Which temple of the city of Athens is dedicated to the goddess Athena. The Parthenon Temple in Athens is the greatest religious building. Temples of ancient Greece

the main temple of the Athenian Acropolis, dedicated to Athena Parthenos (ie the Virgin), the patron goddess of the city. Construction began in 447 BC, the consecration of the temple took place at the Panathenaic festival in 438 BC, but the decoration (mainly sculptural work) continued until 432 BC. The Parthenon is a masterpiece of ancient Greek architecture and a symbol of Greek genius. Story. A new temple was erected at the highest point of the Acropolis, on a site dedicated to the gods. The ancient temples were probably small in size, and therefore significant leveling of the Acropolis was not required. However, in 488 BC. a new temple was laid here to thank Athena for the victory over the Persians at Marathon. Its dimensions in terms of plan are very close to the current Parthenon, and therefore in the middle of the southern slope it was necessary to erect a retaining wall and lay limestone blocks in the base, so that the southern edge of the construction site rose above the rock of the Acropolis by more than 7 m. , apparently, 6 columns on the side of the ends and 16 on the sides (counting the corner columns twice). Its stylobate (upper platform) and steps, as well as the columns themselves, as well as other structural elements, were made of marble (or at least they were conceived as marble). When in 480 BC The Persians captured and plundered the Acropolis, the temple under construction, which by that time had been brought only to the height of the second drum of columns, was destroyed by fire, and work was interrupted for more than 30 years. In 454 BC the treasury of the Delian maritime union was transferred to Athens, where Pericles then ruled, and soon, in 447 BC, construction work on the almost finished site resumed. The Parthenon was erected by the architects Iktin and Kallikrates (they also call Carpion), as well as Phidias, who was primarily responsible for sculpture, but in addition carried out general supervision of the progress of work on the Acropolis. The creation of the Parthenon was part of the conquest of Athens by Pericles, not only in the military and economic field, but also in religion and art. Regarding the further fate of the temple, we know that c. 298 BC the Athenian tyrant Lahar removed the golden plates from the cult statue of Athena, and in the 2nd century. BC. The building, which was damaged by the fire, was thoroughly repaired. In 426 AD The Parthenon was converted into a Christian church, originally St. Sofia. Apparently, at the same time, in the 5th century, the statue of Athena was transported to Constantinople, where it subsequently died in a fire. The original main eastern entrance was closed by the altar apse, so that now the western entrance has become the main one through the room behind the cella, previously separated by a blank wall. Other changes in the layout were also made, and a bell tower was erected in the southwestern corner of the temple. In 662 the temple was re-consecrated in honor of the Most Holy Theotokos ("Panagia Afiniotissa"). After the Turkish conquest, c. 1460, the building was turned into a mosque. In 1687, when the Venetian commander F. Morosini was besieging Athens, the Turks used the Parthenon as a powder warehouse, which led to disastrous consequences for the building: a red-hot cannonball that flew in here caused an explosion that destroyed its entire middle part. No repairs were carried out then, on the contrary, local residents began to pull apart marble blocks in order to burn lime out of them. Appointed in 1799 as British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, Lord T. Elgin received permission from the Sultan to export the sculptures. During 1802-1812, the lion's share of the surviving sculptural decoration of the Parthenon was transported to Great Britain and placed in the British Museum (some of the sculptures ended up in the Louvre and Copenhagen, although some remained in Athens). In 1928, a fund was created, which set itself the goal, as far as possible, to put the fallen columns and blocks of entablature in place, and on May 15, 1930, the northern colonnade of the temple was inaugurated.
Architecture. The Parthenon in its current form is a Doric peripter standing on three marble steps (total height approx. 1.5 m), having 8 columns at the ends and 17 at the sides (if you count the corner columns twice). The height of the peristyle columns composed of 10-12 drums is 10.4 m, their diameter at the base is 1.9 m, the corner columns are slightly thicker (1.95 m). The columns have 20 flutes (vertical gutters) and taper upwards. The dimensions of the temple in plan (according to the stylobate) are 30.9*69.5 m. it has six-column prostrate porticoes at the ends, the columns of which are somewhat lower than in the outer colonnade. Cella is divided into two rooms. The eastern one, longer and called the hecatompedon (internal size 29.9 * 19.2 m), was divided into three naves by two rows of 9 Doric columns, which closed at the western end with a transverse row of three additional columns. It is assumed that there was also a second tier of Doric columns, which was located above the first and provided the required height of the ceilings. In the space bounded by the inner colonnade, there was a colossal (12 m high) chrysoelephantine (made of gold and ivory) cult statue of Athena by Phidias. In the 2nd century AD it was described by Pausanias, and its general appearance is known from several smaller copies and numerous images on coins. The ceilings of the western cella (internal size 13.9 * 19.2 m), which was called the Parthenon (the treasury of the Delian Union and the state archive were kept here; over time, the name was transferred to the entire temple), rested on four high columns, presumably Ionic. All elements of the construction of the Parthenon, including the roof tiles and steps of the stylobate, were hewn from local Pentelian marble, almost white immediately after mining, but over time acquiring a warm yellowish tint. Mortar or cement was not used, the laying was carried out dry. The blocks were carefully fitted to each other, the horizontal connection between them was carried out with the help of I-beam iron braces placed in special grooves and filled with lead, the vertical one - with the help of iron pins.
Sculpture. The decoration of the temple, which complemented its architecture, is divided into three main categories: metopes, or square panels, provided with high reliefs, located between the triglyphs of the frieze above the outer colonnade; a bas-relief, which encircled the cella from the outside with a continuous strip; two colossal groups of free-standing sculptures filling deep (0.9 m) triangular pediments. On 92 metopes, scenes of martial arts are presented: gods and giants from the east side, lapiths and centaurs (they are best preserved) - from the south, Greeks and Amazons - from the west, participants in the Trojan War (presumably) - from the north. The sculptural group on the eastern pediment depicted the birth of Athena, who, fully armed, jumped out of the head of Zeus after the blacksmith god Hephaestus cut his head with an ax. The group from the western pediment represented the dispute over Attica between Athena and Poseidon, when the olive tree presented by the goddess was recognized as a more valuable gift than the source of salt water discovered in the rock by Poseidon. A few statues from both groups have survived, but even from them it is clear that it was a great artistic creation of the middle of the 5th century. BC. The bas-relief strip on top of the cella (total length 160 m, height 1 m, height from the stylobate 11 m, in total there were about 350 foot and 150 equestrian figures) depicted the Panathenaic procession, which annually brought Athena a new attire - peplos. Horsemen, chariots, citizens of Athens moving from west to east are represented along the northern and southern sides, and closer to the head of the procession are musicians, people with gifts, sacrificial sheep and bulls. Along the western, end wall, above the portico, there are groups of cavalrymen standing near their horses, mounted on them or already leaving (this part of the bas-relief remained in Athens). On the eastern end is the central group of the procession, consisting of the priest and priestess of Athena with three young servants: the priest receives the folded peplos. On the sides of this scene are the figures of the most important gods of the Greek pantheon. They are divided into two groups and turned to face outward, towards the corners of the building, as if watching the approach of the procession. Next to them, on the right and left, are two groups of citizens or officials, and at the edges are slowly moving people leading the procession.
"Subtlety" of the Parthenon. The scrupulous thoughtfulness of the construction of the Parthenon, which aims to deprive the building of mechanical straightforwardness, to give it liveliness, is manifested in a number of "refinements" that are found only with a special study. We will mention only a few. The stylobate rises slightly towards the center, the lifting boom along the northern and southern facades is approx. 12 cm, along the northern and western - 6.5 mm; the corner columns of the end facades are slightly inclined towards the middle, and the two middle ones, on the contrary, towards the corners; the trunks of all columns have a slight swelling, entasis, in the middle; the front surface of the entablature is somewhat inclined outward, and the pediment inward; the diameter of the corner columns, visible against the sky, is slightly larger than the rest, and in addition, they represent a complex figure in cross section, different from the circle. Many parts of the building were painted. The lower surface of the echinus (extensions on the capitals of the columns) was red, as was the tenia (the belt between the architrave and the frieze). Red and blue were used on the underside of the eaves. The marble caissons of the colonnade ceiling were tinted with red, blue and gold or yellow. Color was also used to emphasize the elements of the sculpture. Bronze wreaths were also used in the decor of the building, as evidenced by holes drilled in the architrave for their fastening.

Collier Encyclopedia. - Open society. 2000 .

Address: Greece, Athens, Acropolis of Athens
Start of construction: 447 BC e.
Completion of construction: 438 BC e.
Architect: Iktin and Kallikrat
Coordinates: 37°58"17.4"N 23°43"36.0"E

Brief history and description

At the top of the rock of the Acropolis of Athens rises the monumental marble temple of the Parthenon, dedicated to Athena Parthenos (ie the Virgin) - the patroness of the city. In this monument, the famous politician Pericles embodied the idea of ​​triumphant democracy and the unfading glory of Athens.

View of the Acropolis of Athens and the Parthenon

The Parthenon was built between 447 and 437 BC. e. on the site of an earlier temple, which was erected to commemorate the victory over the Persians in the Battle of Marathon. For the construction of the Parthenon, Pericles spent 450 silver talents, "borrowed" from funds collected for military purposes.

To understand how huge the amount spent was, you can use the following comparison: the construction of one trireme (warship) cost 1 talent, that is, Athens could build a fleet of 450 ships with 450 talents. When the people accused Pericles of squandering, he replied: “Our descendants will be proud of this temple for centuries!

Temple in the night illumination

If money is more important to you, then I will write off the costs not to your account, but to mine, and I will perpetuate my name on all buildings. After these words, the people, who did not want to concede all the glory to Pericles, shouted that he attributed the construction costs to the public account. The head of the work was appointed Phidias sculptures; he also carved most of the decorations of the Parthenon with his own hands. The consecration of the temple took place in 438 BC. e. during the Panathenaic festival, held in honor of the goddess Athena. During the Byzantine period, marked by the triumph of Christianity, the Parthenon was turned into the Temple of St. Mary, and the statue of Athena was taken to Constantinople.

View of the temple from the west

In the 1460s, when the Turks captured Athens, the Parthenon was converted into a mosque. But the temple suffered the greatest destruction in 1687, during the war between the Venetians and the Turks, when a red-hot cannonball that flew through the roof made a huge explosion.

In the 19th century, the English diplomat T. Elgin, having received permission from the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, took an unsurpassed collection of sculptures from the Parthenon to England, which is still kept in the British Museum.

View of the temple from the southeast

The Parthenon is a magnificent example of the Doric style.

The Parthenon is a classic ancient Greek temple - a rectangular building framed by a colonnade. According to the standards of ancient Greek architecture, the number of columns on the side facade is 1 unit more than twice the number of columns on the front side of the building (in relation to the Parthenon - 8 and 17). Ancient architects gave the massive temple elegance by developing a system of optical correction. From a distance, straight lines are perceived as slightly concave, and in order to eliminate this “defect”, the architects made the middle part of the columns slightly thickened, and the corner columns tilted slightly towards the center, thereby achieving the appearance of straightness.

South facade of the temple

Sculptures of the Parthenon - myths in stone

The Doric frieze of the facade was decorated with bas-reliefs depicting scenes of martial arts: the battle of the Lapiths and centaurs - from the east side, the Greeks and Amazons - from the south, gods and giants - in the north, and participants in the Trojan War - in the west. The sculptural composition on the eastern pediment is dedicated to the myth of the birth of Athena. As befits goddesses, Athena was born in an unusual way, namely from the head of Zeus. Legend has it that Zeus swallowed his pregnant wife to prevent the birth of a son who would dethrone him. Soon the god of thunder felt severe pain, and then the blacksmith Hephaestus hit him on the head, and Athena jumped out.

East facade of the temple

On the western pediment, the dispute between Athena and Poseidon for the possession of Attica is immortalized in stone, when the olive tree donated by Athena was recognized as a more valuable gift than the source of sea water carved into the rock by Poseidon's trident. Along the perimeter of the outer walls of the temple, at a height of 11 meters from the floor, another frieze, Ionic, stretched in a continuous ribbon. Its reliefs illustrate scenes from the traditional ceremony of celebrating the "Birthday of the Goddess Athena" - Panathenaia. Horsemen, chariots, musicians, people with sacrificial animals and gifts, etc. are depicted here. The end of the procession is depicted on the eastern end: the priest receives from the Athenian peplos - a new garment woven for Athena. In ancient times, the Parthenon housed a treasury where the treasury of the Athenian Maritime Union was kept..

The Parthenon (ancient Greek: Παρθενών; modern Greek: Παρθενώνας) is an ancient temple dedicated to the goddess Athena, whom the Athenians considered their patroness. Construction began in 447 BC. when the Athenian Empire was at the height of its power. It ended in 438 BC. e., although the decoration of the building continued until 432 BC. e. It is the most important surviving building of classical Greece and is generally considered to have its zenith in the Doric order. The decorative sculptures of the Parthenon are considered among the most successful in Greek art. And the Parthenon itself is a symbol of Ancient Greece, Athenian democracy and Western civilization, and one of the greatest cultural monuments in the world. The Hellenic Ministry of Culture is currently implementing a program of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially destroyed structure.

The Parthenon, which historians refer to as the Pre-Parthenon, was destroyed during the Persian invasion of 480 BC. e. The temple was built archaeoastronomically, according to the Hyades star cluster. Despite the fact that the sacred building was dedicated to the goddess patronizing the city, in fact it was used as a treasury. At one time, it served as the treasury of the Delian League, which later became the Athenian Empire. In the last decades of the sixth century AD, the Parthenon, which was converted into a Christian church, was dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

After the Ottoman conquest in the early 60s of the 15th century, it was turned into a mosque. On September 26, 1687, due to the Venetian bombardment, the Ottoman ammunition, which was stored in the building, caught fire. As a result of the explosion, the Parthenon and its sculptures were seriously damaged. In 1806, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin removed some of the surviving sculptures, ostensibly with permission from the Ottoman Empire. They are now known as the Elgin or Parthenon marbles. In 1816 they were sold to the British Museum in London, where they are exhibited today. Since 1983 (at the initiative of the Minister of Culture Melina Mercouri), the Greek government has decided to return the sculptures to Greece.

Etymology

Originally, the name "Parthenon" comes from the Greek word παρθενών (parthenon), and was referred to in the sense of "rooms of unmarried women" in the house, and in the case of the Parthenon, perhaps only a separate room of the temple was first used. There is debate about what kind of room it was, and how it got its name. According to the work of Lidl, Scott, Jones "Greek-English Lexicon" it was the western cella of the Parthenon. Jamari Green believes that the Parthenon was the room in which the peplum was presented to Athena at the Panathenaic Games. It was woven by the harrephores, four girls who were chosen each year to serve Athena. Christopher Pelling argues that the Athena Parthenos may represent a separate cult of Athena, closely related, but not identical, to that of Athena Polias. According to this theory, the name Parthenon means "temple of the virgin goddess" and refers to the cult of Athena Parthenos, which was associated with this temple. The epithet "parthenos" (παρθένος), whose origin is unknown, means "virgin, maiden", but also "virgin, unmarried woman", and was mainly used in relation to Artemis, goddess of wild animals, hunting and vegetation, and Athena, goddess of strategy and tactics, craft and practical reason. There is also an assumption that the name of the temple refers to the virgins (partheno), whose highest sacrifice guarantees the safety of the city.

© website, photo: Parthenon today, July 2014

The first instance in which the name Parthenon certainly refers to the entire building was found in the writings of the orator Demosthenes dated to the 4th century BC. In the 5th century, the building was considered as a structure, which was simply called ho naos ("temple"). It is believed that the architects Mnesicles and Kallikrates called it Hekatompodos ("one hundred feet") in their lost treatise on Athenian architecture, and in the 4th century and later, it was known as Hekatompedos or Hekatompedon, like the Parthenon; in the 1st century AD e. The writer Plutarch called the building Hecatompedon the Parthenon.

Because the Parthenon was dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, it was sometimes called the Temple of Minerva, the Roman name for Athena, especially in the 19th century.

Purpose

Although architecturally the Parthenon is a temple and is usually called that, however, in the generally accepted sense of the word, this is not entirely true. A small temple was found inside the building, on the site of an old one, probably dedicated to Athena, as a way to get closer to the goddess, but the Parthenon itself never accepted the cult of Athena Polis, the patroness of Athens; the cult image, which was washed in the sea and presented with peplos, was an olive xoan, located on an old altar in the northern part of the Acropolis.

The magnificent statue of Athena, by Phidias, was not associated with any cult and is not known to have ignited any religious fervor. She probably didn't have a priestess, an altar, or a cult name. According to Thucydides, Pericles once referred to the statue as a gold reserve, emphasizing that it "consisted of forty talents of pure gold, and they could be taken out." The Athenian statesman thus assumed that the metal obtained from modern coinage could be used again without any disrespect. The Parthenon was then seen more as a large setting for a votive statue of Phidias than as a place of worship. Many Greek authors are said to have described in their writings the myriad treasures kept inside the temple, such as Persian swords and small statues made of precious metals.

Archaeologist Joan Breton Connelly has recently argued for the connection of the Parthenon's sculptural plan in presenting a series of genealogical accounts that trace Athenian features back through the ages: from the birth of Athena, through cosmic and epic battles, to the great final event of the Athenian Bronze Age, the war between Erechtheus and Eumolpus. She argues that the pedagogical function of the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon establishes and reinforces the Athenian foundations of myth, memory, values ​​and identity. Connelly's thesis is debatable, and some notable classics such as Mary Beard, Peter Green, and Harry Wheels have either questioned it or simply rejected it.

Early history

Old Parthenon

The initial desire to build a sanctuary of Athena Parthenos on the site of the current Parthenon was realized shortly after the Battle of Marathon (c. 490-488 BC) on a foundation of hard limestone, which was located on the southern part of the top of the Acropolis. This building replaced the Hekatompedon (i.e. "one hundred feet") and stood next to the archaic temple dedicated to Athena Polias. The Old Parthenon, or Pre-Parthenon as it is often called, was still under construction when, in 480 B.C. e. The Persians sacked the city and destroyed the Acropolis.

The existence of the proto-Parthenon and its destruction is known from Herodotus. The drums of its columns were visible at a glance and were built after the load-bearing wall north of the Erechtheion. Further material evidence of this structure was revealed during the excavations of Panagis Kavadias in 1885-1890. Their results led Wilhelm Dörpfeld, then director of the German Archaeological Institute, to claim that the original Parthenon contained an underground structure called Parthenon I, which was not exactly below the current building, as previously thought. Dörpfeld's observation was that the three steps of the first Parthenon consisted of limestone, two of porous, like the base, and the upper step of Karha limestone, which was covered by the lowest step of the Pericles Parthenon. This platform was smaller and was located just north of the final Parthenon, indicating that it was built for a completely different building, currently completely closed. The picture was somewhat complicated by the publication of the final excavation report in 1885-1890, which indicated that this underground structure was of the same age as the walls built by Kimon, and implied a later date for the first temple.

Floor plan of the Parthenon, photo: public domain

If the original Parthenon was indeed destroyed in 480, this raises the question of why the site remained in ruins for thirty-three years. One argument suggests an oath taken by the Greek allies before the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. e., according to which the sanctuaries destroyed by the Persians will not be restored. Only in 450, at the conclusion of the Kallia peace, did the Athenians free themselves from this oath. The mundane fact about the cost of rebuilding Athens after the Persian sack is not as plausible as its reason. However, Bert Hodge Hill's excavations led him to propose the existence of a second Parthenon built during the reign of Cimon after 468 BC. e. Hill argued that the Karha limestone step that Dörpfeld thought was the highest in Parthenon I was in fact the lowest of the three steps of Parthenon II, whose stylobate dimensions, according to Hill's calculations, were 23.51 by 66,888 meters (77.13 × 219.45 feet).

One of the difficulties in dating the proto-Parthenon is that at the time of the excavations in 1885, the archaeological method of seriation had not been fully developed; careless digging and backfilling of the site resulted in the loss of a large amount of valuable information. Attempts to discuss and comprehend the clay shards found in the Acropolis were realized in a two-volume work by Graf and Langlotz, published in 1925-1933. This inspired the American archaeologist William Bell Dinsmoor to attempt to set deadlines for the temple platform and five of its walls hidden under the re-terracing of the Acropolis. Dinsmoor concluded that the last possible date for Parthenon I was no earlier than 495 BC. e., which contradicts the earlier date established by Dörpfeld. In addition, Dinsmoor denied the existence of two proto-Parthenons and established that the only temple prior to the temple of Pericles was that which Dörpfeld called Parthenon II. In 1935, Dinsmoor and Dörpfeld exchanged views in the American Journal of Archaeology.

modern construction

In the middle of the 5th century BC. BC, when the Athenian Acropolis became the seat of the Delian League, and Athens was the greatest cultural center of its time, Pericles initiated an ambitious building project that continued throughout the second half of the century. During this period, the most important buildings that can be seen in the Acropolis today were built: the Parthenon, the Propylaea, the Erechtheion and the temple of Athena Nike. The Parthenon was built under the overall supervision of Phidias, who was also responsible for the sculptural decoration. The architects Iktin and Kallikrat began their work in 447 BC. BC, and by 432 the building was completed, but decoration work continued until at least 431. Some financial accounts of the Parthenon have survived which show that the biggest expense was to transport the stones from Mount Pentelikon, about 16 km (9.9 miles) from Athens, to the Acropolis. These funds were partly taken from the treasury of the Delian League, transferred from the pan-Hellenic sanctuary at Delos to the Acropolis in 454 BC. e.

Architecture

The Parthenon is an octastyle Doric temple surrounded by columns with Ionic architectural features. It stands on a platform or on a stylobate of three steps. Like other Greek temples, it has a lintel and is surrounded by columns bearing an entablature. At each end are eight columns ("octastyle"), and seventeen on the sides. Also at each end of the column are installed in two rows. The colonnade surrounds an internal stone structure - a cella, divided into two rooms. At either end of the building, the roof ends in a triangular pediment, originally filled with sculptures. The columns represent the Doric order with a simple capital, fluted shaft and no base. Above the architrave is a frieze of illustrated carved panels (metope) separated by a triglyph, which is typical of the Doric order. Around the cella and along the lintels of the internal columns there is a continuous sculptural frieze in the form of a bas-relief. This element of architecture is Ionic rather than Doric.

Measured on the stylobate, the base of the Parthenon measures 69.5 by 30.9 meters (228 by 101 feet). The cella was 29.8 meters long and 19.2 meters wide (97.8 x 63.0 ft) with an internal colonnade in two rows structurally necessary to support the roof. Outside, Doric columns measured 1.9 meters (6.2 ft) in diameter and 10.4 meters (34 ft) high. The diameter of the corner columns was slightly larger. In total, the Parthenon had 23 internal and 46 external columns, each containing 20 flutes. (A flute is a concave groove carved in the shape of a column.) The stylobate had a curvature that increased towards the center by 60 mm (2.4 in) at the east and west ends and by 110 mm (4.3 in) at the sides. The roof was covered with large overlapping marble tiles known as fluted tiles and tegula.

© website, photo: Parthenon today, July 2014

The Parthenon is considered the finest example of Greek architecture. John Julius Cooper wrote that the temple "has the reputation of being the most perfect Doric temple ever built. Even in antiquity, his architectural refinements were legendary, especially the delicate balance between the curvature of the stylobate, the slope of the cella walls and the entasis of the columns." Entasis refers to a slight decrease in the diameter of the columns as they rise, although the observed effect in the Parthenon is much more subtle than in early temples. The stylobate is the platform on which the columns stand. Like many other classical Greek temples, it has a slight parabolic increase in curvature to drain rainwater and strengthen the building against earthquakes. This may be why the columns were supposed to lean outward, but in fact they leaned slightly inward so that if they continued they would meet almost exactly a mile above the center of the Parthenon; since they are all the same height, the curvature of the outer edge of the stylobate is transferred to the architrave and roof: "The whole subsequent principle of creation is based on slight curvature," Gorham Stevens noticed this when he pointed out that the west facade was built somewhat higher than the south. It is not universally established what the entasis effect was supposed to be; it is possible that it served as a kind of "reverse optical illusion". Because the Greeks may have known that two parallel lines slope or curve outward when crossing converging lines. In this case, it seems that the ceiling and floor of the temple lean towards the corners of the building. In their pursuit of perfection, the designers may have added these curves, making up for the illusion by creating their own curves, thus negating this effect and allowing the temple to be as it was intended. It has also been suggested that it was used to "revitalize", in case a building without curves would perhaps have the appearance of an inert mass, but it should be compared with the more obvious curved predecessors of the Parthenon, and not with a conventionally rectilinear temple.

Some studies of the Acropolis, including the Parthenon, have concluded that many of its proportions are close to the golden ratio. The facade of the Parthenon, as well as the elements, can be described by a golden rectangle. This view was refuted in later studies.

Sculpture

The cella of the Parthenon housed the chrysoelephantine statue of Athena Parthenos by Phidias, created in 439 or 438 BC. e.

Initially, the decorative stonework was very colorful. At that time, the temple was dedicated to Athena, although construction continued almost until the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War in 432. By 438, the sculptural decoration of the Doric metopes on the frieze above the outer colonnade and the decoration of the Ionic frieze around the top of the cella wall were completed.

The richness of the frieze and metope is consistent with the purpose of the temple as a treasury. The opisthodome (back room of the cella) kept the monetary contributions of the Delian League, of which Athens was a leading member. Today, the surviving sculptures are kept in the Athens Acropolis Museum and the British Museum in London, and a few pieces in Paris, Rome, Vienna and Palermo.

Metopes

The frieze of the entablature contains ninety-two metopes, fourteen each on the east and west sides, and thirty-two each on the north and south. They are carved in bas-relief, this practice was used only for treasuries (the building was used to store gifts that were presented to the gods by vow). According to construction documentation, metope sculptures date back to 446-440 BC. e. The metopes of the Parthenon, above the main entrance, on the east side depict the Gigantomachy (a mythical battle between the Olympian gods and giants). The metopes on the west side show the Amazonomachy (the mythical battle of the Athenians against the Amazons), and on the south side the Thessalian centauromachy (the battle of the Lapiths, with the help of Theseus, against half-human, half-horse centaurs). Metopes 13 to 21 are missing, but the drawings attributed to Jacques Carrey indicate groups of people; they have been variously interpreted as scenes from the wedding of the Lapith, scenes from the early history of Athens, and various myths. On the north side of the Parthenon, the metopes are poorly preserved, but the plot is reminiscent of the destruction of Troy.

The metopes are presented as an example of the strict style in the anatomy of the heads of the figures, in the limitation of physical movements to the contours but not to the muscles, and in the pronounced veins in the figures of centauromachy. Some of them still remain on the building, with the exception of those on the north side, as they are heavily damaged. Several metopes are in the Acropolis Museum, others are in the British Museum, and one is in the Louvre.

In March 2011, archaeologists announced that they had discovered five Parthenon metopes on the south wall of the Acropolis, which had been extended when the Acropolis was being used as a fortress. According to the daily newspaper Eleftherotype, archaeologists claimed that the metopes were placed there in the 18th century, when the wall was being restored. Experts discovered metopes while processing 2,250 photographs using modern photographic techniques. They were made of white Pentelian marble, which is different from the other stone of the wall. It was previously thought that the missing metopes were destroyed during the explosion of the Parthenon in 1687.

© website, photo: Parthenon today, July 2014

Frieze

The most distinctive feature in the architecture and decoration of the temple is the Ionic frieze around the outer walls of the cella (the interior of the Parthenon). The bas-relief frieze was carved at the construction site; it dates from 442-438 BC. e. One interpretation is that it depicts an idealized version of the procession of the Panathenaic Games from the Dipylon gate at Kerameikos to the Acropolis. This procession, which takes place every year, was attended by Athenians and foreigners to honor the goddess Athena, bringing sacrifices and new peplos (cloth woven by specially selected noble Athenian girls).

Joan Breton Connelly offers a mythological interpretation of the frieze that is in harmony with the rest of the sculptural plan of the temple, and shows the Athenian genealogy through a series of myths from the distant past. She identifies the central panel above the door of the Parthenon as a sacrifice made before the battle by the daughter of King Erechtheus, and ensured victory over Eumolpus and his Thracian army. A large procession moved towards the eastern part of the Parthenon, showing the post-battle thanksgiving sacrifice of cattle and sheep, honey and water, following the triumphal army of Erechtheus, which returned with victory. In mythical times, these were the very first Panathenaic, the model upon which the historical processions of the Panathenaic Games were based.

Gables

When the traveler Pausanias visited the Acropolis at the end of the 2nd century AD, he only briefly mentioned the sculptures of the pediments of the temple (the ends of the gabel), leaving the main place to describe the statue of the goddess made of gold and ivory, which was located inside the temple.

East pediment

The eastern pediment tells of the birth of Athena from the head of her father Zeus. According to Greek mythology, Zeus gave birth to Athena after a terrible headache prompted him to summon Hephaestus (the god of fire and blacksmithing) for help. To relieve the pain, he ordered Hephaestus to hit him with a hammer, and when he did, Zeus's head split open and the goddess Athena came out of it, all dressed in armor. The sculptural composition depicts the moment of Athena's birth.

Unfortunately, the central part of the pediment was destroyed even before Jacques Carrey, who in 1674 created useful documentary drawings, therefore, all restoration work is the subject of assumptions and hypotheses. The main Olympian gods should stand around Zeus and Athena, watching the miraculous event, probably with Hephaestus and Hera near them. Kerry's drawings played an important role in the restoration of the sculptural composition on the north and south sides.

West gable

The western pediment overlooked the Propylaea and depicted the struggle between Athena and Poseidon during their competition for the honor of becoming the patron of the city. They appear in the center of the composition, and diverge from each other in strict diagonal forms, the goddess holds an olive tree, and the god of the sea raises his trident to hit the ground. On the sides, they are framed by two groups of horses pulling chariots, while the space in the sharp corners of the pediment is filled with legendary characters from Athenian mythology.

Work on the pediments continued from 438 to 432 BC. e., and the sculptures on them are considered one of the best examples of classical Greek art. The figures are created in natural movements, and the bodies are full of vital energy that breaks through their flesh, and the latter, in turn, breaks out through their thin clothes. Thin chitons show the lower body as the center of the composition. By placing the sculptures in stone, the sculptors erased the distinction between gods and humans, the conceptual relationship between idealism and naturalism. The fronts no longer exist.

Drawing of the statue of "Athena Parthenos", installed inside the Parthenon

Athena Parthenos

Only one sculpture from the Parthenon is known to belong to the hand of Phidias, the statue of Athena, which was located in the naos. This massive gold and ivory sculpture is now lost. It is known only from copies, vase paintings, jewelry, literary descriptions and coins.

Late period of history

late antiquity

In the middle of the third century AD, a major fire broke out in the Parthenon, which destroyed the roof and most of the interior of the temple. Restoration work was carried out in the fourth century AD, probably during the reign of Flavius ​​Claudius Julian. To cover the sanctuary, a new wooden roof was laid, covering it with clay tiles. It had a steeper slope than the original roof, and the building's wings were left open.

For almost a thousand years, the Parthenon continued to exist as a temple dedicated to Athena, until in 435 AD. e. Theodosius II did not decide to close all pagan temples in Byzantium. In the fifth century, one of the emperors stole the great cult image of Athena and took it to Constantinople, where it was later destroyed, possibly during the siege of Constantinople in 1204 CE. e.

Christian church

In the last decades of the sixth century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church, which was called the Church of Mary Parthenos (Virgin Mary), or the Church of Theotokos (Mother of God). The orientation of the building was changed, turning the facade to the east; the main entrance was moved to the western end of the building, and the Christian altar and iconostasis were located on the eastern side of the building next to the apse built on the site where the pronaos of the temple had previously been located.

A large central entrance with adjacent side doors was made in the wall separating the cella, which became the church nave, from the back room, the porch of the church. The gaps between the columns of the opisthodom and the peristyle were walled up, however, the number of entrances to the room was sufficient. Icons were painted on the walls, and Christian inscriptions were carved into the columns. These renovations inevitably led to the removal of some of the sculptures. The images of the gods were either interpreted in accordance with the Christian theme, or seized and destroyed.

The Parthenon became the fourth most important Christian pilgrimage site in the eastern part of the Roman Empire after Constantinople, Ephesus and Thessalonica. In 1018, Emperor Basil II made a pilgrimage to Athens, immediately after his final victory over the Bulgarians, for the sole purpose of visiting the church in the Parthenon. In medieval Greek records, it was called the temple of the Athenian Mother of God (Theotokos Atheniotissa) and was often indirectly mentioned as famous, without an exact explanation of which temple was meant, thus confirming that it was really famous.

During the Latin occupation, for about 250 years, it became the Roman Catholic Church of the Virgin Mary. During this period, a tower was built on the southwest corner of the cella, which was used as a watchtower or as a bell tower with a spiral staircase, as well as vaulted tombs under the floor of the Parthenon.

islamic mosque

In 1456, Ottoman forces invaded Athens and laid siege to the Florentine army, which defended the Acropolis until June 1458, when the city surrendered to the Turkish. The Turks quickly restored the Parthenon for later use as a church by Greek Christians. For a while, before closing in the fifteenth century, the Parthenon became a mosque.

The exact circumstances under which the Turks took possession of it for use as a mosque are unclear; one source states that Mehmed II had it reconstructed as punishment for an Athenian conspiracy against the Ottoman Empire.

The apse, which became a mihrab (a tower built earlier during the Roman Catholic occupation of the Parthenon), was extended upwards to make a minaret, a minbar was installed, and the Christian altar and iconostasis were removed, and the walls were whitewashed to cover the icons of Christian saints and other Christian images.

Despite the changes accompanying the Parthenon, the transformation into a church and then into a mosque, its structure remains largely unchanged. In 1667, the Turkish traveler Evliya Celebi expressed admiration for the sculptures of the Parthenon and figuratively described the building as "some kind of impregnable fortress not created by man." He composed poetic prayers: "the work of less significant human hands than Heaven itself must stand for a long time."

The French artist Jacques Carrey visited the Acropolis in 1674 and made sketches of the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon. Early in 1687, an engineer named Plantier painted the Parthenon for the Frenchman Gravier Dortier. These images, especially those made by Carrey, provided important evidence of the condition of the Parthenon and its sculptures before the destruction at the end of 1687 and in the subsequent looting of its works.

The destruction of the Parthenon as a result of the explosion of a gunpowder warehouse during the Venetian-Turkish war. 1687. Drawing by an unknown artist.

Destruction

In 1687, the Parthenon was badly damaged in the greatest catastrophe that has ever befallen it in its long history. To attack and capture the Acropolis, the Venetians sent an expedition led by Francesco Morosini. The Ottoman Turks fortified the Acropolis and used the Parthenon as an ammunition cellar—despite the danger of such use after the 1656 explosion that severely damaged the Propylaea—and shelter for members of the local Turkish community. On September 26, a Venetian mortar shot fired from Philopappus Hill blew up the cellar and partially destroyed the building. The explosion shattered the central part of the building and caused the cella to collapse. The Greek architect and archaeologist Cornelia Hatziaslani writes that “... three of the four walls of the sanctuary almost collapsed and three-fifths of the sculptures from the frieze fell. Obviously, none of the parts of the roof remained in place. Six columns fell from the south side and eight from the north, and nothing remained of the eastern portico, except for one column. Together with the columns, a huge marble architrave, triglyphs and menotopes collapsed. The explosion killed approximately three hundred people, who were covered with marble debris near the Turkish defenders. It also caused several large fires that burned until the next day and destroyed many houses.

Records were made during the conflict as to whether this destruction was intentional or accidental; one such entry is by a German officer, Zobifolsky, which states that a Turkish deserter gave Morosini information about what the Turks were using the Parthenon for, expecting the Venetians to not target a building of such historic importance. In response, Morosini sent artillery to the Parthenon. Subsequently, he tried to loot sculptures from the ruins and cause further damage to the building. When the soldiers tried to remove the sculptures of Poseidon and Athena's horses from the western pediment of the building, they fell to the ground and broke.

The following year, the Venetians abandoned Athens in order to avoid a confrontation with the large Turkish army assembled at Chalcis; at that time, the Venetians took into account the explosion, after which almost nothing remained of the Parthenon and the rest of the Acropolis, and rejected the possibility of its further use by the Turks as a fortress, but such an idea was not pursued.

After the Turks recaptured the Acropolis, they built a small mosque within the walls of the destroyed Parthenon, using the ruins from the explosion. Over the next century and a half, the remaining parts of the structure were looted for building materials and other valuables.

The 18th century was the period of the "sick man of Europe"; as a result, many Europeans were able to visit Athens, and the picturesque ruins of the Parthenon became the subject of many paintings and drawings, spurring the rise of the Philhellenes and helping to arouse the sympathy of Britain and France for the sake of Greek independence. Among these early travelers and archaeologists were James Stewart and Nicholas Revett, who were commissioned by the Society of Dilettantes to investigate the ruins of classical Athens.

They created drawings of the Parthenon, while making measurements, which in 1787 published in two volumes Antiquities of Athens Measured and Delineated (Antiquities of Athens: measured and depicted). In 1801, the British ambassador in Constantinople, Count Elgin, received a dubious firman (decree) from the Sultan, whose existence or legitimacy has not been proven to this day, to make casts and drawings of the antiquities of the Acropolis, and to demolish the last buildings, examine the antiquities if necessary, and remove the sculptures .

Independent Greece

When independent Greece gained control of Athens in 1832, the visible part of the minaret was destroyed; only its base and the spiral staircase to the level of the architrave remained intact. Soon all the medieval and Ottoman buildings built on top of the Acropolis were destroyed. However, there is a photograph by Joly de Lotbinier of a small mosque in the cella of the Parthenon, published in Lerbaud's Excursions Daguerriennes in 1842: the first photograph of the Acropolis. This area became a historical site that was controlled by the Greek government. Today it attracts millions of tourists every year. They follow the road at the western end of the Acropolis, through the restored Propylaea up the Panathenaic Way to the Parthenon, which is surrounded by a low rail to prevent damage.

Marble Sculpture Controversy

The center of the dispute was the marble sculptures taken out by Earl Elgin from the Parthenon, which are in the British Museum. Also, a few sculptures from the Parthenon are displayed in the Louvre in Paris, in Copenhagen, and elsewhere, but more than fifty percent is in the Acropolis Museum in Athens. Some can still be seen on the building itself. Since 1983, the Greek government has been campaigning to bring sculptures back to Greece from the British Museum.

The British Museum has steadfastly refused to return the sculptures, and successive British governments have been unwilling to force the museum to do so (which would require a statutory basis). However, negotiations between senior representatives of the Greek and British ministries of culture and their legal advisers took place in London on 4 May 2007. These were the first serious talks in several years, in which it was hoped that both sides could take a step towards a resolution.

© website, photo: Parthenon columns in scaffolding

Recovery

In 1975, the Greek government began coordinated work to restore the Parthenon and other structures of the Acropolis. After some delay, in 1983 the Committee for the Preservation of the Monuments of the Acropolis was established. The project later attracted funding and technical assistance from the European Union. The archaeological committee carefully documented each artifact left there, and using computer models, the architects determined their original location. Particularly important and fragile sculptures were transferred to the Acropolis Museum. A crane was installed to move the marble blocks. In some cases, previous reconstructions turned out to be wrong. Dismantling was carried out, and the restoration process began anew. Initially, the various blocks were held together by oblong iron H-shaped connectors, which were completely covered with lead to protect the iron from corrosion. The stabilizing connectors added in the 19th century were less lead-plated and corroded. Since the product of corrosion (rust) tends to expand, it has caused further damage to the already cracked marble. All of the new metalwork consisted of titanium, a strong, lightweight and corrosion-resistant material.

The Parthenon will not be restored to the state it was in before 1687, however, as far as possible, damage from the explosion will be repaired. In the interest of restoring the building's structural integrity (important in this seismically prone area) and aesthetic integrity, chipped portions of the column drums and lintels will be filled in using finely hewn marble, reinforced in place. New Pentelian marble from the original quarry is used. As a result, almost all large pieces of marble will be placed where they originally were, supported, if necessary, by modern materials. Over time, the white repaired parts will become less visible compared to the original weathered surfaces.

The ruins rise, which used to be both a pagan temple in honor of the goddess Athena, and a Christian one in honor of the Most Holy Theotokos, and, finally, a Muslim mosque. They are recognized at first sight even by those who have never been to Greece, their photographs are so replicated. These are the ruins of one of the most famous temples in the world. Its name is the Parthenon.

Temple laying and construction

The ancient Greeks knew how to be grateful. They decided to erect a temple to the patroness of their city, in gratitude for her help in the battle with the Persians at Marathon.

For its construction, they chose the elevated and fortified part of the upper city - the Acropolis, and in 488 they made a solemn laying. The architect of the Parthenon chose this place not by chance. Previously, there were earlier temples built in honor of other pagan gods.

The size of the former temples was small, and for their construction it was not necessary to increase the area of ​​​​the upper part of the hill. In this case, it was supposed to erect something grandiose, and for this purpose it was necessary to build on the south side and, having laid lime blocks in its base, raise the edge of the construction site by 7 meters.

Work had been going on for eight years, and the second drum of columns was being built when the city was captured by the Persians. In the fire, the fruits of eight years of labor perished, and construction was not resumed for more than 30 years.

Construction of a new temple

Work continued in 447 BC. Power in Athens then belonged to Pericles, a proud and ambitious ruler. The construction of the temple was part of a plan he conceived, as a result of which Athens was to take a leading position, both in the military field, and in economic and cultural. The implementation of the plan was also facilitated by the fact that by that time the treasury of the Delian maritime union had been transferred to the city, which facilitated the solution of financial problems associated with construction. And there were indeed problems.

History has kept interesting information. Pericles allocated 450 silver talents from the military budget for the work. The size of the amount can be judged by the fact that the construction of one warship in those years cost one talent. Consequently, the cost of building a temple is comparable to the cost of creating a huge military fleet, consisting of 450 ships. When the extent of the costs became known to the townspeople, they accused Pericles of extravagance. To this, the ruler replied that he was ready to bear the costs at his own expense, but in this case he reserves the right to perpetuate all the elements of the structure. The people did not want to yield glory to the ruler and agreed to finance the project from the city treasury.

This question arises, probably, for everyone who sees the Athenian architectural masterpiece for the first time. The honor of its creation belongs to the outstanding architects, whose names have come down to us - Iktin and Kallikrat. According to some sources, Karpion and his assistants also took part in the work. The famous sculptor Phidias supervised the overall progress of the work, but his main duty was to create the sculptural decoration of the temple, which, given its grandiose size, was a very large-scale task. Thus, speaking about who built the Parthenon, one should mean not one architect, but a whole group of co-authors.

Changes in the appearance of the temple

What the Parthenon looked like in its original form is now difficult to say with complete certainty. The fact is that throughout his long life, he repeatedly changed his appearance. Back in the 2nd century BC, a strong fire broke out in the temple, after which significant restoration work was required. Its splendor also suffered from the evil will of the rulers. For example, in 298 BC, Lahar, who ruled at that time, went down in history as an unbridled tyrant, ordered that gold jewelry be removed from the sculpture of Athena.

The creator of the Parthenon erected a temple in honor of the pagan goddess. But in the history of Greece, the period that is commonly called the Byzantine period began, and fate would have it that in 426 AD the pagan temple turned into a Christian church. Initially, it was consecrated in honor of St. Sophia. The architect of the Parthenon did not assume, of course, that his brainchild was destined to embody all the elements inherent in the architecture of Christian churches, but that is exactly what happened.

Reconstruction of the temple according to Christian canons

According to the tradition established in ancient times, the entrance to the pagan temple was on the east side. The architect, designing the building, took into account this requirement. But according to the canons of Christian architecture, the entrance is always made from the western side, and the altar is placed from the eastern side. This is the law. In the process of rebuilding the temple in accordance with the new requirements, an altar apse was built on the site of the former entrance, and the entrance, accordingly, was moved to the western side. In addition, other changes were made to the layout of the building. A bell tower was erected in the southwestern part of the temple. The completion of the reconstruction was in 662 the consecration of the temple in honor of the Most Holy Theotokos. For almost eight centuries, Christian prayers were offered up under its vaults, until in 1460 the city was captured by Turkish troops.

temple destruction

Together with the whole country, the Parthenon temple also experienced hard times. Greece was under occupation, and the Christian shrine was turned into a Muslim mosque. After 27 years, the Venetian army under the command of F. Morosini tried to storm Athens. Defending themselves, the Turks used the Parthenon as a powder warehouse. This had disastrous consequences for the building. A red-hot cannonball fired from a Venetian gun, breaking through the roof, caused a terrible explosion. As a result, the entire central part of the building collapsed. No repairs were made after that. On top of all the troubles, the locals stole fragments of marble, from which they burned lime.

The temple suffered its final damage at the beginning of the 19th century. The British ambassador to the Ottoman court received permission to export the sculptures preserved in it. Since then, for ten years, the creations of ancient Greek sculptors left Athens to become part of the expositions of the largest museums in the world.

Restoration of the colonnade of the temple

In 1928, work began, the purpose of which was to install the fallen blocks and columns of the Parthenon in their original place. To carry out the work, a scientific commission was created, which included specialists from different countries. Their collaboration lasted two years. As a result, the northern colonnade was partially restored in the form in which the architect of the Parthenon designed it.

What did the temple look like in ancient times? It was built according to the canons of a classical ancient Greek temple - a rectangle surrounded by columns. Despite its massiveness, it looked elegant thanks to the strict thoughtfulness of its layout. The temple was decorated with sculptures of the great Phidias, and in the center stood a thirteen-meter sculpture of the goddess Athena, decorated with gold and ivory.

It is generally accepted that the architect of the Parthenon built the building, which is a masterpiece among the buildings of the Doric style. Once the Athenian ruler Pericles, persuading the intractable townspeople to fork out for the construction of the temple, predicted that it would be the pride of the Greeks for many, many centuries. Time has proven him right.

Parthenon in Athens (Greece) - description, history, location. Exact address, phone number, website. Reviews of tourists, photos and videos.

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The Parthenon has always been considered one of the most significant and monumental buildings of the Acropolis in Athens. The temple was built in honor of the goddess Athena, the patroness of the capital of Greece.

According to an ancient myth, the supreme god decided to get rid of his wayward daughter even when she was in the womb, swallowing them whole. But she did not give him rest, and then the Thunderer ordered to remove Athena from his head, already at that moment she was in armor, with a sword and shield in her hands. For such a militant goddess, of course, it was necessary to erect a sufficiently majestic temple.

Construction of the Parthenon began around 447 BC and continued for more than fifteen years. From all over Hellas, excellent marble, the best examples of ebony, ivory and precious metals were brought to the Acropolis.

The main architects of the temple were Kallikrat and Iktin. They were able to realize an extraordinary architectural solution by applying the rule of the golden ratio, where each subsequent part of the whole relates to the previous part in the same way as it relates to the whole. The marble columns of the temple are placed to each other not strictly parallel, but at a certain angle. As a result, the Parthenon acquired a number of architectural features - the main one is that it appears before those looking at its facade from three sides at once.

Parthenon

The sculptural decoration of the Parthenon was carried out by Phidias; under his strict guidance, numerous friezes and sculptural compositions were made. Directly his authorship belongs to the main attraction of the temple - a thirteen-meter statue of Athena, the manufacture of which took more than a ton of pure gold from the city treasury and the most expensive solid marble. Phidias also distinguished himself by depicting on the shield of the goddess the initiator of the construction - Pericles.

In the Parthenon, everything is thought out to the smallest detail, each detail has its own unique size, shape and purpose. This is one of the main attractions of Greece, which is deservedly considered a masterpiece of world architecture. Unfortunately, now little is left of its former greatness, but even the ruins preserved in its place cause delight among millions of tourists.