree trunks. You can’t jump from one bump to another (the stage of the tourist competition “Bumps” plays a bad service here, where participants really jump over them).

The most dangerous of all is a swamp - an overgrown reservoir, the surface of which is covered with bright green grass. She is practically impassable. It should be bypassed.

For insurance when moving through a swamp, tourists must constantly keep a pole in a horizontal position at the ready, loosen the straps of backpacks. A person who has fallen into a quagmire must quickly pull the pole towards him and lie down on it with his chest. If the tourist himself is not able to rise, then he should not make unnecessary movements so as not to break the rafting even more. It is impossible at the same time to allow sharp and convulsive movements and lose self-control. Help for the failed should be provided quickly, without fuss and very carefully. First you need to make a place near it with poles and branches. Then carefully approach the victim, help remove the backpack and get out.

Holes (pits 50 cm or more deep) are more convenient to pass along poles that are successively laid in the direction of travel. As they are released by the closing ones, they are passed forward. Walking along the slippery path should be done carefully, leaning on a pole if possible.

If reconnaissance has established that there is solid ground under a layer of water, then you can move forward in the wake of the leader. In any case, the movement should be carried out smoothly, self-insurance with a pole is required.

When moving through a swamp, you need to constantly monitor the direction of movement, mark your path with sticks. This marking may be useful for the return, if further movement through the swamp is impossible.

You need to go through the swamp in shoes and clothes. Pants should be tucked in so they don't snag or get in the way. The contents of the backpack should be protected from moisture as much as possible.

It must be remembered that in the off-season and in winter, the swamps freeze unevenly. When passing them at this time of the year, one must also be very attentive and careful.

Even on seemingly simple routes on flat terrain, one has to overcome various natural obstacles: steep slopes of ravines and river banks, rivers, swamps, etc. During the passage of these sections, the participants' falls are inevitable, as a result of which there are often quite serious injuries. To ensure the safety of the passage of these sections, it is necessary to provide measures to prevent the participants from falling.

Insurance is a set of actions, techniques and rules that prevent or detain a participant in case of a breakdown in a difficult section.

The simplest type of insurance is self-insurance, when the participant himself ensures the safety of the passage. The simplest method of self-insurance is to use an alpenstock when moving along the slopes. It is a strong stick the length of a tourist with a pointed end - a bayonet (for reliability, the bayonet is made of metal).

Group insurance provides for the safety of the participant with the participation of group members. The combination of the first and second types of insurance is combined insurance.

Self-belaying when working in a dangerous area (at the edge of a cliff) (Fig. 34) is carried out by fastening the participant, who is wearing a belay system, through a carabiner to a support loop made from the end of the main rope with a diameter of 10 mm or more, tied around a support (tree, stone) .

When ascending and descending the slope, vertical railings (main ropes) are used. If necessary, they can be fastened without tension or pulled rigidly. Self-insurance is carried out with the help of a safety system using a grasping knot (Fig. 35). When traversing a slope, the railing can be both horizontal and inclined. In the first case, the participant is attached to the railing with a carabiner (Fig. 36), in the second case, with the help of a grappling knot, so as not to slide along the inclined railing when falling.

During crossings, self-insurance is carried out by fastening the participant to the horizontal railing by means of a safety system and a safety “mustache” with a carabiner.

Group insurance can be of two types - lower and upper.

When climbing the first member of the group on a steep slope, the lower belay is used, while the belay rope approaches the participant from below (fig. 37). To reduce the distance of the participant's fall during a fall, the rope is pulled through intermediate points of insurance (loops, hooks, bookmarks, etc.), through carabiners. These belay points are chosen in such a way that in the event of a fall, the participant does not end up in a pendulum position.

With the top belay, the rope approaches the participant from above, and the point of insurance is not lower than the chest of the insured participant. In this case, the belayer can be at the bottom, but the belay rope passes through the carabiner of the upper belay point.

On ascents, descents, traverses and crossings over ravines, the safety rope is attached with a carabiner to the chest crosshair of the interlocked belay system of the insured participant. Attaching a safety rope to the "whisker" of a lanyard is a mistake. The belaying competitor must wear gloves and be self-belaying, except when belaying from a safe area below the dangerous area. The safety rope must extend through the anchor point in such a way that the angle between its branches at the anchor point is no more than 90°.

The belayer must ensure that the belay rope is held at all times. When belaying through a carabiner or braking device (support), the belayer's hands must be located no closer than 20 cm from the carabiner or device. The free end of the safety rope must be secured to a support or a competitor on a lanyard or in a safe area below the danger area.

Wrong belay is when the rope is given out with excessive slack. This is sagging below the knee of the insured participant on the ascent and descent; sagging, allowing the rope to touch the water at the crossing, as well as sagging, excluding the possibility of holding a participant who has lost his balance on a log.

Accompaniment is carried out during a mounted crossing and crossings with railing insurance and serves to urgently pull the shore that has lost the ability of independent movement to the participants (Fig. 38). The main and auxiliary ropes can be used for escort.

To organize escort, a knot is tied on the accompanying rope, forming a loop. With the help of a carabiner, this knot is fastened into the safety system (into the chest crosshair or into the carabiner of the safety “mustache”) of the participant.

When the participant moves along the crossing, the accompanying rope must be held (issued or selected) by the participant on the shore (he must work in gloves). The free ends of the accompanying rope are fixed on the supports or on the participants who are on self-belay. The accompanying rope must not touch the surface of the water.

It is impossible to choose the accompanying rope too quickly, this creates a threat of pulling the participant from the crossing or injuring him.

When arranging insurance, it is important to choose a suitable place. It should be spacious for the freedom of movement of the belayers, have supports for attaching the railing (strong trees, stones). From the place of organization of insurance, it is desirable to have an overview of the entire obstacle to be overcome. The place for organizing insurance must be prepared: remove small stones, small stumps sticking out, break off the lower branches of trees. If necessary, a self-insurance loop is knitted on the support.

Movement in the mountains. The mountains occupy a significant part of the territory of Russia and attract with their beauty not only mountain tourists and climbers, but also hikers who have mastered the basic techniques for overcoming obstacles on flat routes.

A set of irregularities in the surface of the earth's crust, various in shape and size, is called relief. The relief of mountainous regions is very diverse, as it is the result of geomorphological processes of various nature: tectonic, volcanic, erosional (destruction as a result of external natural factors).

In the mountain relief, the following general forms are distinguished (Fig. 39).

Mountains - highly elevated vast areas of the earth's surface with multiple dissection and a sharp fluctuation in height, formed as a result of tectonic processes.

Foothills - lowered peripheral parts of mountain systems and ranges, having a hilly and mountainous character.

Peak - the highest part of the massif, mountain or elevated section of the crest of the ridge.

A ridge is a linearly elongated series of mountain peaks connected by depressions (bars, saddles), bounded by slopes inclined in opposite directions from the ridge line. Ranges are usually dissected by valleys.

Ridge - a line that is the junction of opposite slopes of a mountain, a ridge. There are strokes sharp, rounded, serrated, sawtooth.

Saddle - lowering the ridge between two peaks. Often such a decrease is used as the most convenient way to overcome the ridge, move from one valley to another and is called a pass.

A slope is the side part of a mountain.

A valley is an elongated depression between ridges. Valleys (the result of the destructive activity of glaciers and rivers - erosion) are divided by location into longitudinal, running parallel to the ridges, and transverse, crossing the axes of the latter. In appearance, the valleys are broad, with a flat bottom - floodplain. More common are V-shaped valleys with steep slopes and narrow bottoms. Slopes of great steepness are called gorges. The narrowest of these forms - steep-walled with a narrow bottom, the width of the water stream - canyons, or gorges.

Scree - an accumulation of fragments of rocks formed as a result of the destruction of mountains. There are large, small and medium talus. By age, they can be fresh and old. The former are distinguished by the mobility of stones and represent an increased danger when moving along them.

In the mountains, even moving along the valley, tourists are almost constantly on the slope, making an ascent or descent. It requires certain movement skills. Climbing the path, bending the leg at the knee, put the whole foot on the ground. For a better grip

the soles of the soles are stretched with a string, the socks are turned slightly to the outside. It is better to step over small stones lying on the way, if this is not possible, then step carefully, without straightening the leg completely, so as not to raise your center of gravity, doing useless work.

On gentle descents, the leg is placed, almost without bending, first on the heel, then on the entire foot. The body is tilted back slightly. On steep slopes they walk on half-bent legs, with short steps, putting their foot on the whole foot. On very steep slopes, you have to put your foot across the slope, focusing on the boot welt.

Energy costs when driving on slopes are more significant than when driving on a plain. To this are added nervous tension, lack of oxygen in the air. Therefore, the pace of movement in the mountains is lower, halts should be organized more often, focusing on the condition of the weakest members of the group. On steep slopes, frequent and short stops (1-2 minutes) are made to rest and restore the rhythm of breathing. At the same time, you do not need to sit down, they rest while standing, turning their backs to the slope, leaning on the alpenstock.

When driving on grassy slopes, dangers arise, primarily associated with poor grip of the sole with a grass-covered ground (especially if it is wet). When climbing a grassy slope, the foot is planted with the whole foot to increase the grip of the sole with the grass. With an increase in the steepness of the slope, the toes of the legs are more and more deployed (herringbone rise). When descending, the leg is placed with the whole foot, the legs are slightly bent. When climbing and descending, you should try to use each firmly lying stone, pothole, bump as a step, placing your foot horizontally on them.

When traversing the slope (moving across it), the foot of the inner leg to the slope is placed with the whole foot across the slope and slightly up along it, the foot of the outer leg is placed with the entire sole, turning the toe down the slope the stronger, the steeper the slope. When changing the direction of traversing (“serpentine”), you need to take a step forward with the outside leg, placing it a little up the slope, then turn the inside leg at an angle to the first one a little up the slope so that the feet are in the “herringbone” position, as when lifting. Then you need to put your feet, as when crossing the slope, and move in the opposite direction.

Climb up the slope in a group you need to follow in the next, with an interval of about 1.5 m. On slopes with a steepness of 25 - 30 °, they rise and descend in short zigzags, "serpentine", located as close as possible to each other. At the same time, the leader must ensure that those walking in front do not end up on the next segment of the “serpentine” above those walking behind (when descending, vice versa) in order to avoid dropping stones by the top ones (Fig. 40). The guide must choose the path along potholes, animal paths, located one above the other.

When driving, self-insurance with an alpenstock or ice ax is necessary. With the hand closest to the slope, the shaft of the alpenstock is covered from above 20 - 25 cm from the bayonet, with the other hand - at the upper end, covering the shaft with the palm up. The bayonet of the alpenstock is directed towards the slope above the points of support with the feet (Fig. 41). If a tourist slips or stumbles, then he should, having slightly grouped, rest his bayonet against the slope, creating an additional, third point of support for himself. When falling, it is necessary to quickly, without releasing the alpenstock from the hands, lower the hands lower along the shaft (but do not bring them together) and firmly rest the bayonet on the ground in order to delay sliding down (Fig. 42). If there was a fall on your side, back, you should try to roll over on your stomach, while spreading your legs, preventing rotation of the body and additionally braking with the toes of your boots.

On steep slopes, the rule of two points of support must be observed. The Alpenstock is transferred at the moment when both feet are on the support. The leg is transferred when there is support on the other leg, and the bayonet of the alpenstock rests on the slope.

Constant observance of the rule of two points of support must be observed on steep slopes, on slippery ground and grass. At the same time, when changing the direction of movement on the "serpentine", the position of the hands also changes. You should not tilt the body towards the slope when moving, this only reduces stability.

Movement along screes is associated with the danger of rockfall, falling while relying on unstable stones. It is easier and safer to move along the scree of compacted small or, even better, large stones (old scree). Signs of such scree are the darker surface of the stones, close in color to the surrounding rocks, and lichens growing on such stones. The foot on the stone should be placed closer to the slope, so as not to disturb its stability. Reliance on the alpenstock is not allowed here.

On unstable stones of medium size "live" scree should be walked very carefully so as not to cause a rockfall. Near the rocks, the stones usually lie stronger, but the probability of rockfall from the rocks increases. When moving in a "serpentine" it is necessary to strictly monitor that one participant does not appear above the other. The passage of each section of the zigzag should be done by the whole group, only after that you can change direction. If it is impossible to pass the scree obliquely or “serpentine”, the group rises (or descends) straight up. In this case, the group must move in a tight formation, without breaks. With such a construction, even if someone hooks a stone and it flies down, it will not have time to gain high speed and knock down the participant.

Movement on snowfields. Slopes covered with snow are not uncommon for mountains. Some of the passes used by hikers on the route may be covered in snow; often tourists have to cross the snow fields of glaciers.

Snowy slopes are fraught with the danger of avalanches. Therefore, when preparing to overcome the snowy slope, the team leader must objectively assess the state of the snow cover in order to develop tactics for passing this section. The possibility of avalanches in hazardous areas increases with heat

sun blowing snow. Therefore, it is preferable to pass such sites early in the morning.

At the same time, if there is no danger of avalanches on the site, then it is better to walk along it when it is slightly warmed up by the sun. At the same time, the snow becomes softer, it is easier to cut steps in it. The leader of the group taking the children out into the snow must have sufficient experience in climbing snowy slopes.

On a snowy slope, the use of an alpenstock or an ice ax is mandatory. On hard snow and firn (protrusions of ice) it is necessary to have boots with a special sole - trikoni and crampons. The rules for using an alpenstock (ice ax) are the same as on a grassy slope. Just keep in mind that sliding on snow is much faster than on grass. Therefore, in case of a fall, it is necessary to act quickly, without panic.

The choice of the path of movement depends on the state of the snow cover, the presence of an avalanche danger, the angle of the slope, etc. On a gentle slope, they climb straight up the “herringbone”, cutting down the steps with the inner welt of the boot. On a steeper slope, not threatening with an avalanche, you can climb in a zigzag manner, knocking out steps one parallel to the other. In this case, you must use an alpenstock or keep it at the ready (Fig. 43).

When climbing head-on on steep sections of small snowy slopes, the steps are knocked out with the toes of the boots, leaning on the alpenstock, sticking it in front of them. You can transfer the alpenstock to a new point of support only by firmly standing with both feet on the steps.

On a gentle slope, you need to go down with your back to him, taking small steps and crushing the snow with your heels. In dense snow, steps are knocked out with heels. At the same time, the alpenstock is held on the side, with a bayonet back. On a steep descent, they move facing the slope, knocking out steps with their toes, sticking an alpenstock in front of them, as on an ascent (Fig. 44).

On gentle, non-avalanche slopes, you can go down in sliding steps, holding the alpenstock at the ready. You can glide on several legs apart, as on skis, leaning on the back of the alpenstock ("gliding"). In this case, it is necessary to choose non-hazardous areas, without cracks and stones sticking out of the snow.

The next group of obstacles are water (streams and rivers), which are found both on the plain and in the mountains. By their nature, lowland and mountain rivers differ greatly. The flow rate of lowland rivers is low. The banks are often swampy, the depth and width of the rivers are significant. Mountain rivers have a much higher flow rate, but less depth. They are already flat, the shores are rocky.

Rivers are dangerous obstacles to overcome on your own. If possible, it is better to look for a bridge, luggage, ferry. It is advisable to ford the river, to direct the crossing only in case of emergency or for educational purposes. At the same time, you should once again remember the instructions - all participants in the trips must be able to swim.

However, young tourists should know the ways of crossing. In addition, crossings as spectacular technical stages are included in the programs of tourism competitions. There are many ways to cross. The choice depends on the nature of the river and the level of training of the hikers. The head of the group determines the most convenient place for organizing the crossing, conducts reconnaissance and then decides how the crossing will be carried out.

Crossing is the most common way. For the crossing, a section of the river with the smallest depth and speed of flow is selected. The depth should not exceed 1.2 m, the speed of the current should not exceed 3 m/s. On mountain rivers, sections are selected where the main channel of the river is divided into several narrower and shallow branches. If stones protrude from the water, it is necessary to mark the path below these stones relative to the course of the river. Although the water foams there, it seems to be faster, but due to the turbulent currents that have arisen, the pressure on the legs is less and it is easier to walk (Fig. 45).

You should not try to get to the other side by jumping from stone to stone. It is very easy to slip on a wet stone and fall into the water. Stones can only be used if it is possible to step from one stone to another without jumping, while leaning on a pole. The pole is placed above the line of motion relative to the flow of the river.

When crossing a ford one at a time, you must use an alpenstock for self-insurance, placing it above yourself along the river and leaning on it (see Fig. 46). If this is difficult, you can move in groups of several people, in a line. In this case, the strongest participant is placed upstream. It will have the main pressure of water (Fig. 47).

Under no circumstances should you cross rivers barefoot. There is a high probability of stepping on something sharp (driftwood, ribs of stones) and losing balance.

A variant with guidance of a rope railing is possible. In this case, the first person crossing is insured with two ropes: the main and auxiliary (Fig. 48). The belayer of the main rope is located upstream of the river. In the event of a fall crossing the river, the insurer downstream with an auxiliary rope pulls him to the shore. After the crossing, the first participant fixes the rope on the shore, and everyone crosses to the other side, fastening with a carabiner to the railing (Fig. 49). For reliability, it is possible to organize escort of participants with an auxiliary rope "shuttle" in case of a fall and the impossibility of independent movement.

If the water barrier is not too wide, you can try to put a log across it or knock down a tree growing on the bank across the river. After that, the first participant, as in the ford crossing, on the insurance goes (crawls) to the other side and fixes the railing there (Fig. 50).

The most difficult are the methods of organizing the crossing, which are used mainly in tourist competitions - a rope crossing with a railing and a hinged crossing (Fig. 51). Establishing such crossings is a laborious process and feasible only for well-prepared groups.

When organizing insurance and in everyday life, tourists use special knots. The safety of the hikers depends on their correct use, therefore knitting knots is a necessary element of working with ropes. Of the large number of nodes proposed for use by the domestic methodological literature on mountain tourism and mountaineering, very few can be recommended, the use of which is sufficient to ensure safety.

1. Knots for tying the ends of the ropes: “straight”, “oncoming”, “bramshkotovy”, “weaving” (Fig. 52).

The knots used to attach the rope to the support: “noose”, “one and a half knot of the conductor” (“eight”), “bayonet”, “conductor”, “stirrup”, “booline”, “carbine noose” (Fig. 53).

3. "Grasping" nodes: "grasping", "Austrian grasping", "Bachmann's knot" (Fig. 54).

All rope connections must end with control knots, with the exception of the “oncoming” and “one and a half knots of the handler”.

In addition, the "bayonet" knot must have at least three full hoses, the "carbine choke" - at least five full turns, evenly distributed around the support. These knots must end with the exit of the end of the rope at least 5 cm long.

The knot should not have twisted strands.

The order of movement and ways to overcome obstacles

The successful conduct of the trip is largely determined by the ability of tourists to correctly allocate their time and effort, choose the most rational pace and order of movement for the group, master the methods of movement over various terrain and methods of overcoming obstacles. The safe passage of the route and, ultimately, the success of the entire journey depends on a clear and successful solution of these problems. Below are tips on organizing the regime and order of movement during a trip, recommendations are given on the main ways to overcome obstacles in various types of tourism.

HIKING

Mode and schedule of the day

Movement pace

Group movement order

Line of motion

Overcoming steep slopes

Forest thickets, rubble

Waterlogged participation

Crossing over luggage

Rice. Crossing over luggage.
It is most difficult to stay on a log if it swings in a horizontal plane. With a few springy squats, these vibrations can usually be canceled out or transferred to a vertical plane, which causes less inconvenience to tourists. Sometimes a rope railing is pulled next to the luggage at shoulder height or a pole is held.

Fording

Crossing wade without a rope.
Fording on rivers with a relatively calm course can be different: alone with a pole, which rests against the current; together, standing facing each other and placing outstretched arms on the shoulders of a comrade; in a group of 3-4 people (“Tajik way”), standing in a wall so that the strongest and tallest tourists are from the edges, or in a circle, hugging each other by the shoulders. In any case, the place of the crossing is chosen after preliminary reconnaissance on the widest possible, and, consequently, shallower section of the river. If large stones stick out of the water, you need to go a little downstream of them, where the shock force of the stream is weakened. It is necessary to cross a river with a rocky bottom or a bottom whose nature is unknown, with shod feet, taking off those clothes that can increase the pressure of the water. Each step should be done carefully, feeling the bottom with your foot.
Crossing with ropes.
It is carried out on more turbulent rivers. The most physically strong and experienced tourist crosses the water stream first. His task is to transfer to the opposite bank the end of the main rope, which is attached to it with a bowline knot.

So that the tourist can swim freely if the current knocks him down, the bowline is tied not on the chest, but on the back. In addition, an auxiliary rope is fastened to the tourist with a carabiner, the other end of which is held by two belayers, standing on the shore downstream. The issuance of the ropes after the crossing should be done carefully so as not to interfere with his movement and so that the ropes do not rinse in the water. The transferred end is securely fastened on the shore to a tree, rocks, the base of a strong bush or to artificial supports made of stakes, stone tours, etc. Then, with the help of an auxiliary rope with grasping knots, the main rope is pulled tightly over the surface of the water. Attached to such railings with the help of a chest harness and a carabiner (the distance from the chest to the main rope should be shorter than the length of the arms), tourists alternately cross the river. You have to move sideways, sorting through the rope with your hands, facing towards the current. Body for better resistance to water pressure. Crossing wade with insurance. should be pushed back. In the event of a breakdown, the tourist is pulled ashore with the help of auxiliary ropes (forward or backward.). Since such a crossing usually takes a long time, it is recommended to light a fire on the shore to warm and dry things.

Swimming

Swimming is possible on a calm river and for those who know how to stay on the water well. A convenient place for it is deep sections with a gentle slope of the channel. Expecting in advance to drift down the river, tourists swim at an angle to the current. You should not try to cross the obstacle along the shortest straight line.
It is recommended to put things on a light raft and push it through the water in front of you. In some cases, the first tourist swims with a rope guard. Then it is used to drag the raft and help other members of the group, who can belay by holding onto any non-sinking object on the water - a log, a board, a bundle of brushwood or a backpack securely packed in waterproof material and tightly tied.

ski trip

Features of the mode, pace, order of movement

Line of motion

Climbing, descending, braking, turning

Overcoming obstacles

ORDER AND PACE OF MOVEMENT OF THE GROUP:
Upon arrival at the place where the movement along the route begins, the leader, according to the list (in the route sheet), checks the composition of the participants in the trip, inquires about the well-being of everyone, examines the equipment. He talks about the peculiarities of the route, about possible obstacles on the way, recalls the need to comply with the rules of safety and nature protection, discipline, and the established order of movement. At the same time, a leader and a trailer are appointed (weakly trained tourists, beginners are advised to go ahead, the strongest closes the group), they agree on signals while driving.
Participation in a group of novice tourists who have not yet been tested on hikes requires the leader to pay special attention to the pace of movement (if necessary, it can be reduced or increased), ensuring proper rest (sometimes reducing the transition time between halts). It is more convenient to walk along forest paths, country roads in single file, observing a certain distance and discipline. Unauthorized, not in time with the group movement of any of the participants can disrupt the schedule of the route, lead to loss of orientation by an undisciplined tourist and, possibly, to injury.
The choice of the pace of movement depends on the composition of the group, the distance and nature of the route, as well as on the time of year and meteorological conditions. On a weekend hike, the speed of the entire group is commensurate with
speed of movement of inexperienced tourists. Obstacles are usually overcome first by the leader who has previously studied them. In steel time, he tells the guide how to go, in
what tempo and rhythm.
About a quarter of an hour after the start of the hike, it is recommended to make a short stop to adjust the equipment, discuss the order of movement and its pace. In the future, it is best to alternate 45-50-minute transitions with 10-15-minute halts. On rough terrain, you should walk with your knees slightly bent, not to
end straightening the leg at the moment of push. On the rises, the leg should be placed on the entire foot, slightly turning the socks to the side, slightly tilting the torso forward. During the descents, the leg is first placed on the heel, without bending, and the torso is slightly thrown back. Hands in the first and second cases are kept bent at the elbows.
OVERCOMING OBSTACLES:
I) Climbing slopes (ascents, traverses, descents)
1) Grassy slopes
To successfully move on grassy slopes, you need to have appropriate shoes (with protected ankle joints, grooved, non-slippery soles) and master some tricks.
Climbing a grassy slope, the foot is placed on the entire foot to increase the grip of the boot with the grass. With an increase in the steepness of the toes of the legs, when lifting, they turn outward (lifting
"herringbone"). When descending, the foot is placed straight with the entire sole, the legs slightly bent at the knees spring.
With steep ascents and descents, each firmly lying stone, pothole or bump is used as a step. When moving across the slope or traversing it, the legs are placed with the entire sole across the slope so that the inside foot in relation to the slope is turned slightly up or perpendicular to the slope, and the outside foot is slightly down. Traverse - movement along the slope without dropping and climbing.
On the slopes of 25-30 degrees long rise and fall in short zigzags, as close to each other as possible. It is necessary to ensure that the upper participants are not above the lower ones. In this position, a rockfall or a fall from above the participant may be the last to threaten. On steep grassy slopes it is recommended to use
Slope traverse to support the alpenstock, ice ax, while the ice ax or alpenstock should rest against the slope above the legs.
When descending straight down, the steps should be placed parallel or, slightly turning the socks to the sides, on the entire foot. If the slope is not very steep, they descend with their backs to it, slightly bending their knees, with quick short steps. The step should be springy. On a steep slope recommended
go down sideways.
On a wet grassy slope, the grooved outsole gets clogged with mud and can be easily slipped, so special attention is required. Dirt is removed by blowing the alpenstock on the welt of the boot.
2) Scree slopes
Movement on scree slopes is associated with the danger of rockfalls. It is easier and safer to move along the talus of compacted or large stones. Signs of compacted stones - a darker surface. The foot should be placed on a stone closer to the slope. Moving in zigzags, in a tight group, make sure not to be above or below your comrades. To do this, having passed the zigzag section, you should wait for the passage of the comrades going below
or higher, in a place safe from rockfall. If the slope is steep, then the movement up or down is straight ahead.
water fall lines. It is necessary to move as close as possible to each other so that every stone that is moved can be detained; until it hit dangerous speeds. If the stone could not be stopped or someone saw a stone flying from above, it is necessary to warn the participants of the ascent by saying loudly “stone!”. You can avoid danger by stepping aside or by pressing against a vertical rock (large stone). From small stones in the open
place you can protect yourself with a backpack.
A) small scree
A scree of small stones that slide at each step crosses carefully, stepping on it and trying to see if it slides down or by gradually pressing the foot deep into the chip until the scree stops sliding, after which the main weight of the body is transferred to it. It is very difficult to climb such a scree, as it constantly slides. At the same time, it is easier to descend along such a scree. When descending, put the feet in parallel with the emphasis on the heel.
B) Large scree
Movement along large scree is carried out by stepping from one stone to another, changing the pace in order to maximize the use of the inertia of the body with a backpack and avoiding jumps. When descending and ascending, you need to put your feet on the edges of the stones, closer to the slope. Stones and slabs with a significant slope should not be used, as well as stepping on sharp edges of stones. If a loosely lying stone comes across, it is necessary to warn the person walking behind not to step on and hold on to them, with the words: “Living stone!”
B) Medium scree
On unstable stones of medium size (“live” scree), one must walk carefully, avoid sudden movements so as not to cause a rockfall. When driving on scree, it is necessary to protect the body from abrasions and cuts with clothing, even if it is warm or hot.
II) River crossings
Ways to overcome can be divided into two groups: water crossings (swim or wade) and crossings with the help of technical means (railings or boats). As part of the school of initial tourist training, we will consider the first group.
Water obstacles in simple hiking trips, as a rule
overcome on ready-made bridges and treasures. If they do not have railings and are unstable, then an experienced tourist passes first. He tries the crossing and organizes belaying others with a pole or hand. To better maintain balance, everyone should have a pole.
For fording, sections of the river are selected where the river is widely overflowing, flows in several channels, or the speed of the water flow is reduced. If large stones stick out of the water, you need to go downstream, where the shock force of the flow is weakened. It is not recommended to take off your shoes, as you can get hurt on the bottom or rolling stones. Products and wet things are shifted to the top of the backpack.
The fording can be done alone with a pole, stick or ice axe. The pole is held with two hands, rests against the bottom against the current. Do not take your feet off the bottom, move with side steps. If the depth of the rivers is higher
knees, it is already dangerous to cross alone. Organize group tours.
Crossing the "wall"
The movement of the "wall" is parallel to the flow of the river. The first to the stream is a strong participant, he takes the main load. Behind him, all the rest line up with their hands on each other's shoulders or holding on to the straps of a neighbor's backpack (no more than 6 people). They move in small incremental steps. The first one out is the one that went downstream.
Crossing around.
Crossing, holding tightly to the shoulders, form a circle and move by rotation clockwise or counterclockwise. Crossing "column". The group lines up on the bank along the river in a column. The strongest participant lined up in front with a pole in his hands. The weaker members of the group stand in the middle. Tourists with both hands
hold on to each other. The first participant enters the water facing the current, the rest line up behind him. The column moves with side steps. On the opposite bank, the last participant comes out of the water first.
Log crossing.
When crossing a log, you can use a pole for insurance, which is placed upstream or an experienced tourist enters the water and helps everyone else to cross. Swimming is possible on a calm river and for those who know how to swim well. A convenient place for it is deep areas with a gentle fall of the channel. Expecting in advance to drift down the river, tourists swim at an angle to the current. You should not try to cross the obstacle along the shortest straight line. It is recommended to put things on a light raft and push it through the water in front of you.

III) Overcoming blockages and thickets
They move through the forest thickets in a compact group with an interval that ensures safety. Everyone should carefully follow the one in front and repeat his successful movements. Hold the branches so that they do not hit the one walking behind. To keep distance. Fallen trees do not jump over, do not step on them, but carefully
step over. This is necessary to avoid injury, as the wood may be slippery (dampness, moss, fungi) or rotten. To protect against knots and branches, use clothes with long
sleeves. When overcoming blockages, do not attach (do not hang) things to the backpack so that they do not cling to branches and do not impede movement.
IV) Wetland crossing
Swamps. Difficult areas with swamps, lakes, streams are also found in dense forests. Such an area is called wooded-marshy. Lakes, rivers and streams in such an area usually have swampy banks and a marshy bottom, which makes these areas difficult to pass.
The passability of swamps is usually determined by external signs. So, moss bogs have areas with a continuous cover and a thick layer of decomposed dead moss or tow. The outskirts of moss swamps are more swampy than the middle. The obstruction of the swamp can be determined by the growth of reeds and cotton grass. Swamp areas overgrown with dense shrubs, willow, spruce, alder, usually fireboxes. Aspen and birch growths indicate the weakness of the surface soil of the swamp. Wetlands whose surface is covered with floating vegetation are considered impassable. Such swamps are often called quicksands. Free water under the vegetation cover is determined by breaking through this cover with a pointed pole. Areas of swamps overgrown with pine forests are almost everywhere passable. In places where ant and mole tussocks are observed, there is less moisture, which indicates the passability of the site. Dense grass interspersed with sedge is a sign of the passability of the swamp in the dry season. Treeless swamps with sparse shrubs, on which brown white moss grows, are usually fireboxes and impassable. Main features
the patency of the swamp is as follows.
The swamp can be passed if it is covered with thick grasses, mixed with sedge; pine growth is visible in the swamp; the swamp is covered with a continuous growth of moss.
A swamp is difficult to pass if there are puddles of stagnant water among the moss; cotton grass grows in the swamp - grass, on which, after flowering, heads of fluff remain; swamp overgrown with dense shrubs, willow, alder,
birch, spruce. The swamp is almost impossible to pass if it is covered with reeds; grass cover floats in the swamp.
At the same time, swampy forests and meadow swamps are less dangerous than swamps formed as a result of overgrowth of stagnant water bodies.
When moving through the swamp, the first participant probes the path at almost every step with the pole. As a rule, this pioneer is also tied with a rope up to 30 m long. Shrubs, tussocks, rhizomes are landmarks for a more or less safe choice of path. The planned path of 10-15 m is passed with quick small steps along the moss strip or by jumping through the bushes, from hummock to hummock. The interval between participants is 5-7 m. If a tourist with a pole has failed, he puts the pole across and leaning on it tries to get out on his own or with the help of a rope. However, it should be remembered that bypassing swamps takes less time and effort than moving through them. If you can find a path, then follow it. If there is no path, then move from bump to bump. Also, you can tie pieces of plywood on your shoes (prepare in advance, knowing the route of the PVD). Alternative option: tie up branches, knots, bark and everything that is suitable for increasing the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe feet.
Features of overcoming obstacles in winter.
In winter conditions, overcoming some natural obstacles is noticeably easier - rivers, lakes, swamps freeze, but it is harder to travel in winter. This is primarily due to the effect of low temperatures on the human body.
In winter PVD, a person is exposed to continuous and rather long exposure to cold. Successful overcoming of difficulties in winter depends primarily on a person's resistance to cold, which is determined not so much by general physical health as by the skills, habits and preparedness of the nervous system. Naturally, in many respects resistance to frost depends on the presence of good clothes. It is also necessary to have a change of clothes so as not to overheat during hiking or skiing and not to freeze during stops.
V) Movement in a ski trip
In a ski trip, a group, no matter what terrain it goes, follows in a column one at a time with an interval of 5-6 m on the plain and 10-15 m on the slopes.
Before descending, it is necessary to carefully examine the slope and choose the safest and gentlest direction. To speed up the movement of a large group in difficult places (on descents, ascents, when crossing streams,
ditches), it is necessary to overcome them at once in several places. The most experienced tourist builds a ski track, he is replaced by other experienced travelers. The frequency of replacement of guides is determined by local
conditions and forces of the skiers themselves. The leader tries to make the track run along convenient routes for movement.
places, was as straight as possible, did not have sharp turns. When descending, do not approach trees, rocks or other obstacles. In the forest, on level ground, you need to choose fairly comfortable wide passages between the trees and break off dry branches that can damage the eyes of those walking behind.
When moving through lakes, streams, one must go down onto the ice very carefully, because. its edge near the shore may not withstand and break through. Dangerous on lakes are those places where rivers flow (or flow out),
brooks, open spaces of lakes, swamps, one should try to cross with maximum speed with a minimum of stops. It is worth noting that a sufficiently experienced participant is also appointed to close the ski tourist group, who has at his disposal a repair tool and a first-aid kit for timely assistance (at the same time, he stops the entire group).
VI) Movement on snowfields
When driving on snow, you need to follow the basic rules:
. On a soft snowy slope, you should gradually press the support for the step, avoiding a strong kick on the snow with your foot. This helps to save steps that can collapse from a sharp blow and saves strength.
. If the crust is fragile and cannot withstand the weight of a person, do not try to stay on its surface. It is better to break the crust with a sharp blow, and then compact the step under it with the pressure of the sole.
. Sometimes you can hold on to a steep crusty slope by leaning with your sole on the edge of a step broken into the crust, and with your lower leg on the crust, thus distributing your body weight on a large surface of snow.
. It is necessary to observe the principle of the vertical position of the body, especially if the steps are not reliable.
. The step length of the leader should not exceed the step length of the shortest (usually a woman) member of the group.
. All members of the group must follow the trail without knocking down the steps and taking care of their safety and, if necessary, correct the damage.
. The one who goes first does the hard work, so he must be replaced periodically. This is also dictated by considerations of general security, since a tired person is more likely to make a mistake in choosing a path.
In loose snow, they try to walk, almost without bending their knees, absorbing each step due to the slipping snow. In harder snow on the descent, the tracks are pierced by a heel strike. At the same time, to maintain balance, you need to rely on an ice ax. On even snowy slopes without stones and ice outcrops, it is possible to descend by sliding on the soles of boots, leaning with an ice ax (alpenstock, ski stick) on the slope - the so-called gliding. The position during gliding resembles a skier’s stance during the descent: the legs are bent at the knees, one half a foot in front, part of the weight is transferred to the ice ax in the hands and scratching with a bayonet along the slope behind the side of the climber. The planer must not lose control of speed and direction. You can’t decide to slide on unfamiliar slopes if you can’t see the end of the descent