Italian colonies on the coast of the Azov and Black Seas. Development of a lesson on the topic: “Italian colonies on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus I. Organizational moment

Italian colonies on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus.

Target: 1. to form students' knowledge about the emergence of Italian colonies on the Black Sea coast.

2. To instill a love for history and cultural monuments of world significance.

3. Form a spiritually developed personality with a stable national identity.

Equipment: map of the medieval Kuban 10-13 centuries, atlas, textbook, contour maps.

During the classes.

Organizing time

Knowledge update

Learning new material.

Almost simultaneously with the establishment of Mongol-Tatar dominion over the tribes and peoples of the Black Sea region, the peaceful penetration of Italian merchants into these territories began. The Italians sought to expand their trading activities, markets for products and extract the maximum profit from this. Colonization was accompanied by rivalry between two major cities - Venice and Genoa.

The desire of both maritime republics to establish a trade monopoly in the Black Sea region results in a sharp competitive struggle and direct armed clashes between them. By the middle of the XIV century, the predominance of Genoa becomes clear. The colonial policy of Venice was almost entirely determined by the state, and its trade was largely based on operations with expensive oriental goods, the supply of which was completely dependent on the vicissitudes of the political situation in the region, the state of trade routes along their entire length, including not only the sea route, but and caravan routes. In contrast, Genoa relied more on the activities of individuals, on merchant companies and associations.

At the same time, Genoa had at least a dozen and a half scattered trading posts in the Black Sea region, through which not only eastern goods passed, but also the flow of local products intended for regional trade. For a number of reasons, the Kaffa colony took the leading place among them. When it was created, the Genoese merchants could not but take into account the experience of the neighboring Soldaya (Sudak) - a trading center widely known in Western Europe, Rus' and Asia. At the end of the 13th century, its new rise was facilitated, in particular, by the fact that it was much closer than Kherson to the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and the Kerch Strait, through which ships passed. The largest colony was Kaffa, which was a developed center of crafts.

In 1266, the representatives of Genoa agreed with the rulers of the Golden Horde on the transfer of Kafa to them, however, on the basis of an agreement on the division of trade income, clashes arose that ended in predatory raids by the Tatars.

From the Genoese period in the Crimea, the remains of fortress walls, towers and palaces in Kaffa and Chembalo, a fortress and a consular castle in Soldaya built under the guidance of Italian architects have been preserved. In 1951, in Feodosia, on the territory of the Genoese fortress, archaeological excavations were carried out, which provided valuable material for studying the history of the city, its crafts and trade.

Working with text (administration of the Genoese colonies pp. 84-85)

Anchoring

How the Genoese managed to win the trade rivalry with Venice.

With what goals did the Genoese attract the local nobility to the management of the colonies and become related to it.

Show on the map the approximate location of the main Genoese settlements on the shores of the Black and Azov Seas (work in the contour map).

Homework.

Back forward

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Lesson type: Learning new material.

Technology problem-based learning, collaboration.

Methods: verbal, visual, interactive, personifying.

The purpose of the lesson: to form the moral and patriotic consciousness of students.

Lesson objectives: achieving the following results:

personal- to develop the ability to evaluate historical events from the standpoint of humanistic moral values, to form an idea of people's lives in the Middle Ages.
subject- develop the ability to extract and critically evaluate information, systematize historical information, develop the creative potential of students.
metasubject- to cultivate a sense of patriotism and pride in their country and people.

Equipment: Microsoft PowerPoint presentation”, interactive whiteboard, photos of Venice, Genoa, Italian merchants.

Preliminary preparation: the children learned poems about their homeland, drew pictures corresponding to the theme.

Organizational structure of the lesson

I. Organizational moment

Greetings.

Guys, let's go with you, define the topic and purpose of our lesson.

II. Presentation of the topic and objectives of the lesson.

That's right guys.

Today we will talk about the Italian colonies of the Black Sea

Let's get acquainted with the life of medieval colonists.

III. Knowledge update.

Guys, remember from the course of general history the chronological framework of the Middle Ages.

That's right guys.

Teacher/slide 2/

The chronological framework of the Middle Ages is different for different continents and even individual countries. On the territory of the North Caucasus, the beginning of the Middle Ages is associated with the era of the Great Migration of Peoples and, above all, with the aggressive campaigns of the Huns.

But today we will consider the XIII-XV centuries.

What happened at that time on the shores of the Black Sea.

Students (students justify their answers)

Teacher/slide 3/

Here is the name of the colonies that were located on the coast of the Caucasus.

Uch-Xia read

Monlaco, Kopa, Matrega, Mapa, Kafa, Sebastopolis, Bata.

Teacher

How many of you have heard or read about these territories?

See what interesting names of settlements. What do you know about these settlements?

Teacher

Guys, we live with you in the Krasnodar Territory, we have a rest on the shores of the Black Sea, and we should know the history of our region. And today at the lesson we explore and learn a lot of new things about our region.

But in order to continue our lesson, you need to remember such terms as colony and colonization.

Students answer.

The colony is a settlement founded outside the state
Colonization– development and settlement of new territories inside or outside their country

Teacher. /slide 4/

Let's check if you answered correctly

Well done! All right! Let's take a look at the picture before you.

Students look at and comment on the drawing.

Teacher/slide 5/

Italian merchants in the Middle Ages penetrated the Black Sea region. Colonization was accompanied by rivalry between two major cities - Venice and Genoa.

Map work./slide 6/

Guys, look at the map. What peninsula are Venice and Genoa on?

What is the name of the country?

Look closely, what thing does the peninsula look like?

Right. Well done (the peninsula is Apennine, the country is Italy, the thing that the peninsula looks like is a boot)

Teacher/slide 7-8/

Trade rivalry between Venice and Genoa lasted until the second half of the 13th century. Well, the Genoese managed to change the situation. In 1260, they helped to restore the Byzantine Empire and Emperor Michael Palaiologos concluded an agreement with the authorities of Genoa, according to which merchants from Genoa received the right to sail and trade in the Black and Azov Seas. Freed from certain taxes, the Genoese increased their income. The process of colonization of the Black Sea and Azov regions was accompanied by a sharp competitive struggle both between Genoa and Venice, as well as between trading posts founded by them. In the 60s of the XIII century, Genoa settled in Kaffa, which became the largest port and trade center in the Black Sea region. The Venetians set up trading posts in Soldaya (now the city of Sudak in the Crimea). In total, in the Crimea, the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and the Caucasus, there were about 40 Italian trading posts-colonies.

Who ruled these colonies, and who lived in these territories?

Students.

The colonies were ruled by consuls - bayolos, elected in the metropolis for 1-2 years. With the consuls in trading posts, merchants-nobiles (citizens of the metropolis) and citizens of the trading post and elected city councils ruled. The citizens of the factories were mostly Italians.

The composition of the population was extremely diverse: Greeks, Armenians, Russians, Jews, Tatars. They had certain legal rights, were free to practice religion, performed military and civil service, and participated in joint trading companies. Periodically, the colonies were ruined by the Tatars.

The most important Genoese colonies in the Caucasus were Matrega, Kopa, Mapa and others.

Teacher

Why did the Genoese end up on the shores of the Black and Azov Seas?

Brainstorm/Slide 9/

Guys, before you are the goods that the Genoese exported and imported to the Black Sea coast.

Name the goods you brought.

List the goods that were exported from the Black Sea colonies.

And whether all the goods that are in front of you could be purchased in the markets of the medieval Caucasus.

Uch-Xia answer.

Products that imported -

From Germany and Italy - cloth.
From Greece - oil and wine
From Asian countries - spices, musk, precious stones.
From Africa - ivory

exported - grain, salt, leather, furs, wax, honey, timber, fish, caviar, slaves

All goods were delivered only by sea?

Teacher/slide 10/

That's right guys. Goods were delivered not only by sea but also by land. And this way was from China to the Crimea and from the Crimea to China.

Teacher/slide 11/

There is a picture in front of you. Look at it and say what goods the merchants brought for sale.

Among the trading operations of the Genoese, the slave trade occupied a special place. Prisoners of war, victims of sea robbery, the poor who failed to pay off their debts on time became slaves. The slave trade was a very profitable occupation and brought income to everyone who came into contact with it.

Work on the text of the source / slide 12 /

And now the guys will go on a trip / slide 13 /

In front of you is a map - this is our guide that will help you uncover the secrets of the names of the settlements.

Look closely at the map.

Tell me in which settlement all trade routes connect.

What state did Feodosia previously belong to?

Right. And now as part of which state.

Right. Well done!

Fizkultminutka.

Student/slide 13/

Kafa (Feodosia). In 1266, the representatives of Genoa, having agreed with the Golden Horde, received Kafa (modern Feodosia in the Crimea) in possession. It became the center of the Black Sea colonies. The Golden Horde made predatory raids on Kafa and other settlements. From Kafa, other trading settlements were administered through appointed officials - consuls. Consuls were only in the most important trading centers. (Kopa, Tana, Sebastopolis). The consul received no salary and lived on part of the proceeds from the collection of fees and fines. The Genoese involved the Circassian nobility in managing the colonies. To strengthen their position, the colonialists used marriages with representatives.

Student/slide 14/

Matrega (Taman) The largest Genoese colony in the Northwestern Caucasus. It was located on the Taman Peninsula (on the site of the former Tmutarakan). It was an important port in which there was an overload from large ships that were not capable of sailing on the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and rivers. Matrega was a fortified city inhabited by representatives of various tribes and peoples. The Bosphorus Strait and the Dardanelles Strait connect the Sea of Marmara and the Aegean. Buying wax, fish, furs and other goods from the highlanders, Italian merchants brought Eastern and Western goods to the Caucasus. A Catholic diocese was created in Matrega, which led the process of the transition of the local population, but it did not achieve much success.

Student/ slide 15 / Lo-Kopa or Kopario, and today the city is Slavyansk-on-Kuban

The population of this colony was engaged in fishing, salting fish and cooking caviar. Caviar and delicacy fish species were purchased by foreign merchants. It is also known that the Genoese kept fish rows in the capital of the Byzantine Empire. In the XIV century. Kopa has become the largest center of fish trade in the Northern and Eastern Black Sea region. The Consul of Copa had the right to mint coins. The charter of the colonies determined the basic rules of trade. The price of fish was jointly set by the consul, merchants and local nobility.

Work according to the text of the source / slide 16 / “From the charter of the Genoese colonies”

Questions:

1. What ensured the high profits of the Genoese merchants?

2. What was the reason for the high price of salt and how was it possible to maintain it?

Student/slide 17-18/

On the site of ancient Gorgipia (Anapa) on the steep coast of the Black Sea, the Genoese erected their fortress - the Mapu trading post. It was from her that the then famous Genoese road to the upper reaches of the river went. Kuban. The road at that time was well equipped, had transshipment bases and, obviously, was well guarded. The Genoese were vitally interested in the safety of their merchant caravans, which moved through the Caucasian territory. The Adyghe nobility saw great benefits in trade cooperation with the Genoese

Repetition and consolidation of knowledge./slide 19/

Exercise. You have envelopes with the task on the tables. You now have to correlate the name of the colonies with the name of the cities of modern times. For example, Kafa - Feodosia, etc.

Reflection. /slide 20/

What did I learn in the lesson?
What have I learned
What else would I like to know?

Homework.

Write an essay "The adventure of a trading caravan on the way from Genoa to Cafu."

Italian colonies on the coast of the Azov and Black Seas

italian trading post colony

In the XIII-XV centuries. in the Black Sea and Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, Italian trading posts appeared, founded by Genoa, Venice and Pisa. After the crusaders captured Constantinople in 1204, Italian merchants settled in Byzantium, and from Constantinople penetrated into the Crimea and the coast of the Sea of Azov. One of the first trading posts - Porto Pisano (near modern Taganrog) was founded by Pisa in the first half of the 13th century. The process of intensive commercial colonization of the Black Sea region began in the 60s. XIII century, after in 1261 Genoa concluded the Treaty of Nymphaeum with the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, according to which she received the right to sail and duty-free trade on the Black Sea. In 1265, the Venetians also received such a right. The process of colonization of the Black Sea and Azov regions was accompanied by a sharp competitive struggle both between Genoa and Venice, and between the factories founded by them.

The Venetians and Genoese also concluded agreements with the khans of the Golden Horde, according to which part of the territory in the Crimea and on the Azov coast was assigned to them in order to create trading colonies (with recognition of the supreme power of the khan). In the 60s. 13th century Genoa settles in Kaffa (modern Feodosia), which becomes the largest port and trade center in the Black Sea region. The Venetians set up trading posts in Soldaya (Sudak in the Crimea, c. 1287) and Trebizond (in the 80s of the 12th century). In total, in the Crimea, the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and the Caucasus, there were about 40 Italian trading posts-colonies.

These colonies were ruled by consuls-bailo, elected in the metropolis for 1-2 years. Together with the consuls, the factories were governed by elected city councils of noble merchants (citizens of the metropolis) and citizens of the factories. The citizens of the factories were mainly Italians (who constituted a minority of the townspeople), although the composition of the urban population was extremely diverse: Greeks, Armenians, Russians, Jews, Tatars, etc. Non-Italians had certain legal rights, freedom of religion, could carry out military and civil service (except for employment elected positions), participate in joint trading companies. But the Genoese and Venetian colonies, like their mother countries, were constantly at war with each other, although in the same colony (for example, Trebizond or Tana) there could be trading posts of two trading republics. Periodically, the colonies were also ruined by the Tatars, but they were destroyed only by the Turkish conquest. In 1453, after the fall of Constantinople, the trading posts were cut off from the metropolises and were gradually conquered by the Ottomans.

According to the agreement of 1332, concluded by the ambassador A. Zeno and Khan Uzbek, Venice received a piece of land on the left bank of the Don, near the city of Azak. Here the most remote Venetian trading post Tana was founded. It was ruled, like other trading posts, by the Venetian consul. Almost simultaneously with the Venetians in Tana, the Genoese also create their trading post. Factories paid Khan Uzbek a three percent duty on goods passing through them. Living conditions in Tana were not easy, the Genoese and Venetians were often at enmity with each other. In addition, the inhabitants of trading posts experienced a constant threat from the nomads, who were both trading partners and enemies.

The competitive struggle between Venice and Genoa for Tana ended with the victory of Genoa. Under Khan Dzhanibek in 1343, Tana was captured by the Tatars, and the Venetians were expelled for five years (the reason for this expulsion was the murder of a Tatar in Tana). Following the expulsion from Tana, Venice was defeated in the war with Genoa and in 1355 access to Tana was closed to her for another 3 years. In 1381, Venice was again defeated by Genoa, after which it lost access to Tana for another 2 years. Thus, the Genoese began to dominate in Tana. italian trading post colony

Wheat, fish and caviar, furs, wax, spices and sandalwood (in transit from the East), leather, honey were exported from Tana to Italy. Tana imported fabrics, copper and tin. One of the main sources of income was the slave trade. Representing the continuation of Azak, Tana was also surrounded by stone walls and turned into a fortress. Many interesting monuments remained from the Italian Tana. Among them is a tombstone made of white marble on the grave of Giacomo Cornaro, envoy and consul of the Venetian Republic, who died in Tana in 1362.

Like Azak, Tana suffered during Timur's campaign against the Horde in 1395. Around 1400, it was rebuilt again. Tana was attacked several times by the Tatars: in 1410, 1418, 1442. In the last period of Tana's existence, the Genoese and Venetians were forced to show solidarity and mutual assistance in the face of an external threat. However, it was not the external danger that led to the gradual decline of Tana, but the cessation of transit trade with the countries of the East, as a result of Timur's defeat of Khorezm, one of the main partners in the East. By the time the Ottomans captured Tana in 1475, she had already fallen into disrepair.

The Italians also penetrated into the Caucasus. The most important Genoese colonies were Matrenga, Kopa (on the right bank of the Kuban), Mapa (Anapa), Pesche (at the mouth of the Kuban), and others. Venice had only two significant trading posts here - in Tana and Trebizond.

The largest Italian colony in the Caucasus was Matrenga (former Tmutarakan on the Taman Peninsula). Until the beginning of the XV century. Matrenga was under the rule of the Circassian prince. In 1419, after the marriage of the Genoese Gizolfi with the daughter of the Circassian prince Bika-Khanum, Matrenga became the property of the Gizolfi family. The number of Italians - residents of Matrenga - was insignificant; predominantly Greek and Adyghe population. Matrenga was a trading outpost in the North Caucasus. The basis for trade with Genoa was the export of fish and caviar, furs, skins, bread, wax and honey. One of the most important items of export were slaves, who were captured during military raids. Slaves were supplied to the Genoese by Tatars, Circassians, Alans and other peoples of the Caucasus. Often the Genoese themselves organized expeditions for slaves. The Italians imported to the North Caucasus a variety of fabrics, carpets, raw cotton, Venetian glass, soap, saber blades, spices, etc.

From Matrenga and other colonies, the Italians moved further into the mountains of the Northwestern Caucasus. This is evidenced by the ruins of castles, towers and churches in the mountains, stone tomb crosses. From here came the missionary activity of the Catholic Church. After the formation of the Crimean Khanate in 1433, the Genoese colonies were forced to pay tribute to it. The end of Matrenga and other colonies was put in the 70s. 15th century Ottomans captured Kaffa and Tana.

Other cities of the peninsula did not legally belong to the Golden Horde, but their actual dependence on the Mongols, both politically and economically, was very great. On the other hand, the Sarai khans were interested in the activities of the Italian trading colonies, which were an important link in relations between the East and Western Europe7c. Without a description of these settlements, the picture of the urban life of the Crimean peninsula will be clearly incomplete.

Vosporo (Kerch). In the XIII century. this settlement was abandoned and did not play any significant role in the life of the peninsula. Visited it in the 30s of the XIV century. Ibn-Batuta reports very briefly about it, mentioning only the church that existed here 77. Around the same time, the Venetians 78 established themselves in Vosporo, who were later replaced by the Genoese79. The role of this settlement in the economic life of the peninsula was extremely small.

cafe. The modern city of Feodosia. Until the 60s of the XIII century. was a small village. In 1266, the Mongols allowed the Genoese to establish a trading colony here80, which in the 14th century. turned into the administrative center of all the Genoese possessions in the Northern Black Sea region. In the middle of the XIV century. the city is fortified with powerful stone walls and towers, which replaced the wooden ones. Visited here in the 30s of the XIV century. Ibn-Batuta reports that the city was large, emphasizing that there were “up to 200 military and cargo ships, small and large” in the harbor 81. Furs, leather, silk, expensive fabrics, oriental spices, dyes were exported from here to Western Europe82. Slaves constituted a special export article. According to Ibn-Batuta, the main population of the city were Christians83 (Genoese, Greeks, Armenians), but besides them, Muslims also lived here, who had not only mosques, but also their own judge84. The Genoese city existed until 1475, when the Ottomans captured it: by this time there were only 300 Genoese here, and the bulk of the population consisted of Greeks and Armenians. Along with trade, the most diverse types of handicraft production* were widely developed in the Cafe.

Soldaya (Sudak). Before the heyday of Kafa, this city was one of the largest centers of the Black Sea trade. Rubruk, who visited here in 1253, draws it as a busy transit point connecting the regions of Northern Europe and the Mediterranean 87. The competition of Kafa and the defeat of Soldaya by Nogay in 1299 dramatically changed the position of the city, as evidenced by the message of Ibn-Batuta about the destruction of most of it. Taking advantage of this, the Genoese captured the city in 1365 and fortified themselves here, erecting powerful fortifications.

Cembalo (Balaklava). Until the middle of the XIV century. this city, with a very convenient harbor, belonged to the Principality of Theodoro. In the 50s of the XIV century. it was captured by the Genoese, who immediately began building fortifications here. * The inclusion of Cembalo in the sphere of possessions of Kafa extended its control to the entire Crimean southern coast and significantly undermined trade competition from the rulers of Theodoro. The main role assigned to the new fortress was to limit the commercial and political activities of the princes Theodoro in the western part of the peninsula. This is confirmed by the attacks of the Genoese on another port of the Theodorites - Calamita91.

Theodoro. The capital of the small principality of the same name in the western Crimea; its remnants are located on Mount Mangup 92. In order to maintain their power, the rulers of the principality had to maneuver between the Mongols and the Genoese, and the latter, apparently, represented a great danger. Despite this, the city and the principality existed until 1475, when the Ottomans invaded the Crimea.

The described settlements of the southern coastal strip of the Crimean peninsula include only large cities. In addition to them, along the entire length of the coastline there was a significant number of small and medium-sized towns, villages and castles, which in the XIV century. were also in the possession of the Genoese. A.M. Berthier-Delagarde counted 32 such points from Kafa to Chembalo93. All of them constituted a rural district of colonial cities, the population of which was engaged in agriculture. In general, the Crimean peninsula with its Genoese colonial cities played a very special role in the economic life of the Golden Horde during the 13th and 14th centuries. It was here that all land caravan trade routes ended and the sea route to the countries of the Middle East, Egypt and Western Europe began. The largest trade artery of the medieval world led to the Crimea from the Far East, from where numerous luxury items were supplied: expensive dishes, silk and brocade fabrics, metal products and jewelry, precious stones and various spices. Goods flocked here from the northern regions - Rus' and the Urals, - the most valuable of which were furs, Bulgarian skins of special dressing, honey, wax, linen fabrics. Finally, the trade route from Lvov connected the Crimea with the regions of Central Europe.

In addition to numerous goods that came to the Crimea from the deep and very remote regions of Northern Europe, East and Central Asia, India and Iran, there were specific items of constant local trade, the source of which was the surrounding steppes. They were based on grain, horses, fish and slaves. All four categories of exports were in relentless constant demand.

The port cities of the peninsula remained the most important points of transit international trade throughout the 13th-14th centuries. As for the Golden Horde city of Crimea, its role in trade operations somewhat decreased in the 14th century. in connection with the emergence of a more convenient transit center at the mouth of the Don - Azak, where the Italian trading post also settled. Her appearance significantly reduced the path to Kafa, which now passed not through the steppes, but through the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov.

Don basin. The Don basin belonged to the central regions of the state and, according to its natural conditions, was divided into two zones. The northern zone had a forest-steppe character, where, along with open spaces, there were large forests. The southern zone (the lower and partly the middle reaches of the Don) was steppe. In full accordance with the distribution of plant belts, archeological data allow us to speak of a greater distribution of settled settlements in the northern part of the region under consideration. To the south of Perevoloka (the place where the Volga and Don are closest to each other), archaeologists have so far identified only one Golden Horde city - Azak, which, however, can only testify to the insufficient study of this area, since rare settlements are marked here on some medieval maps.

Azak. Remains of the ancient city of the XIII-XIV centuries. located on the territory of the modern city of Azov. The Golden Horde name of the city is well known from written sources and coins minted here. The excavations carried out allow us to speak about the wide development of various handicraft industries in it. In the 30s of the XIV century. the importance of Azak as a major trading center increased in connection with the emergence of the Genoese and Venetian colonies here, which in Italian sources were called Tana 102. According to the agreement with Khan Uzbek, both colonies were two city blocks adjacent to each other. Fortifications around the Venetian Tana were erected only in the 15th century.

With the advent of the Italian colony in Azaka, it was here that all goods delivered by caravans from the East began to arrive. Here they were loaded onto ships and taken to the countries of the Mediterranean. At the same time, the old route through the Black Sea steppes to the city of Crimea, and from there to Kafa, lost its significance, although it continued to function, judging by the message of Ibn-Batuta”*. Thanks to the vigorous activity of the Italians, Azak in the XIV century. becomes the final point of several major trade routes at once. One of them walked from the north along the Don; on it it was possible to get to the capital of the Golden Horde, Saray al-Jedid, as well as to Rus' and the Kama region. The second path led through the steppes to the east, to the city of Khadzhitarkhan, located in the Volga delta, from where the road to Khorezm opened; She has been active since the 15th century. 105, although its value has fallen sharply. From the south, a road from the large North Caucasian city of Madzhar approached Azak; it was on it in the 30s of the XIV century. passed Ibn-Batuta, m. one of the main export centers of the Golden Horde.

The greatest expert on world trade of the XIV century. Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, in his treatise on trade, gives an extensive list of goods that passed through Azak and its Italian colony 107. First of all, Asian spices were exported from here: pepper, ginger, saffron, nutmeg and various oils used in medicine. Then came all kinds of fabrics: silk, brocade, cotton and linen. Barbaro reports that in the XIV century. “only from Venice alone six or seven large galleys were sent to Tana to take away these spices and silk.” From there they brought honey, wax, leather. Individual merchants specialized in trading in such permanent items of demand as dried and salted fish, caviar, various types of grain and cereals (wheat, rye, buckwheat, millet), as well as in the sale of slaves.

Significant stocks of salted fish and caviar, accumulated in Tanya by the time navigation was opened, are reported in Barbaro, m. "". This can serve as reliable evidence in favor of the local origin of the exported grain. There is repeated evidence of the development of the slave trade in the Golden Horde from Eastern and European authors. Slaves were not only prisoners captured by the Mongols in wars, but also the children of the poor strata of the Golden Horde population, who were sold parents in critical situations "2. The sale of livestock, mainly horses, bulls and camels, was also a local specific item of trade. Judging by the words of Barbaro, livestock was sold to the countries of Western Europe, up to Italy, as well as to the Near and Middle East, and herds and herds were distilled by land roads w.

The counter flow of goods entered Azak from the Mediterranean countries. These were various production of cloth and linen, iron, copper, tin, and also wine.

In 1395, Azak, together with the Italian colony, was destroyed by Timur's troops. After that, the Golden Horde city never revived, but the Venetians in the 15th century. again arranged here, a trading colony, securing it with fortress walls, which lasted until the appearance of the Ottomans in the Northern Black Sea region (1475)

Matrega. The city was located on the Taman Peninsula, on the site of modern Taman; founded long before the appearance of the Mongols in Europe. The name of the city is well known from Italian sources 288. Its significance increased markedly after it was founded here at the beginning of the 14th century. Genoese colony, which launched a brisk trade with local tribes. The population of Matrega mainly consisted of Greeks and Circassians. In the XV century. the city completely fell under the control of the Genoese, who hurried to fortify it due to frequent conflicts with the surrounding Circassian population.

Kopa. The city was located at the mouth of the Kuban. Known since the end of the 13th century. as a Genoese colony that specialized in the trade of fish and caviar 289. Sources report an annual spring fair held here, which was attended by numerous fish merchants.

Along the eastern coast of the Azov and Black Seas in the 14th century there were 39 Italian colonies 200. Insufficient archaeological research of this area does not allow to accurately localize most of them, but they are known from medieval maps. The colonies themselves were small settlements, but such a large number of them testifies to the brisk trade carried on by the Italians with the local population. Among the goods exported from here, the sources mention fish of various preparations (dried and salted), caviar, leather, furs, cotton paper, bread, wax, wine, saffron, silver ore, fruits and slaves 291. In turn, the Italians offered the local population cotton, cloth and various expensive types of fabrics, salt, raw cotton, carpets, spices, saber blades 292. In general, the North Caucasus and the Kuban region were one of the important economic regions of the Golden Horde, as evidenced by the scale of its participation in international trade.

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Italian colonies on the coastAzov and Black Seath

italian trading post colony

Other cities of the peninsula did not legally belong to the Golden Horde, but their actual dependence on the Mongols, both politically and economically, was very great. On the other hand, the Saray khans were interested in the activities of the Italian trading colonies, which represented an important link in relations between
East and Western Europe 7th century. Without a description of these settlements, the picture of the urban life of the Crimean peninsula will be clearly incomplete.

Don basin. The Don basin belonged to the central regions of the state and, according to its natural conditions, was divided into two zones. The northern zone had a forest-steppe character, where, along with open spaces, there were large forests. The southern zone (the lower and partly the middle reaches of the Don) was steppe. In full accordance with the distribution of plant belts, archeological data allow us to speak of a greater distribution of settled settlements in the northern part of the region under consideration. To the south of Perevoloka (the place where the Volga and Don are closest to each other), archaeologists have so far identified only one Golden Horde city - Azak, which, however, can only testify to the insufficient study of this area, since rare settlements are marked here on some medieval maps.

The counter flow of goods entered Azak from the Mediterranean countries. These were various production of cloth and linen, iron, copper, tin, and also wine.

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The assertion of the Italians in the region was accompanied for decades by a sharp struggle between various forces that claimed influence here: Byzantium, the Crimean Khanate, Genoa, Venice, Pisa, Amalfi. As a result of fierce rivalry with the Venetian Republic, which founded at the beginning of the XII century. colonies in the form of trading posts on the southern coast of the Crimean peninsula, Genoa became the monopoly owner of the sea trade routes along the Crimean coast. The interest of Italian merchants in the Black Sea was caused primarily by the fact that the traditional trade routes between the East and Europe (passing mainly through the Mediterranean) were disrupted as a result of the Mongol-Tatar conquest of the world. The main importance was acquired by the northern transit routes, which passed through Central and Central Asia to the right sea. The Genoese, pushed aside by the Venetians from the Black Sea markets, did not want to put up with such a situation. They agreed to conclude an alliance treaty with the Empire of Nicaea - the Greek state in Asia Minor, which fought against the crusaders and the Venetians for the restoration of the Byzantine Empire. The Treaty of Nymphaeum between the Nicaean emperor Michael (Paleologue) and Genoa was concluded in March 1261, and in July of the same year, Greek troops captured Constantinople. The Crusaders were expelled from Byzantium, the place of the Venetians in the Black Sea trade was taken by the Genoese. In exchange for the provision of material and military assistance, Genoa received the exclusive right to trade on the Black Sea, unhindered passage through the Black Sea straits (connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean), duty-free trade in all the Possessions of the empire, etc. In addition, the Genoese achieved a ban on Venetians trading here.

However, it was necessary to negotiate with the Golden Horde, which was in charge in the Crimea. In the middle of the 1260s. the Genoese founded in Cafe (Feodosia), then a small Greek-Alanian village, their trading post, also acquiring, in agreement with the ulus emir Mangu Khan, the nearby lands in their ownership. So, in the 1260-1270s. active Genoese colonization of the Black Sea coast begins. First, the southern coast of Crimea is colonized. Trading posts appear in Bosporo (Kerch), Chembalo (Balaklava). Several colonies were founded in the North-Eastern Black Sea region - Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban), Matrega (Taman village), Mala (Anapa), Sebastopolis (Sukhumi), Kalolimen (modern Novorossiysk district), Mavrolako (Gelendzhik ). Tana (Azov), which had the richest fish market and was of strategic importance in the system of trade points lying between Europe and Asia, was of the greatest importance for maintaining the position of the Genoese in the Sea of Azov. Bread, salted fish and caviar were massively exported from Tana - the main ooraz to Constantinople and Genoa. Tana was of great economic importance - a transit route to Central Asia and the Far East ran through it.

Kafa became the political and economic center of all the Genoese colonies, the center of all Black Sea (transit) trade. The Genoese behaved like at home on the Black Sea, completely driving out the Greek merchants from there. The title of the Kafa consul - "the head of Kafa and the entire Black Sea" - carried a very real content. Kafa ruled other colonies through its representatives - commandants and consuls. It should be noted that all the colonies of Italians in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region were multinational in composition. Even in the Cafe, the Genoese were a tiny minority. In Soldai, Cembalo, Matrega, Kop, the Greek and local (Circassian) population predominated. It should also be noted the Slavic, Armenian, Jewish element of the population of the colonies. Over time, the differentiation of the Genoese colonies takes place, among which the following can be distinguished: 1) retaining commercial importance (Kafa, Tana); 2) having the value of fortresses and centers of agricultural districts (Soldaya, Chembalo); 3) colonies, in which power was actually exercised by local (Circassian or Genoese) princes, despite the presence of officials from Kafa (Mala, Barir, Matrega, Kopa). Given the local conditions, the importance and the apparent remoteness of the colonies, Kafa was forced to pursue a flexible policy regarding recognition in some lz them a great degree of independence. One of the features of some Italian colonies was their dependence not only on Kafa, but also on local rulers - both of Italian and local (Circassian) origin. For example, since 1419 Matrega was owned by the noble Genoese Gizolfi. , having intermarried with the daughter and heiress of the prince from the local (Circassian) family of Biberdi-Biha-Khanum, turned this extremely important colony for Kafa into a semi-independent feudal possession of his family. Gizolfi.Matrega was of strategic importance for the Italians.Located on the shores of the Kerch Strait, it ensured uninterrupted communication of the colonialists with the Bosporo, located in the Crimea, and from there with other Crimean possessions of Genoa.Bata (Barir) was owned in the second half of the 15th century by the noble Genoese I When one of its rulers built a fortress in his possessions, the consul of Kafa was ordered by order from Genoa to take urgent measures to destroy it.

The fragility of Kafa’s position in Kopa is also evidenced by the fact that, according to the Mouth of the Genoese colonies in the Black Sea in 1449, the consul of Kopa had to “bring gifts to sovereign persons from Zikhia”, i.e. noble to the Circassians. The population of the colony was engaged in salting fish and cooking! caviar, as well as the sale of slaves. Fair trade flourished in Cope (from late April to mid-May). Until the consul of Copa sets the price n; none of the merchants had the right to buy fish - under the threat of confiscation

goods. Strictly punished were those who started trading before the arrival of the consul to the colony, or who prepared caviar and salted fish at the same time. By the way, no one had the right to take salt at the mercy. The post of consul in Copa was very advantageous, it was given as a reward for services to Genoa. The colony of Mala did not have a consulate and trade there was negligible. Mavrolako was the most convenient port of the Circassian coast of the Black Sea, willingly visited by merchants. Bosporo was under the rule of the Circassian

prince, representing a principality of a semi-feudal type.

The administrative apparatus created by the Genoese gradually became more complex and expanded - as their entire colonial system on the Black Sea expanded. Already in 1290, Kafa had its charter, which essentially determined the entire internal organization and structure of the Black Sea colonies, for which Kafa was the administrative center. Then new statutes appeared, the most extensive of which dates back to 1449. Formally, the administration was of a republican nature. At the head of the entire colonial system was the consul, appointed by the council of the Doge of Genoa for a period of one year. Almost all power belonged to him, including the right to torture, determine the price of goods, etc. However, his activities were divided and even controlled by colonial institutions - a board of trustees, a council of elders, two financial managers, and a trade committee. A special position was occupied by 16 general syndics (judges), who administered the court and reprisals. They had the right to bring even the consul to trial. All this Genoese administration, corrupt in its essence, patronized the merchant and feudal nobility, often to the detriment of the prestige of Genoa itself. Even positions of responsibility such as consuls of Tana and Copa were sold with the permission of the bank of San Giorgio by the consulate of Kafa.

The position of the Italians in the region has never been secure. Kafa itself was destroyed several times by the Tatars - in 1298, 1308, and the Genoese were forced to flee. In the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342), the Genoese reappeared on the shores of the Feodosia Gulf. In 1313, an embassy from Genoa was sent to the Horde, agreeing with the khan on the conditions for the return of the Genoese to the ruins of Kafa, and in 1316 the resurgent city received a new Charter. By the middle of the XIV century. Kafa became a powerful fortress, and in the 1380s. the outer line of defense of the city was erected. Despite the complication of relations with the Tatars (since 1434, the Genoese began to pay constant tribute to the Crimean Khan Hadji-Girey, their worst enemy), Genoa goes to great expense to restore its presence in the Crimea. After all, it undoubtedly received large incomes from trade with the local population, the export of colonial goods and slaves to Europe. The Genoese made attempts to develop silver mines in the Caucasus mountains. Exploring local lands, they> spa-telno put them on the map.

Still Xlli's papers. they talk about the exchange of goods with the Circassians at the mouth of the Kuban, about the fair in Kop. In exchange for caviar and fish, the local population received coarse fabrics, and the Genoese received huge profits, which sources mention even in the 16th century. The following goods were exported to Europe: salted fish, caviar, timber, grain (millet, barley, wheat), fruits, vegetables, wine, meat, furs, wax, leather, resin, hemp. Numerous documents testify to the importance of grain supplies from the colonies. When trade through Tana and Kafa was interrupted in the early 1340s, Byzantium soon developed a severe shortage of rye and salt. In the contracts of Kafa for the XIII century. often appear large transports of rye, barley and millet sent to Trebizond and Sam-sun. The grain crops of the Alans and Circassians were quickly sold by the Tatars in the barren Crimea. In exchange for goods provided by the Circassians, the Genoese offered them salt, rice, mustard, spices, cotton fabrics, raw cotton, soap, incense, including incense, ginger (interfering with honey, the Circassians brewed a strong drink). The Circassian nobility willingly acquired expensive types of fabrics, luxury items - carpets, jewelry, art glass, richly decorated weapons. Trade was predominantly of an exchange nature, monetary relations hardly penetrated into this area (the asprs served the Genoese mainly for trade with the Tatars). Bokassin acted as a unit of exchange - a measure of simple fabric sufficient for sewing one men's shirt. Trade was conducted on an unequal basis, since the Circassians did not know the true value of the goods offered to them for exchange. Cooperating with the local elite, the merchants did not stand on ceremony with ordinary people. Thus, the Genoese forced the Circassians living in Kop to conclude profitable deals under the threat of depriving them of salt, so necessary for salting fish. the sea under the threat of a large fine in case of non-compliance with the order.The population of the colonies of the North-Western Caucasus, in addition, was serving a tax duty in favor of Genoa, trying to get rid of it.On the contrary, the colonialists encouraged the local nobility with rich gifts (Genoa allocated special funds for this) The princes of Mapa and the Taman Peninsula were subsidized by an annual sum from Genoa, naturally, in order to keep them dependent.In an attempt to strengthen their position, the Genoese acted hand in hand with papal Rome in an attempt to catholicize the local population ~ largely Orthodox.

Anxiety about the separatism of the princes, the possible uprisings of the Circassians never left the owners of the colonies. The charter of 1449 forbade the Genoese to be related to the local population. In the column of expenses of the Bank of San Giorgio on the colony, the sums allocated for the protection of Genoese merchants, as well as for the defense of Genoese castles on the territory of the colonies themselves, constantly appear. The rulers of Kopa, for example, instead of equipping and sending Circassian warriors to serve in Kafa, they themselves took part in the attack of the same Circassians on Genoese merchants who were going to Kopa for trade. From time to time, military vessels had to be sent from Kafa to repel attacks by Circassian corsairs. Second half of the 15th century - the time of incessant unrest, unrest, uprisings of the population of the colonies, held under the general slogan - "Against Kafa!". The colonial system, the meaning of "functioning" of which was to obtain the greatest possible benefit with the least risk and cost - due to the merciless exploitation of the population of the colonies - showed at that time its complete failure.

A shameful page in the history of the Italian presence in the North Caucasus is the slave trade, which is encouraged in every possible way by Genoa and the Kafa administration. In particular, the consul of Kopa could receive 6 asprs for each slave taken out of there. Considering the fact that the consul, not receiving a salary, lived on income only from duties and fines, one can imagine with what zeal the official encouraged the captive selling. The consul of Kafa, who controlled the slave trade in the city, also filled not only the local treasury, but also his own pocket. Most of the slaves sold in the Cafe were of Caucasian origin: Circassians, Lezgins, Abkhazians. They also traded in slaves from among the Georgians and Russians. They bought slaves from the Tatars and the Adyghe nobility, who captured prisoners during intertribal strife. The Genoese dared to capture the Tatars as well, for which they took revenge more than once and even destroyed Kafa at the end of the 13th century. The largest centers of the slave trade in the Caucasus were Kafa, Kopa, Tana, Sebastopolis, and Kafa retained the position of the largest of them in the 16th-18th centuries. Part of the slaves remained in the colonies, but the vast majority of them were exported to the countries of Europe, Byzantium, Asia Minor, and North Africa. Thousands of slaves were brought to Venice and Genoa, and the market was always full of them. Women predominated, because in Italy, in contrast to Muslim countries, the demand was greater for female slaves. The Egyptian sultans replenished their troops and harems with slaves, and new domestic slaves appeared in the homes of noble Europeans. Having put the slave trade on a grand scale, the Italians extracted huge profits from it. A significant share of the responsibility for the development of the slave trade lies, undoubtedly, with the Circassian nobility, who actively participated in the raids on their own Circassian neighbors.

Mid 15th century - a turning point in the history of the Genoese colonies. In 1453 the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire ceased to exist, and the sea route connecting the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea with the mother country was taken under control by the Turks. The Republic of Genoa faced a real threat of losing all its Black Sea possessions, and it hurried to sell the colonies to the bank of San Giorgio with a center in Genoa in the same year. By that time, this powerful financial institution already had the right to mint coins, collect most taxes in the possessions of Genoa, control Genoese customs, and have a monopoly on the operation of salt mines. Having received the right to manage and inalienable possession of the Black Sea colonies for a low price (5500 livres), the bank only completed with this act the process of gradual absorption of the Genoese possessions. Already in June 1454, warships of the Ottoman Turks appeared on the Kafa roadstead. They left only after the Turks, having robbed several settlements on the Crimean and Caucasian coasts, obtained from Kafa a promise to pay them an annual tribute. It was clear that the days of Italian rule on the Black Sea coast were numbered. But the mortal blow to the colonies was delivered only after the Ottoman Turks concluded a truce with Venice (1474). On May 31, 1475, a Turkish squadron approached the Cafe. Kafa, which had powerful fortifications, surrendered after a few days. In the second half of 1475, the Turks made a campaign towards the Don and the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, capturing Matrega, Kopa, Tana, and others. Kafa, where the Sultan's governor was located, became the center of Ottoman possessions in the Black Sea region.

So ingloriously ended the dominion of Genoa in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. Striving for the fastest enrichment, mercilessly exploiting the population of the colonies, the Genoese failed to create a solid foundation for their presence in the region. Quite often, the reports of the consuls spoke of clashes, strife with local tribes. "Peaceful" or "friendly" treaties, to which the Circassians were forced by force, were almost immediately violated by them. The policy of the Circassian nobility in relation to the Kafsky administration was distinguished by insidiousness. There are separate positive consequences of the long-term presence of Italians in the Caucasus - the Adyghes become known in Europe, since their lands are mapped by the Genoese; the local population of the colonies, including the Adyghe, gets acquainted with the achievements of European culture; the development of trade contributed to the well-being of a certain part of the Adyghe society. In general, however, Italian colonization had negative consequences for the peoples of the North Caucasus. Attempts to convert the local population to Catholicism were often violent. The slave trade bled the Circassians, depressingly affecting their gene pool. Encouraging this "trade", the Genoese thereby kindled new clashes between the Circassians (since the nobility "was interested in capturing prisoners). The predatory nature of trade delayed the growth of the productive forces of the aboriginal population, based on shameless deceit, monopoly and the absence of an alternative choice for the Circassians .

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