What is the pass in the Alps. Lewis Pass is the northernmost Alpine pass. Paragliding school in France

The Alps are the highest and longest mountain range among the systems that lie entirely in Europe. At the same time, the Caucasus Mountains are higher, and the Ural Mountains are longer, but they also lie on the territory of Asia. The Alps are a complex system of ridges and massifs, stretching in a convex arc to the northwest from the Ligurian Sea to the Middle Danube Lowland. The Alps are located on the territory of 8 countries: France, Monaco, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein and Slovenia. The total length of the Alpine arc is about 1200 km (about 750 km along the inner edge of the arc), and the width is up to 260 km. The highest peak of the Alps is Mont Blanc, at 4,810 meters above sea level, located on the border between France and Italy. In total, about 100 four-thousander peaks are concentrated in the Alps. The Alps are an international center for mountaineering, skiing and tourism. Tourism in the Alps began to develop actively in the 20th century and received a big boost after the end of the Second World War, becoming one of the main destinations at the end of the century.

Five of the eight countries (Switzerland, France, Italy, Austria and Germany) have hosted the Winter Olympics, which were held in alpine venues. Despite the active development of tourism, the Alpine region still has a distinctive traditional culture, including agriculture, woodworking and cheese making.
Due to its location in the center of Western Europe, the Alps are one of the most studied mountain systems. Many concepts are named after the Alps, in particular, the alpine climatic zone, the period of alpine folding, the alpine type of relief, alpine meadows, mountaineering.

There is no unanimously accepted opinion on the origin of the name Alps.
According to one version, the Latin word Alpes, which was formed from Albus (White), was used as early as the 1st century BC to refer to mountains covered with snow. Another suggestion suggests that the name comes from the words Al or Ar, which meant highlands. The word Alpe in modern French and Italian means Mountain Peak, as does Alp in German.
The word Alpeis, or Alpes, was used to designate high mountains and mountain ranges by scientists of Ancient Greece and Ancient Byzantium. In particular, Procopius of Caesarea, a Byzantine writer of the 6th century, calls the Alps and the Pyrenees in his writings by the same name, Geminas Alpeis. Other mountains were called by similar names (Carpathian Mountains - Basternikae Alpes). This word has been preserved unchanged in modern Greek - Άλπεις (Alpeis).
The Celtic language also contained the word Alpes, which the Celts called all the high mountains. Further it was transformed into the English Alps. Presumably, it came to the Celts from the Roman Empire.

Geography

The Alps are an important climate divide in Europe. To the north and west of them are territories with a temperate climate, to the south - subtropical Mediterranean landscapes. Precipitation on the windward western and northwestern slopes is 1500 - 2000 mm, in some places up to 4000 mm per year. In the Alps there are sources of large rivers (Rhine, Rhone, Po, Adige, right tributaries of the Danube), as well as numerous lakes of glacial and tectonic-glacial origin (Bodenskoe, Geneva, Como, Lago Maggiore and others).
The altitudinal zonality of landscapes is well expressed. Up to a height of 800 meters, the climate is moderately warm, on the southern slopes - Mediterranean, there are many vineyards, orchards, fields, Mediterranean shrubs and broad-leaved forests. At an altitude of 800 - 1800 meters the climate is temperate, humid; broad-leaved forests of oak and beech are gradually replaced by coniferous ones upwards. Up to a height of 2200 - 2300 meters, the climate is cold, with long-term snow (the so-called Subalpine belt). Shrubs and tall grass meadows, summer pastures predominate. Above, to the border of eternal snows - the so-called alpine belt with a cold climate, the predominance of short-grass sparse alpine meadows, covered with snow for most of the year. Even higher - nival belt with glaciers, snowfields, rocky slopes.

Climate

To the north and west of the Alps are areas with a temperate climate, to the south - subtropical Mediterranean landscapes. The climate of the various Alpine regions depends on the altitude, position and direction of the wind. In the summer in the Alps, there are hot days that change into cold evenings. It is usually sunny in the mountains in the morning, clouds roll up in the afternoon. Winter brings frequent snowfalls and extended periods of low temperatures. The climate on the north side of the Alps is colder and more humid, while on the south side, on the contrary, it is warmer and drier. The average temperature in July is below +14 °C, in January - up to -15 °C. 1000 mm of precipitation falls per year. Snow stays on the plains for one to six months a year. Fog lingers in the valleys for most of the winter. The Alps are characterized by local winds. The most important of them is a warm and dry foehn, which is formed as a result of the descent of air masses along the mountain slopes and their compression, accompanied by adiabatic heating. This significantly increases the local temperature, which leads to a sharp melting of snow and frequent avalanches, which poses a threat to human life and can cut off entire mountainous regions from the outside world. At the same time, the foehn creates conditions for agriculture at much higher absolute heights than in those places where it does not exist.
The climate and soil and vegetation cover of the Alps have a clearly defined vertical zonality. The Alps are divided into five climatic zones, each with a different type of environment. Climate, flora and fauna have differences in different climatic zones of the Alps. The zone of the mountain range above 3000 meters is called the nival zone. This area, which has a cold climate, is constantly covered with perennial snow. Therefore, there is practically no vegetation in the nival zone.
Alpine meadows lie at an altitude of 2000 to 3000 meters. This zone is less cold than the nival zone. Alpine meadows are characterized by specific, low-growing vegetation, as well as vegetation that forms "grass cushions". This brings this type of ecosystems closer to tundra ones, due to which alpine meadows are also called "mountain tundra".
Just below the alpine zone is the subalpine zone, at an altitude of 1500 to 2000 meters. Spruce forests grow in the subalpine zone, the ambient temperature slowly rises. The temperature in the subalpine zone rises in summer to a maximum of +24 °C on hot sunny days, and usually does not reach +16 °C. Frosts are possible at any time of the year.
At an altitude of 1000 to 1500 meters there is a temperate zone. Millions of oak trees grow in this zone. They are also involved in agriculture.
Below 1000 meters - lowland, characterized by a wide variety of vegetation. The villages are also located in the lowlands, since the temperature regime is suitable for the life of people and animals.

Flora of the Alps

In the regions of the Alpine mountains, scientists have identified 13,000 plant species. Alpine plants are grouped by habitat and soil type, which can be calcareous (limestone) or non-calcareous. Plants inhabit a wide range of natural conditions, from meadows, swamps, forests (deciduous and coniferous) and areas not affected by screes and avalanches, to rocks and ridges. Due to the presence of altitudinal zonality, the diversity and specificity of the alpine flora mainly depends on the height above sea level. In the Alps, there are a variety of biotopes - meadows, which are covered with flowers of bright colors in the valleys, and high mountain areas with modest vegetation. Coniferous trees grow up to an altitude of 2400 meters above sea level. Above, up to 3200 meters, there are still dwarf trees. One of the most famous mountain plants is the glacial ranunculus, which holds the record among plants and is found up to a height of 4200 meters. Small groups of plants are found at an altitude of 2800 meters. Many of them, such as forget-me-not and tar, have a special cushion shape that protects them from herbivores living at these heights and moisture loss. Thus, young shoots are also protected from wind and frost. The well-known edelweiss is covered with a layer of white hairs that retain heat well.

Fauna of the Alps

The Alps are home to 30,000 animal species. All mammals live in the Alps year-round, but some of them hibernate during the winter. Only a few bird species remain in the mountains throughout the year. Individual species of birds living in the Alps have perfectly adapted to this rather inhospitable environment. For example, the snow finch (Oenanthe deserti) builds nests in rock crevices, above the forest boundary, and searches for its food (seeds and insects) on mountain slopes. The Alpine Jackdaw (Pyrrocorax graculus) also nests on rocks well above the forest line. In winter, alpine jackdaws form large flocks and gather around tourist bases and stations, where they feed mainly on waste. The nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes) prepares for winter in a special way. In autumn, this bird stores seeds and nuts, which it buries into the ground. Before the start of winter, Kedrovka collects more than 100,000 seeds, which he hides in about 25,000 caches. Thanks to its amazing memory, the nutcracker finds most of its hiding places in winter under a layer of snow, the thickness of which can be more than one meter. The nutcracker also feeds its nestlings with seeds from pantries.
The conservation of the fauna is ensured through the national parks located in the Alps.

Tourism

The Alps are an area of ​​international mountaineering, skiing and tourism. The Alps are popular both in summer and winter as a place for tourism and sports. Alpine skiing, snowboarding, sledding, snowshoeing, ski tours are available in most regions from December to April. During the summer, the Alps are popular with hikers, cyclists, paragliders, climbers, while the many Alpine lakes attract swimmers, yachtsmen and surfers. The low-lying regions and major cities of the Alps are well connected by motorways and expressways, but higher up, mountain passes and highways can be dangerous even in summer. Many mountain passes are closed in winter. The development of tourism is facilitated by a large number of airports throughout the Alps, as well as good rail links with all neighboring countries. The Alps are usually visited by over 50 million tourists annually.

Information

• Countries: France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, Slovenia, Monaco
• Period of education: Mesozoic
• Square: 190,000 km²
• Length: 1,200 km
• Width: up to 260 km
• highest peak: Mont Blanc
• Highest point: 4810 m

Source. wikipedia.org

The Alps are the highest and most extensive mountain system in Europe, stretching 1200 kilometers through eight countries: Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Slovenia and Switzerland. Although the Caucasus Mountains are higher, and the Ural Mountains are longer, they partially lie in Asia, and, accordingly, are not included in the comparison with the Alps within Europe.

Mountains are strongly influenced by their height and size. This difference is most noticeable in nature, so the ibex, that is, the ibex, lives at an altitude of about 3,400 meters, and the Edelweiss plant grows in high mountainous rocky areas. Man settled in the Alps in the Paleolithic era.

Presumably, the earliest traces of human presence in the Alps were discovered on the Austro-Italian border in 1991, the found remains of a mummified person lay in the mountains for about 5,000 years. In the 6th century BC, the Celts settled in the mountains, establishing the first settlements there, which have survived to this day. The Romans also left their mark, whose buildings are still found in the modern cities of the Alps. The mountains gained popularity at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, when a stream of writers and artists flooded into the Alps, and this time is also considered the golden age of mountaineering, and active conquest of the peaks by climbers from all over Europe began.

The Alpine region has a distinctive culture. Traditional farming, cheese making and woodworking still exist in the local villages. Tourism began to develop actively in the early 20th century, and now the mountains are visited by more than 120 million tourists a year. Also in the Alps, the largest number of Winter Olympic Games were held, at different times the hosts were: Switzerland, France, Italy, Austria and Germany.

The word Alps comes from the Latin, Moor Servius Honoratus, an ancient commentator on Virgil, writes that all high mountains are called Celts - Alps. This is the most likely theory about the origin of the name. Although there are many others, for example: Sextus Pompeius Festus in his first book testifies that the name comes from Albus (white), and refers to the eternal snows on the tops of the mountains.

Geography

From space and on high-scale maps, the Alps resemble the shape of a crescent. With an uneven width, ranging from 800 kilometers in the east to 200 in the west. The average height of the mountain peaks is 2.5 kilometers. The Alpine system stretches from the Mediterranean Sea in the southwest to the north of the basin of the French river Po, and descends in an easterly direction, passing next to the Adriatic Sea. Countries with the largest alpine territories: Switzerland in the center and north, France with most of the western part, with the eastern tip, and Italy with the entire southern side of the Alpine crescent.

Monte Bianco (Mont Blanc in French) is a mountain located in the region of the northwestern Alps. At 4810.90 m high (last official measure in September 2009) is the highest mountain in the Alps, Italy, France and Central Europe in general. There are numerous glaciers on its peaks.

The roads in the Alps were made by wars, trade, pilgrims and tourists. The depressions in the mountainous regions with the most convenient passage are called passes, the most famous alpine passes are: Col de Il Seran, Brenner, Col de Tende, Mont Cenis, Grand St. Bernard Pass, Gotthard Pass, Semmiringa and the Stelvio Pass.

Alps on the map

Minerals

The Alps are an important source of minerals that have been mined here for thousands of years. In the 8th-6th centuries BC, the Celts mined copper there, later the Romans discovered gold deposits, from where it was mined for minting coins, and with the development of industry in the Alps, they began to extract iron ore for steel production. Also in this vast mountainous region, there are other minerals that are most commonly found: cinnabar, amethyst and quartz. Alpine crystals have been studied and collected for hundreds of years, and began to be qualified in the 18th century. And by the 20th, a special commission was created to control and standardize the names of Alpine minerals.

Climate

The Alps are an important climate divide for Europe. In the north and west relative to the mountains there are territories with a temperate climate, in the south there are subtropical Mediterranean landscapes. Precipitation on the windward western and northwestern slopes is 1,500 - 2,000 mm, in some places up to 4,000 mm per year. The Alpine mountains are characterized by a typical climate of the highlands. As the altitude increases, the temperature decreases. At around 3000 meters or more, the temperature does not exceed zero degrees Celsius, which contributes to the formation of glaciers there. In the Alps there are sources of large rivers (Rhine, Rhone, Po, Adige, right tributaries of the Danube), as well as numerous lakes of glacial and tectonic-glacial origin (Bodenskoe, Geneva, Como, Lago Maggiore and others).

Population

As of 2001, the total population in the Alps was 12 million inhabitants, the bulk of which are French, Germans and Italians. Slovenes are also a significant community. The largest cities in the Alps are: Grenoble, located in France, with a population of 155,100, Innsbruck (Austria) - 127,000 people, Trento (Italy) - 116,893 people and Bolzano (Italy) - 98,100 people.

Geology and Hydrology

The Alps are part of an orogenic tertiary belt called the Alpine-Himalayan chain, which extends almost continuously from the southwest to Asia, formed as a result of the collision between the African and European plates.

The most important European rivers start from the Alps, such as the Po with its tributaries, the Rhine, Rhone, Adige, Brenta, Piave, Tagliamento, etc. Also on the slopes of the Alps there are numerous lakes that are fed by water from the mountains, such as Lake Geneva, Lake Constance, Lake Lugano, Lake Como, Lake Maggiore, Iseo, Lake Garda and many others. The Alps are also a reservoir of fresh water with numerous glaciers.

Flights

Traveling in the Alps is best to start from east to west, this is the most popular tourist option, which allows you to look at different areas of the mountains and completely drive through the most picturesque region of Europe.

The easternmost point of the massif is near Vienna, where international airports are located with regular flights from Moscow. From the airport in Vienna, public transport constantly runs, connecting the capital with other cities and popular tourist destinations.

Rest

Tourism has been well developed in the Alps for a long time. Back in the 18th century, prominent people went to the mountains to rest in resorts “not for everyone”. Now the situation has changed and it is not at all necessary to have an impressive fortune in order to relax in the Alpine resorts.

These are small cheap hotels by the lake in the mountains, and middle-class recreation centers at large ski slopes and premium hotels in the Swiss Alps with their own slopes and resorts.

Video

It's about the most beautiful place in Austria - fantastic alpine mountain passes. Firstly, the roads are laid in very beautiful places, and secondly, the Europeans made sure that tourists here were as comfortable as possible. The Austrians in this regard are not far behind Switzerland. Today I will tell you about one of the most picturesque mountain routes in Austria - the Grossglockner panoramic road. Welcome to Austria!


We headed to the Austrian town of Lienz, which is located very close to the Grossglockner road. We had to overcome part of the way already in the dark: we almost did not see Lienz and the Dolomites. We spent the night in a small country hotel on the outskirts of Lienz.


How nice it is to wake up early in the morning, leave the hotel and breathe in the cold mountain air. It's an indescribable feeling!




Europeans tend to get up very early, especially in rural areas.

The village where we spent the night is called Lavant. There is a parish church of St. Ulrich located on the mountain:


We did not go up there, but here is a photo of the interior of the church from Wiki, isn't it cool?


In the fountain opposite the entrance to the hotel, someone left several cases of beer to cool:







Starting from Lienz, the road smoothly rises into the mountains and passes through the most beautiful places with an abundance of viewing platforms.





The Grossglockner panoramic road itself starts from the town of Heiligenblut, 40 km from Lienz.








The road got its name in honor of the highest mountain in Austria - Grossglockner, whose height is 3798 m. Here it first appears in sight (snow-covered peak):


The Grossglockner Road is not a typical utility road, but rather a tourist attraction. For faster travel, the A10 expressway is used.




The panoramic road is a serpentine of 36 turns, about 48 km long. At the very beginning of the road, it has a small branch that leads to the Pasterze Glacier and the center of Kaiser Franz Josef. There is the maximum point of approach to the Grossglockner.


Well, we are finally on the road itself. Some historical facts: it was put into operation in 1935. However, when in 1924 a group of Austrian experts presented a plan to build a road through the Khochtor Pass, it was met with skepticism. At that time in Austria, Germany and Italy there were only 154 thousand private cars, 92 thousand motorcycles, and 2000 km of paved roads. Austria suffered catastrophic economic losses in World War I, shrunk sevenfold in size, lost its international markets, and suffered devastating inflation.


Even a simple project of a gravel road 3 meters wide with sidings turned out to be too expensive. The impetus for the construction of the road, which was supposed to open a barren alpine valley to motorized tourism, came from a downturn in the stock market in New York in 1929. This disaster greatly shook poor Austria. Within three years, production fell by a quarter. Then the government revived the Grossglockner project in order to give work to 3200 (out of 520 thousand!) Unemployed. In the new project, the road was widened to 6 meters, counting on 120,000 visitors a year. The state decided to make up for the construction costs by introducing a toll for the use of the road.


On August 30, 1930, at 9:30 am, the first explosion of rock was made. Four years later, the head of the government of Salzburg drove the new one for the first time. A year later, the Grossglockner high-altitude road was put into operation. And the very next day, the international automobile and motorcycle races Grossglockner Races were held on it.


Construction costs turned out to be less than planned, and attendance in the early years significantly exceeded the most optimistic estimates. In the future, a phased modernization of the road was carried out. Its width and the number of parking lots located in the most picturesque places increased.


From the first day of operation, travel on the road was paid. Now the fare is on average 20-50 euros, depending on the duration of the ticket and the type of transport. A standard ticket for a passenger car for 1 day costs 32 euros.




The road is open to tourists from May to October. In winter, the passage is closed, because the height of the fallen snow often exceeds 10 meters.

Behind the next turn, a gorgeous view of the glacier and the Grossglockner peak opens up. The Pasterze glacier is the largest in Austria, its length is about 9 km.


The melting of the glacier began as early as 1856 due to high summer temperatures and low winter precipitation.






Despite record summer temperatures in Europe, scientists from the Swiss Academy of Natural Sciences attribute the melting of glaciers to long-term climate change.






Find two tourists in this photo:


A branch of the road leads eventually to the center of Kaiser Franz Josef. In addition to the standard tourist infrastructure (restaurants, tourist center), you can find several expositions here, for example, the glacier museum and the Grossglockner peaks. There is even a car history museum, although I did not find information about it on the Internet. Apparently, this is a temporary exhibition. In general, the Grossglockner road attracts vintage car owners from all over Europe, but more on that later.


This place is visited by a huge number of tourists, so there are several spacious parking lots, including one multi-level one.




The vast majority of tourists are pensioners. They sit on the veranda of the restaurant, bask in the sun and have lunch. Happy old age!


The Grossglockner was conquered for the first time in 1800. The first attempt to climb was made a year earlier, but failed due to bad weather. A day after the first ascent, a wooden cross was placed on the summit. In 1879 it was renovated and dedicated to the 25th anniversary of the marriage of Emperor Franz Joseph I and Empress Elisabeth, who visited the Grossglockner in 1865.


The name Glocknerer first appeared on maps in 1561. Grossglockner was first described in his book by Balthazar Ake: a naturalist, geologist, geographer, doctor, scientist, who is considered the pioneer of mountaineering. Interestingly, until 1918 the mountain was privately owned. Grossglockner is currently owned by the Austrian Alpine Community.


At the maximum approximation of the previous photo, you can see how at the moment a large group of climbers is conquering the summit. Now, about 5,000 ascents are made annually on the Grossglockner.




According to one version of the origin of the name, Grossglockner peak from a distance looks like an inverted large bell (German große Glocke): that is why the mountain was nicknamed the “big bell tower”. According to another version, in one of the local dialects “glockner” sounds like “klocken”, which means “to make noise, rumble” - Grossglockner more than once scared the roar of falling stones.




While some tourists visit the expositions and sit in cafes and restaurants, the other part watches the Alpine marmots.

The Alpine marmot is a typical representative of the Ice Age fauna, which previously lived in the European lowlands. Today, its range is limited to high mountain areas, since only suitable living conditions remain here.


The animals feel great next to tourists and willingly accept offerings.


Winter hibernation lasting from 6 to 7 months allows the marmot to go without food for a long time and exist solely at the expense of its own fat reserves.




Alpine marmots can be found on rocky slopes at an altitude of 600 to 3200 m above sea level. Under favorable conditions for 1 square. km inhabited by 40 to 80 animals.




Sensing danger, groundhogs stand on their hind legs to better view the surroundings, and noticing a predator, they emit a loud whistle that can be heard at a great distance.


It's time to keep moving. The highest point of the Grossglockner panoramic road is the Hochtor Pass, which is located at an altitude of 2504 meters.




Up to 10 meters of snow falls here annually. Immediately after the road was put into operation, the snow was removed manually (!): in two spring months, 350 men removed 250 thousand cubic meters of snow with shovels in order to save at least one traffic lane.



Since the middle of the century, automated equipment has been removing up to 800 thousand cubic meters of snow per season. This made it possible to increase the road availability period up to 276 days a year.




The increase in the number of visitors made it possible to upgrade the road in stages. Now its width is 7.5 meters. The annual throughput has been increased to 350,000 vehicles.




The road is only open during the daytime. At 21:30 the entrance to the road is closed, visitors are allowed 45 minutes before closing.





Every year the road takes about a million people. Here are the stages of professional cycling, and many European automakers love to run on the steep mountain slopes of the latest car models.




Grossglockner twice became one of the stages of the famous Giro d'Italia cycling race: in 1971 and 2011.







Grossglockner is a place of pilgrimage for vintage car owners from all over the world. In the 1930s, immediately after the opening of the road, the already legendary car and motorcycle races were held here (in 1935, 38 and 39).




The races were interrupted by the outbreak of World War II and have not been held since.


Now, on weekends, owners of vintage cars of any make and year of manufacture leave the Grossglockner road.


There are even special vintage car group tours around Grossglockner. They are designed for 3-10 days, the cost of one day is from $250 to $450.

Geographical position

The Alps have been studied in great detail. Since the middle of the last century, scientists from different countries have deeply and comprehensively studied them. On the example of the Alps, the features of the structure of the Cenozoic mountain systems of Europe were studied and for the first time their sharyag (cover) structure was noted, a scheme of Quaternary mountain glaciation was created, and the regularities of the mountain climate and vegetation were studied. Many of the research results obtained in the Alps were then used in the study of other mountain systems. The Alps provided the richest material for the development of geography and related sciences. Such concepts as "alpine folding", "alpine meadows", and finally, even "mountaineering" have long become not regional, but common nouns.

Switzerland and Austria are entirely located on the territory of the Alpine mountain country. Its northern parts are within the boundaries of the Federal Republic of Germany, the western parts are within the limits of France, and the southern parts are part of Italy. The eastern spurs of the Alps enter the territory of Hungary, the southeastern ridges - into Slovenia. Sometimes they talk about the Swiss, French, Italian Alps, etc. However, this division according to the nationality of one or another part of the Alps does not always correspond to their natural differences.

Geological structure and relief

The geological structure, orography and geomorphological features of the region are very diverse. The Alps proper begin off the coast of the Mediterranean Sea with the system of the Maritime Alps, bordering on the Apennines. Then they stretch along the border of France in the meridional direction in the form of the Cottian and Gray Alps, which are composed of crystalline rocks and reach great heights. Pel Vu (4102 m), Gran Paradiso (4061 m) and the highest five-domed Mont Blanc (4807 m), located on the border between France, Italy and Switzerland, stand out especially. In the direction of the Padana lowland, this part of the Alps ends abruptly, without foothills, and therefore looks especially grandiose from the east. From the west, a strip of high crystalline massifs is bordered by a system of medium-altitude mountain ranges composed of limestones. Such ridges are usually called Prealps.

In the middle part, the Alps are crossed by a deep tectonic valley that runs from Lake Constance to Lake Como. This is an important orographic and geographical boundary dividing the Alps into Western and Eastern. The Eastern Alps are wider and lower than the Western ones, their geological structure is also somewhat different. In the extreme east, the ridges of the Alps diverge in a fan-like fashion, approaching the Danube in the north, and entering the northwest of the Balkan Peninsula in the south. The highest is the axial zone of the ridges of the Eastern Alps, composed of crystalline rocks. But nowhere in the east do the Alps reach such heights as in the west. Only the Bernina massif in Italy is slightly higher than 4000 m, while the rest of the peaks are much lower. The Ötztal Alps and the High Tauern in Austria reach 3500-3700 m, and in the extreme east the height of the mountains rarely exceeds 2000 m. To the north and south of the central crystalline zone, less high ridges of the Prealps, composed of limestones, dolomites and flysch, stretch.

The Alpine mountain system, despite its height and considerable width, does not pose a serious obstacle to climbing. This is due to the large tectonic and erosional dissection of the mountains, the abundance of convenient passages and passes. Since ancient times, the most important routes connecting the countries of Central Europe with the Mediterranean passed through the Alps. Currently, numerous railways and highways with busy traffic are laid through the Alps. Of greatest importance are the Fréjus passes at an altitude of more than 2500 m, through which the road from Turin to Paris passes, and the Great St. Bernard at an altitude of more than 2400 m between Mont Blanc and the Pennines Alps, connecting Switzerland with Italy. The Simplon and St. Gotthard passes are also of great importance. The latter gained fame thanks to Suvorov's unprecedented crossing of the Alps in 1799. In the Eastern Alps, the low (1371 m) Brenner Pass is the most convenient. The first Alpine railway, built in 1867, passed through it. In the second half of the 19th century. railways crossed almost all the most important alpine passes. During the construction of these roads, it was necessary to lay a large number of tunnels, as a result of which many features of the geological structure of the Alps were revealed. Currently, a tunnel has been built under Mont Blanc on the highway connecting France with Italy. The Alps arose as a result of the collision of the continental plates of Eurasia and Africa at the site of the closed part of the Tethys. The result of this was extensive overturned integumentary folds, including fragments of the oceanic crust that make up the ridges of the Alpine mountain system. A large role in creating a very diverse relief of the Alps, along with folding in the Mesozoic and Paleogene, was played by powerful vertical movements at the end of the Neogene - the beginning of the Quaternary period, and then strong erosional activity and the impact of ancient glaciation, which was especially powerful in the Alps.

The strip of the highest ridges and massifs, composed of crystalline rocks and partly limestone, is distinguished by sharp, jagged lines of ridges with individual peaks pitted by large cirques, steep, steep slopes devoid of vegetation, hanging deep valleys, huge tongues of glaciers. The lower parts and marginal ranges of the Pre-Alps are characterized by a medium-altitude relief with rounded peaks and soft outlines of the slopes. The valleys there are wide and terraced, with lake-like extensions. In the north, at the foot of the Alps, in the triangle between them, the Jura Mountains and the valley of the upper Danube, there is a foothill plateau 400-600 m high, composed of destruction products that were once demolished from the mountain slopes. This clastic material was collected in surface folds during the final phases of the orogeny. The plateau is covered with powerful accumulations of glacial deposits left by alpine glaciers: terminal moraine ridges, accumulations of bottom moraine and masses of outwash sands. The Alpine foothill plateau is located within Switzerland and the Federal Republic of Germany. Accordingly, its smaller western part is called the Swiss Plateau, and the eastern part is called the Bavarian.

The Swiss plateau from the north is bordered by the Jura Mountains, which are the advanced chain of the Alpine mountain system. Parallel anticline ridges with a maximum height of more than 1700 m, composed of Jurassic limestones, separate wide longitudinal valleys filled with flysch. The ridges are crossed by narrow gorges connecting the longitudinal valleys with each other and creating a lattice erosion network. The slopes and peaks of the Jura ranges are corroded by karst caves, funnels and underground rivers. The southern slopes of the Alps are devoid of foothills. In the east of the Prealps, and in the west, high crystalline massifs break off to the Padan lowland, within which the southern outskirts of the Alpine mountain system are submerged. From the beginning of the Cenozoic, on the site of the lowland, there was a bay of the Adriatic Sea, which was gradually filled with detrital material carried from the Alps and the Apennines; the basin dried up by the end of the Neogene. Most of the Padana lowland is below 100 m above sea level. At the foot of the mountains, the relief of the lowland is hilly; Toward the valley The surface is covered with a thin layer of alluvial deposits, the relief becomes flatter. The Po River and many of its downstream tributaries flow in natural dams above the surrounding area. At its confluence with the Adriatic Sea, the Po forms a large, rapidly growing delta. Sand spits and islands are grouped along the flat lagoon coast of the lowland. Venice is located in one of the lagoons on numerous islands separated by straits. The straits are streets, so Venice gives the impression of a city rising from the sea. Currently, there is a progressive lowering of the coast, which threatens to flood a large part of the city.

Minerals

The Alpine mountainous country does not have large reserves of mineral raw materials. Minerals are concentrated in the Eastern Alps and are associated with the rocks of the central crystalline zone. These are deposits of iron and copper ores and magnesite in Austria. In the basins of the Eastern Alps, sedimentary deposits contain small deposits of brown coal and salt.

Climatic conditions

The Alps, rising in the path of humid western air currents, are a major moisture condenser. The northern and western marginal ranges receive especially much precipitation, from 1500 to 3000 mm per year, foggy and cloudy weather prevails. Inner ridges, closed valleys and basins receive much less moisture (less than 1000 mm). The greatest amount of precipitation falls to a height of 1500-2000 m, where the zone of maximum cloudiness is located. Above this zone, the weather is drier and clearer. Altitude climatic zonality is clearly expressed on the slopes of the Alps, which manifests itself in the transition from the warm temperate and even subtropical climate of the southern foothills to the harsh high-altitude climate of the upper parts of the mountains with frequent frosts, snowstorms, snowfalls and powerful glaciation. Differences in the climatic conditions of slopes of different exposures, closed valleys and basins are characteristic. The latter have climates with a distinct continental tint, winter temperature inversions, and less rainfall.

Mountains have a certain influence on the climate of the flat regions located at the northern and southern foothills of the Alps, which, first of all, is expressed in an increase in precipitation. The Pre-Alpine plateau and the Padana lowland receive from 800 to 1200 mm of precipitation per year. Both of these areas have a temperate climate with some features of continentality, only the climate of the Padan Plain is warmer and more favorable for agriculture than the climate of the Pre-Alpine Plateau.

Vegetation

The Alps are a forest region. However, the modern picture of their soil and vegetation cover is exceptionally variegated. This, on the one hand, is the result of natural conditions and the manifestation of altitudinal zonation; on the other hand, it is a consequence of a very profound change in natural conditions under the influence of man. On the Bavarian plateau, less populated than the Swiss, there are deciduous and mixed forests, alternating with patches of peat bogs. Significant areas have been cultivated. On the Swiss plateau with a warmer climate, the natural soil and vegetation cover was dominated by oak and beech forests on burozems. But the natural landscapes there are almost not preserved. The plateau is densely populated - almost the entire population of Switzerland is concentrated here. Most of the territory is occupied by grain crops, succulent seeded meadows and orchards. The most heat-loving crops, such as grapes, are planted along the shores of lakes. The slopes of the Jura Mountains are covered with beech forests. The valleys are inhabited and cultivated, the beautiful meadows on the tops of the ridges serve as summer pastures.

The natural vegetation of the Padana lowland - beech forests on forest brown soils - has been completely destroyed. Its natural conditions are exceptionally favorable for agriculture, therefore it has long been inhabited and occupied by fields and vineyards. In the gardens and around the villages grow laurels, pomegranate and fig trees, cypresses. In the fields, fruit trees rise among wheat and corn, grapes often climb the trunks of elms and mulberries. 2-3 crops per year are harvested from the fields. This leads to severe depletion of the soil, the fertility of which is not restored. Therefore, many lands are gradually becoming unsuitable for further use.

The most complex picture of the soil and vegetation cover of the Alps themselves, which can serve as a classic example of the altitudinal zonality of mountains in the oceanic sector of the temperate zone. The lower belt of the Alps, up to about 1000 m, is very diverse in climate and vegetation, its conditions are close to those of the neighboring plains. In the south, the influence of the Mediterranean is felt and subtropical types of soils and vegetation can be found. In the west, oak, chestnut and beech forests rise along the slopes on brown forest soils, in the north - less heat-loving mixed forests on podzolic soils, from the east the forest-steppe approaches the Alps. This lower belt, the most populated and which has significantly changed its natural vegetation, is called the cultural belt of the Alps.

At high altitude, climatic conditions become more uniform. Up to a height of approximately 1800-2200 m in a zone of moderate temperature and abundant rainfall, a belt of forests rises on mountain brown soils and podzolic soils. The composition of forests varies with height, as well as depending on the location and exposure of the slopes. In humid places, on shady northern slopes, a beech forest is common, often with an admixture of spruce. The higher, dry and sunny slopes are covered with beautiful spruce and fir forests. In many areas, forests have been cleared. On deforested slopes, soil erosion processes, avalanche activity and other phenomena that cause great damage are intensifying. As a result of annual grazing in the subalpine belt, the present-day upper limit of forest tracts in the Alps has been lowered by almost 100 m in height and almost nowhere depends on natural conditions.

Above the forest zone, the subalpine belt stands out, where shrub vegetation is combined with lush subalpine meadows and individual oppressed trees. The growth of trees is hindered by the short growing season, strong winds, and sharp fluctuations in temperature and humidity. This belt is most favorable for the growth of herbs, which reach exceptional splendor and beauty. Thickets of creeping or low-growing shrubs are also common, among which the most common are alpine rhododendron with bright red flowers, juniper and mountain pine with branches pressed to the ground. The alpine belt itself at an altitude of up to 2500-3000 m is characterized by a complete absence of woody vegetation, the predominance of low-growing, rarely growing perennial grasses with bright flowers, forming the so-called "carpets" (mattes), and the spread of swamps. The Alpine belt gradually turns into a belt of eternal snow and ice.

Dividing into two climatically different parts, there are three mountain passes that connect the east and west coasts. In the south of the mountain range is located, in the center is high-mountainous, but further in the north of the mountain range lies the Lewis Pass. Lewis Pass is 864 meters above sea level. It is slightly inferior to the highest Arthur Pass, but higher than the Haast Pass. Through Lewis Pass, through extensive beech forests, runs Route 7, which links the region to the West Coasts. Lewis Pass is located between two mountain rivers. The Maruya River flows to the northwest, while the Lewis River flows from the southeast. On both sides of the pass there is a dense beech forest, as a result of the humid climate and frequent rains. During the last ice age, the valleys around the pass were covered with ice, which, after melting, left behind deposits of moraine and gravel.

The terrain around the pass is less steep and more open than the other Alpine passes and therefore the Lewis Pass route is considered the main route for transport between Canterbury and . The road from to the pass takes two and a half hours, and it can be reached in an hour and a half. Sixty-six kilometers west of Lewis Pass is a mining town whose history is associated with gold mining and the gold rush. Refton is also known for being the first city in and throughout the Southern Hemisphere to have its streets lit up with electrical energy in 1888.
The area around Lewis Pass is a protected area and is protected by the state, and is also used for tourism purposes. Around the pass there are a number of tourist routes-tracks. Not far from the pass is a very tiny resort village of Mauria Springs. It is located on the banks of the river Maruya, surrounded by high, snow-capped mountain peaks, among a dense beech forest. Here are beautiful views of pristine nature, a breathtaking contemplation of the river and mighty mountain peaks, a resort famous for hot mineral springs that gush deep from the ground, as well as an indoor pool, outdoor pools built from local river stone, a bathhouse, a hotel, a restaurant, a cafe and wireless internet (in the cafe). In the Maori language, Maruiya means sheltered or shady, indicating its location, deep in a valley between mountains.

The mountain pass in the northern part of the Southern Alps was famous for the local Maori. It has long been known and used. The Maori went through it from Canterbury to the West Coast in search of greenstone rocks. In the area of ​​the Mauria River, even the first settlers discovered the sites of Maori camps. The first European to discover the crossing was Provincial surveyor Henry Lewis, along with Christopher Maling, in April 1860. The pass was named after the pioneer. When it started, the prospectors moved from Canterbury to the west along the passage of Lewis. But this version is questioned. During the early years of European colonization of the islands, the area around was the most isolated place in New Zealand. Communication with the outside world was limited by sea. The overland road from Christchurch to Nelson was nearly two hundred miles long. In the 1980s, the route through the pass was surveyed and the construction of the road began. It was built for a long time, the construction was completed in 1938. The road connected Canterbury to the West Coast and Nelson and played a huge role in the development of New Zealand.