Brief geography of laos. Geography of Laos. Nature, relief, climate, population of Laos. Useful information for tourists

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Lao People's Democratic Republic is a landlocked state in Southeast Asia with Vientiane as its capital. It borders Thailand to the west, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south, China's Yunnan province to the north, and Myanmar to the northwest.

Laos is a predominantly mountainous country. The mountains rarely exceed 2000 m, but have a strongly dissected relief. The highest peak is Phu Bia with a height of 2817 m. The Mekong River flows along the border of Laos with Thailand and Myanmar, the border with Vietnam is shared by the Annamite Range.

Laos airport

Vientiane Wattay International Airport

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Laos weather

The climate is subequatorial, monsoonal. There are three seasons: distinctly humid hot - from May to October, dry cool - from November to February and hot dry in March-April. The monsoon invades almost simultaneously the entire territory of Laos. Precipitation varies considerably, from 3000 mm per year in the mountains to 1300–1700 mm in the plains.

The average temperatures in December-January range from +14° to +23°C, in July - within 28-30°C. The highest air temperature - about +40°C - occurs in the Mekong Valley in March-April, and less than + 5 ° С - on the Xianghuang plateau and in Phongsali (in the far north of the country).

Language of Laos

Official language: Lao

The population speaks various ethnic languages ​​and dialects. In the educated sections of society, French and English are common.

Currency of Laos

International name: LAK

A kip is equal to 100 cents. There are banknotes in circulation in denominations of 5000, 2000, 1000, 500 and 100 kip. There are no coins in circulation.

Thai baht and US dollars are accepted everywhere, especially in cities. Currency can be exchanged at exchange offices, at the airport and at banks, but many banks only accept US dollars or Thai baht.

Credit cards of the leading international systems are accepted for payment in large banks, in the capital's restaurants, hotels and shops. In the provinces, it is almost impossible to use them. Traveler's checks can only be cashed at the offices of international banks.

Customs restrictions

Import and export of foreign currency is not limited (amount over $2,000 in cash or travel checks must be presented to customs officials when crossing the border and declared). Import and export of the national currency is prohibited.

Duty-free import from countries that do not have common borders with Laos is allowed: cigarettes - up to 500 pieces, or 100 cigars or 500 grams of tobacco, strong alcoholic beverages - 1 bottle of wine - up to 2 bottles, personal jewelry - up to 500 grams.

The import of weapons, explosives, poisonous and flammable substances, as well as narcotic drugs and means for their manufacture is prohibited. It is forbidden to export art and antiquities that are a national treasure, Buddha images (only souvenir options are allowed for export), weapons, explosives, as well as poisonous and flammable substances, drugs and means for their production.

Mains voltage

Tips

State hotels and upscale restaurants usually add 5-10% to the bill for services, so there is no need to leave a tip. In private establishments, tips should be determined on the spot.

When traveling in a taxi or any other tuk-tuk vehicle, the cost of the service should be discussed in advance, before boarding the cab.

Purchases

Markets and small ethnic shops selling handicrafts, fabrics, jewelery and furniture have replaced shops with a dubious reputation. Large shops usually work from Monday to Friday from 08.00 to 16.00, private shops - from Monday to Saturday from 09.00 to 21.00.

Bargaining is possible in markets and private shops.

Office Hours

Banks are open from Monday to Friday from 08.00 to 12.00 and from 13.30 to 17.30.

Code of the country: +856

First level geographic domain name:.la

Emergency Phones

Fire department - 190.
Police - 191.
Ambulance - 195.

Lao People's Democratic Republic.

The name of the state comes from the ethno people - Lao.

Capital of Laos. Vientiane.

Laos square. 236,800 km2.

Inhabitants of Laos. 5636 thousand people.

Location of Laos. Laos is a country in Southeast Asia. It borders China and Vietnam to the north. in the east - with Vietnam, in the south - with Cambodia. in the west - with Thailand. in the northwest - with Myanmar. Laos is the only country in Southeast Asia.

which does not have access to the sea.

Lao administrative division. 16 provinces (Hugeng).

Form of government in Laos. Republic.

Head of State of Laos. The president.

The supreme legislative body of Laos. National Assembly of one state.

The supreme executive body of Laos. Government.

Great cities of Laos. Savannakhet, Luang Prabang, Pakse.

Official language of Laos. Laos.

Religion Laos.

Where is Laos? - country on the world map

60% are Buddhists, 40% are pagans.

The ethnic composition of Laos. 70% lao.

Currency of Laos. Kip = 100 at.

The climate of Laos. Subequatorial. monsoon. The average temperature in January is from + 15 ° C to + 23 ° C, in July - from + 28 ° C to + 30 ° C. There are three seasons: wet (May - October), dry cool (from November to January, the average temperature is + 23 ° to + 25 ° C) and dry hot (average temperature in February - April from + 32 ° to + 34 ° C).

In low northern Laos, the average temperature in January is + 15 ° C, in July - + 28 ° C. In the mountains, winter temperatures sometimes drop below 0 ° C. There are no sudden temperature fluctuations in central and southern Laos. The average January temperature is + 25 ° C, July - + 30 ° C

Precipitation is reduced to 3000 mm per year.

Flora Laos. 60% of the territory of Laos is covered by tropical, leafy, evergreen forests and savannahs. A valuable tree of trees grows in the country.

Fauna from Laos. Among the representatives of the animal world are elephants, panthers, leopards, tigers.

Landmarks of the city of Laos. On the banks of the Mekong is the royal monastery of Wat Xieng Thong, otherwise known as the "City of the Golden Temple", located near the "Red Chapel" - ("The Society of Friendship" (Quakers) was founded in England by George Fox in the 17th century) a beautiful villa Quaker service.

On the other side of the Mekong is Wat Long Khun.

It is especially picturesque in mid-April, mid-April, when Imai, the new year of Vientiane ("the city of the moon"), is celebrated in Laos. The forest reserves of Dongsythenong, Donghyasa and others are extremely interesting.

where regular safaris, elephant rides, etc. are held.

Useful information for tourists

In the old capital of Laos, Luang Prabang is Pu Xi Hill, which boasts a masterpiece of Lao Buddhist architecture, the Tat Chomsi Pagoda. A narrow stone staircase leads from the Mekong to the hill. Here, tourists and citizens made donations and made their demands in front of a Buddha statue sitting in the shade of the sacred Champa tree.

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Geography of Laos. Nature, relief, climate, population of Laos

It is located in Southeast Asia between 100° and 107°40` east longitude and 13°55` and 22°32` north latitude. Two-thirds of the territory of Laos is covered with dense forests, the landscape consists of low hills and mountains, the highest peak is Phu Bya with a height of 2817 m.

The Mekong River flows along the border of Laos with Thailand and Myanmar, the border with Vietnam is divided by the Annamite Range and extends over half of the country.

The tropical climate is characterized by the division of the year into two seasons - the summer rainy monsoon period from May to November, and the winter dry period from December to April.

The territory of the country stretches over several climatic zones - impenetrable jungle and fertile valleys, rocky mountains and mysterious caves, picturesque rivers and waterfalls.

Such a variety of landscapes allows you to come up with a lot of interesting options for spending time in Laos. There are no very large cities in Laos, the capital Vientiane has no more than 200 thousand inhabitants, other relatively large cities are Luang Prabang (50 thousand), Savannakhet (70 thousand) and Pakse (90 thousand).

Since 1993, the government has designated 21% of the country's conservation areas (NBCAs) that are intended to be converted into national parks.

When completed, these parks promise to be the most interesting and representative parks in Southeast Asia.

Laos is divided into 16 provinces (khweng), a metropolitan prefecture (kampheng nakhon) and a special zone (khetphiset). The provinces are divided into 140 districts, consisting of 11,000 communes.

Laos is a predominantly mountainous country.

The mountains rarely exceed 2000 m, but have a strongly dissected relief. The mountainous terrain and dense tropical forests make it difficult to communicate with neighboring countries. The northern most part of the country is occupied by the highest, most difficult and sparsely populated mountains. They are composed of granites, gneisses and are cut by deep gorges through which numerous rivers flow.

Mountain ranges alternate with folded plateaus, sandstones and limestones. The northeastern border of the country runs along the Dending, Shamshao, Shusungtyaotyai ridges, the southeastern - along the Chyongshon mountains (up to 2700 m high), the western - along the Luang Prabang ridge. In the central part of Laos, the Xiangkhuang plateau stands out with a height of approx. 1200 m, framed by higher mountains.

To the south of it rises the highest mountain of the country, Bia (2819 m).

The capital of Laos Vientiane: the aesthetics of contradictions

The Truong Son mountains are replaced by low plateaus, which break off in ledges to the wide Mekong valley. The most extensive basalt plateau Boloven with average heights up to 1200 m is located in the extreme south of the country.

Nature and relief of Laos

Laos is the land of rugged mountains and fertile river valleys. The lands along the banks of the rivers, suitable for irrigated agriculture, have long been inhabited and mastered by man, and the inhabitants of the mountain slopes and peaks have to win back land, burning the forest for crops.

The mountainous nature of the relief predetermines the isolation of individual regions of Laos and makes it difficult for them to communicate with the outside world.

The most inaccessible and underdeveloped part of the country is Northern Laos. The rocky mountains, cut by deep gorges, reach a height of 2000 m here. The mountains, which have undergone severe erosion, are composed mainly of limestone, clay and crystalline schists.

The Pu Kum Ridge (2000 m) in the northwest of Laos forms the natural Khammuan, interesting as an area of ​​​​classical karst relief. In the east, the plateau passes into the Truong Son Mountains, ancient, heavily destroyed, dissected into separate blocky massifs.

Some passes, such as Ailau and Mu Gia, lie at an altitude of only about 400 m. The maximum height of the mountains in Central Laos is 2286 m. The western slopes of the Central Laos plateau descend in gentle steps to the Mekong valley.

Here, to the south of the Khammuan Plateau, the vast Savannakhet Valley stands out with zaivny rice fields.

In Southern Laos - the main breadbasket of the country - the Truong Son Mountains pass in ledges into low, but rather steep plateaus, surrounded by alluvial fertile lowlands in river valleys.

The greatest height (1200 m) reaches the Boloven plateau, composed of sandstones and basalts.

To the south of it is the rocky Xiangkhuang plateau, some peaks of which reach 2500-3000 m. In the southeast, the plateau passes into the Truong Son chain, which extends to the very south of Laos. They pass the border with Vietnam.

The Truong Son Mountains are composed of crystalline rocks: limestone, sandstone, shale. Block massifs of 500-2500 m here alternate with depressions: for example, the Keonya pass lies at an altitude of only 728 m.

The only fertile valley of Northern Laos - Vientiane - is of alluvial origin. The relief of Central Laos is dominated by medium-altitude plateaus; the most extensive of them is a limestone plateau.

Minerals of Laos

Laos has significant reserves of a number of minerals. Currently, deposits of tin ore (metal content up to 60%) have been explored. It is estimated that iron ore reserves (magnetite and hematite with a metal content of up to 60–65%) in Laos account for two-thirds of all resources in Southeast Asia.

Deposits of copper ore, coal, lead, zinc, antimony, gypsum, manganese, limestone, potash, table salt, platinum, precious stones (sapphires, rubies, etc.) have also been explored. Alluvial placers of gold and silver are numerous. The development of deposits of tin ore, gold, precious stones is underway.

Most mining is carried out in the mountainous Northern and Central Laos.

Significant deposits of tin ore (about 70 thousand tons) are located on the Khammuan plateau. New deposits of tin have recently been discovered near the city of Savannakhet. In the area of ​​the Xiangkhuang Plateau, iron ore reserves with a high metal content (60-70%), estimated at 1 billion tons, have been discovered.

There are copper ores, coal, antimony, lead, zinc, gypsum, manganese, and limestone in Northern and Central Laos. Throughout the country there are deposits of gold and various precious stones, especially sapphires and rubies.

Salt is found and mined in Laos in two places - north of Vientiane and south of Phongsali. Oil-bearing layers are assumed near Vientiane and Savannakhet.

Climate of Laos

The climate of Laos is tropical, monsoonal. The regime and direction of the winds determine a clear change of two seasons: dry, cool - from November to April, when cold northern and northeastern monsoons invade from the continent with almost no precipitation, and humid, hot - from May to October, when warm air masses from the Indian The oceans bring tropical downpours and high temperatures.

The large extent of the country from the northwest to the southeast and the mountainous relief create quite significant climatic differences between the northern and southern regions.

In the lowlands of Northern Laos, the average temperature of the coldest month is January + 15 °, and the hottest month is July 24-28 °. In the mountainous regions of northern Laos, the air temperature sometimes drops below 0 ° in winter. In Central and Southern Laos, such sharp fluctuations in temperature do not occur. The average January temperature here is +23, +25°, July +30°.

Laos receives a significant amount of precipitation, but it is unevenly distributed: in the mountainous regions and on the high plateaus of Xiangkhuang, Khammuan, Boloven, up to 3500 mm of precipitation falls annually, and on the plains and low plateaus of Northern Laos, as well as in the Savannakhet Valley - 1000-2000 mm .

The unequal distribution of precipitation over the seasons, combined with the relief features in different parts of Laos, contributed to the uneven development of the territory of this country. Southern Laos is more developed.

Water resources of Laos

There are few lakes and swamps in Laos, but there are a lot of rivers.

They flow through plains and mountain gorges. Most of them belong to the Mekong basin, the main artery of the country and one of the largest rivers in Asia. A third of the total length of the Mekong, or almost all of its middle course, coincides with the border between Laos and Thailand. The largest tributaries of the Mekong in Northern Laos are Ta, U, Dong, Lik, Ngum.

In Central and Southern Laos, these are Bangfai, Banghiang, Don, Kong, Than. The monsoon climate regime is associated with summer floods and winter shallowing of rivers. During the dry season, many rivers become so shallow that there is not enough water not only for irrigation, but also for the domestic needs of the population, and navigation in some areas is completely stopped. Rice crops largely depend on the timely arrival of floods. Rivers provide the population with fish, but fishing plays a smaller role in the country's economy than in Kampuchea.

The weak development of land roads makes the rivers of Laos almost the only type of communication, both internal and external.

But navigation along them is hampered not only by seasonal shallowing, but also by many rapids, waterfalls and rough currents. Even in the most gentle sections of the Mekong, the current speed reaches 4-5 m / s. On the main channel of the Mekong, movement is possible in three sections, free from rapids and waterfalls. The upper section of the river - from Luang Prabang to Vientiane - is accessible only to pirogues and small motor boats. The middle one - from Vientiane to Savannakhet - has a calmer current, barges, capacious sampan boats and fast long pirogues ply here all year round.

Near Savannakhet are the Khemmarat rapids, which prevent navigation, and the river becomes navigable again only south of these rapids.

Here it is available all year round for large sampans and ships with a displacement of 200-300 tons. Khong waterfalls block the waterway at the very border with Kampuchea. The Mekong, with its numerous rapids tributaries, is fraught with huge reserves of hydropower.

Flora of Laos

More than half of the entire territory of the country is occupied by forests.

The slopes of the mountains of Northern Laos are covered with evergreen subtropical forests, changing at an altitude of 1500 m mixed - from oak, pine, chestnut. The plateaus of Central and Southern Laos are dominated by light monsoon deciduous forests.

Tropical rainforests are characteristic of the valleys of Southern Laos and the Truong Son Mountains.

Valuable and rare species of trees have been preserved in virgin forests: pink, black, sandalwood, iron. Teak forests occupy a significant area in northwestern Laos, along the Mekong; on the Xiangkhuang, Khammuan and Boloven plateaus, a beautiful drill pine grows. In addition to valuable wood, forests also provide varnishes and resins.

Areas with low rainfall - the Savannakhet Valley and partly the Xiangkhuang and Boloven plateaus - are covered with tall grass savannahs, the appearance of which is partly facilitated by forest burning during shifting agriculture.

Fauna of Laos

The fauna of Laos is extremely diverse and unique; “many species of animals that have already been exterminated in other countries are still preserved here. Laos has a mix of tropical and temperate animal species. Numerous monkeys (gibbons, macaques) and semi-monkeys live in the jungle, as well as predators: tiger, marble panther, Tibetan bear, palm marten in palm thickets, marsh lynx in valleys and mountain gorges.

Of the large ungulates, there are wild banteng and gayal bulls, wild boars.

Snakes live in the forests - cobras, pythons, etc. There are many parrots, peacocks, ducks. In South and partly in North Laos there are significant herds of elephants. Many of these animals are of commercial importance.

Hunting is prohibited only for elephants, they are tamed and used to carry goods.

Population of Laos

The seven million inhabitants of Laos are unevenly distributed. A significant part of the population is concentrated along the Mekong River, and, in particular, near the capital. The mountainous regions in the east are sparsely populated. Less than a third of the population lives in cities. In general, about 600,000 people live in Vientiane and the surrounding area. Despite the small population, a large number of different tribes and nationalities live in Laos.

In Laos, it is customary to distinguish the population by their areas of residence, and not according to ethno-linguistic criteria.

At the same time, the following three groups of peoples are distinguished: Lao Lum live on the plains, along large rivers and in cities. These include the main people of the Lao and related mountain tai (thai nya, thai black, thai white, phuthai, yuan), this group includes 67% of the population.

Lao Thang live on the spurs of hills and in low mountains, many tribes belong to this category, in general they make up 22% of the population.

They are considered the ancient population of Laos, on holidays the Laotians bring them a symbolic tribute for the right to inhabit their territory. The Lao Theng includes mountain Mons (Khamu, Lamet, Puteng, etc.) and mountain Khmers (Sui, Alak, Katang, Taoi, etc.), whose languages ​​belong to the Monkhmer family.

Lao Sung inhabit higher areas, above 1000 meters above sea level. These areas are usually distant from cities and rivers and are less accessible. Their share is 10% of the population. These include, in particular, the peoples of Miao (Hmong), Yao (Mien), Lahu, Lisu, Akha.

The Chinese, Vietnamese, Indians, Burmese, and others also live in Laos. In Laos, the languages ​​of the Thai-Kadai (Thai-Lao), Mon-Khmer and Tibeto-Burmese groups and the Miao-Yao groups are widespread.

According to ethno-linguistic criteria, the population of Laos is divided into 47 ethnic groups and 149 subgroups. The majority of the population professes Theravada Buddhism.

Many tribes of the Lao Thang and Lao Sung groups are animists with their own systems of honoring nature spirits and performing rituals. There is a small number of Christians, Muslims and Hindus.

Source - http://ru.wikipedia.org/
http://www.tury.ru/country/info.php?id=134

), Laos appears to be an almost unfamiliar destination for Russian travelers. Until 1988, the country was isolated and tourists were not allowed into its territory. And although now the borders are already open, and the visa regime is very simplified, the aura of mystery still does not leave Laos.

A few centuries ago, on the site of modern Laos, there was a powerful state with a poetic name Lan Xang, which means "Kingdom of millions of elephants." At the end of the 19th century, the French colonizers came here, their legacy - colonial European architecture - shapes the appearance of many Lao cities today.

Unfortunately, the socialist experiments of the last century brought the country into a deplorable economic situation. But, despite all the hardships, the locals managed to maintain optimism and good nature, the Laotians are exceptionally hospitable and friendly towards tourists.

Laos is a small country, but extremely diverse. There are ancient cities and mysterious caves, mountains, waterfalls and impenetrable jungle. Travelers usually come to Laos for 1-2 days as part of tours in Vietnam or Thailand, however, the excursion potential of Laos and the local opportunities for outdoor activities make it possible to plan a separate trip to this amazing country.

Climate and weather

The climate of Laos is subequatorial monsoon. When preparing for a trip to Laos, travelers should take into account that there are three seasons here. The first - dry and hot - lasts from February to April. In May, the humid hot period begins, which lasts until October. From November to February in Laos it is dry and cool.

The air temperature in different regions varies greatly depending on the altitude of the area. For example, the Mekong Valley is hottest in April and May. At this time, the daytime temperature rises to +35 °C. The coldest months in the lowland are December and January, when during the day the air warms up to +27 °C, and at night the temperature drops to +13…+15 °C. In the mountains, of course, it is generally cooler: in April, the daytime temperature reaches +29 ° C, and in December - only +21 ° C, January nights can be noticeably cold (+7 ° C).

More precipitation falls in the mountains than in the plains: up to 3500 mm against 2000 mm. The rainiest time in Laos is summer, when the monthly portion of precipitation can be 300-500 mm. But for the whole winter it rarely falls more than 20 mm.

The best time to travel to Laos is from November to February, and in mountainous areas it is comfortable until July.

Nature

Laos is a land of mountains. Although they are not too high and rarely exceed 2000 meters, their relief is very dissected. This relief and the dense forests that cover the mountains prevent active communication between Laos and neighboring countries. The highest and impenetrable mountains are in the north of Laos. ridges Dending, Shamshao, Shusung Tyaotai dotted with deep gorges. The western border of the country runs along the ridge Luang Prabang Mountains rise in the southeast Truong Son height up to 2700 meters. The highest mountain in Laos Bia(2819 m).

With the same confidence, Laos can be called a country of forests. Even in the middle of the last century, forests occupied approximately 70% of the country's territory. Today this figure is already 50%. Evergreen humid subtropical forests reign in the north of Laos: laurels, magnolias, ferns, lianas. At an altitude of 1500 meters, they pass into mixed coniferous-deciduous forests, where oaks, pines, and chestnuts grow. In the central part of Laos, thickets of bamboo, teak, dipterocarpus, and lagerstromia predominate. Palm trees, tree ferns, fruit trees appear in the south.

The fauna of Laos is unique in its own way. Large herds of Indian elephants have been preserved here to this day. There are tigers, leopards, marble panthers in the forests. You can meet Malayan and white-breasted bears. Not very rare - marsh lynx and palm marten. Quite a lot of wild bulls (guyals and bantengs), buffaloes, deer. Of the fearsome reptiles, pythons and cobras live in Laos. The country has a wide variety of birds, from colorful parrots and peacocks to pigeons and ducks.

Attractions

The main asset and pride of Laos is the most beautiful temples. There are 32 of them in Luang Prabang alone! In the capital of Laos, Vientiane, the most revered is the temple of the XVI century Wat Si Muang(Wat Si Muang). Here they worship not so much the Buddha as the spirits of the city. According to legend, the spirits live in the yellow column standing here, which was found on the site of one of the ancient Khmer cities.

The top list of Lao attractions also includes a symbol of the unity of the nation - a stupa. That Luang(Pha That Luang) in Vientiane. The monument was erected in the 16th century, and acquired its current appearance at the beginning of the last century thanks to French restorers. Here is the official residence of the Buddhist patriarch of the country.

The Valley is located in the northeast of Laos. Jah- a mysterious place where several hundred stone urns lie, the origin and purpose of which archaeologists are still scratching their heads. The largest of the urns weighs 10.6 tons. It has been established that the urns were carved about two thousand years ago from stone, which is not found in the nearby territories.

Definitely recommend to visit Champasak is one of the oldest cities in Laos. It used to be the capital of the kingdom Chenla. There is a complex of ruins here Wat Phou which is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. But the most interesting thing in Champasak is a labyrinth of 4000 islands Si Phan Don. In addition to the fabulous beauty, the place is famous for its large population of rare Irrawaddy dolphins.

Nutrition

The cuisine of Laos has not only absorbed the culinary traditions of local peoples, but also borrowed the best features from the cuisine of its neighbors - Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand and China.

The basis of the meal in Laos, as in other Asian countries, is rice. The usual Laotian menu includes "white rice", fried rice ("khao phat") and "sticky rice" in balls that are dipped in numerous types of sauces. Noodles are also popular - in soup ("foe") and as a side dish or an independent dish, such as fried noodles "khua".

Freshwater fish occupies an important place on the Lao table. Be sure to try "laap"- a fish dish with rice, lime, garlic, green onion, mint and chili. Delicious things like fish in coconut milk are also good. "sushi dad", Fried fish "sushi-pa-gnon" and spicy fried catfish.

Meat, although not as popular as fish, is a beef salad with herbs. "channam-tuk" surely you will like it. But there are many poultry dishes in Lao restaurants: chicken stuffed with rice and cinnamon, fried chicken "kai-lao" stewed with quail cabbage. There are also exotic delicacies from the meat of snakes, squirrels, lizards.

Mint, lime juice, lemongrass, coriander are commonly used as seasonings. Instead of salt, various fish sauces are often used. Garlic, basil, hot pepper, peanut butter, coconut milk and Indian date juice are also actively added to the dishes.

There are many restaurants in Laos, while the cost of food does not hit the pocket even in establishments that are considered expensive. In a mid-range restaurant, you won’t have to pay more than $ 10-15 per person for dinner, and in numerous street cafes you can eat a hearty meal at several times cheaper.

Accommodation

Most hotels in Laos are 2-4-storey guest houses with a minimum set of services and a unique flavor. These are inexpensive family hotels, where hot water and air conditioning will not necessarily be present, but the room will be decorated in the national style. Before settling in such hotels, you should check the availability of the necessary amenities.

Recently, in Laos, in particular, in Luang Prabang, boutique hotels have become popular, which are located in two- and three-story villas. The interior of the rooms, as a rule, is made in the colonial style. Boutique hotels have all the amenities, and accommodation here promises to be very comfortable.

There are not very many hotels in the European sense in Laos, but those that are, as a rule, have categories according to the European system for assessing the quality of hotel service. The most expensive and luxurious hotels are concentrated in Vientiane and Luang Prabang. On the territory of the hotels there will definitely be a swimming pool, a fitness center and a tennis court; spa centers and conference rooms are usually also offered to guests. Internet and Wi-Fi are usually free. Breakfast is included in the cost of living only in large hotels, in the rest it is offered for an additional fee. In general, prices for accommodation in Lao hotels are lower than in European hotels of the same category.

Entertainment and recreation

Laos is a great place for those who love outdoor activities. Activities such as rafting, trekking, cycling, cave visits and trips along the Mekong River are very popular here.

In Laos, there is no sea and beaches, but there are plenty of routes for rafting. Good for river rafting Nam Lik And Nam Ngum near Vientiane, along the river Nam Na in the Luang Namtha area. The most impassable is the river Nam Fa, where there are the most thresholds.

Cave lovers recognize that Laos is a real paradise for cavers. The most popular, well-lit cave - Tham Chang- located near Luang Prabang. The most interesting thing is to visit the Elephant Cave ( Tham Xang), which owes its name to a stalactite in the shape of an elephant's head. This cave is also notable for its natural swimming pool.

Walks along the Mekong will not leave indifferent connoisseurs of natural beauties. On Don Khon Island in the middle of the river, you can watch the life of dolphins.

Purchases

Like most South Asian countries, Laos is famous for its interesting and inexpensive shopping. In the capital of Laos, Vientiane, everything is about twice as expensive as in other cities, but still the prices are very affordable compared to Russian ones.

In Laos, they usually buy local silk, wood and leather products, embroidered clothes and shoes, silver and gold jewelry, various souvenirs and kitchen utensils, as well as paintings and CDs with national music.

Shopping in Laos is unthinkable without visiting local markets. The most famous is Vientiane Talat Sao or Morning Market. This largest covered market in the capital is a two-story building, which contains an abundance of shops and cafes. The shopping center is designed for tourists, and you can buy anything here, from souvenirs to household appliances. The market works Talat Sao daily from 07:00 to 16:00.

If you want more exotic, visit the markets where locals go shopping. Fresh meat, fish, vegetables and fruits are much cheaper in such places.

Bargaining is encouraged in private shops and markets. Starting prices are usually high. By the way, in the province of Laos, you can encounter strange behavior of sellers: they can actively bargain, but at the same time not reduce the price by a single cent. In such cases, we advise you to go to a nearby seller - for sure, his prices will be more attractive.

Bank cards are accepted for payment in large stores, but in the provinces it is almost impossible to pay with them. It is most profitable to change currency in banks, but keep in mind that some banks only accept dollars or Thai baht.

Transport

In general, transport links in Laos are developing quite rapidly. For example, if until recently asphalt roads were a rarity, now primers remain only in remote areas. From Vientiane to Pakse And Luang Prabang the roads are excellent.

Local aviation is a company Lao Airlines. It operates flights between many cities in Laos. But there is no railway transport in the country, although there are 12 kilometers of railway that have not been used for a long time.

Travelers can comfortably move between cities on tourist buses. They are much more expensive than usual, but they are equipped with air conditioning, TVs and toilets. If you want local exotics, choose ordinary shabby buses. True, you will have to go not only with the Laotians, but also with what they bought or are carrying to sell - vegetables, fruits, animals and other bulky goods.

Today, it is still possible to travel along the rivers of Laos on slow motor boats, but with the development of the highway, this transport is becoming a thing of the past. Even local residents are increasingly choosing buses, as boats cannot be called comfortable: people are stuffed into them like herring in a barrel. We do not recommend driving on “fast” motorboats for your safety.

Taxi is very popular among tourists. Remember that local taxis do not keep meters, the cost of the trip must be negotiated before boarding. The approximate fare is $ 0.5 per kilometer.

As for the rental of transport, you can rent a bicycle or motorcycle everywhere. True, we do not recommend renting motorcycles to drivers without serious experience in driving this vehicle. You can rent a car in the capital Vientiane, Pakse and Luang Prabang, but this service is not yet very developed and prices are high.

Connection

Internet and network technology services are developing quite actively in Laos. Internet cafes of the company are common in cities Laonet. The cost of services varies depending on the distance from the capital and can be quite big: from $1 to $10 per hour.

Cellular communication in Laos is mainly represented by the GSM 900 standard. It should be noted that good quality communication is observed only in the capital. Roaming is provided by companies Lao Telecommunications And Millicom Lao, tourists from Russia can easily stay in touch.

But ordinary phones in Laos, oddly enough, are rare. There are no more than 70 thousand lines in the country. Radiotelephones are used to communicate with remote areas. Public pay phones can only be found on the central streets of cities, near banks and shopping centers. Calling cards can be purchased at the post office, in shops and offices of telephone operators. However, due to the high cost of international communication and the low face value of cards ($2-6), it can be impossible to make a call using one card - the card ends before the subscriber has time to say “hello”. Therefore, we advise you to call abroad from post offices or from offices Telecom.

Safety

Laos is quite safe. Although the wars, coupled with economic devastation, brought the local population to a beggarly state, this did not lead to an increase in crime, as in many countries with a similar situation. Violent crime in Laos is extremely rare.

The main problem for a traveler in Laos, as in all tourist places, is petty theft. So you should not neglect reasonable security measures: watch your belongings, do not carry large sums of money with you, and do not show off expensive jewelry or watches.

You can travel around the country without fear for personal safety, but there is a Special Zone along the Cambodian border Sisombun which is currently closed to tourists. It should also be borne in mind that in the eastern regions of Laos, thousands of unexploded bombs and mines still lie in the ground - a terrible legacy of the Vietnam War. Therefore, if you are planning trips to areas east of Savannakhet, take care of a local guide. Be sure to follow the main rule: do not walk through the fields and untrodden paths, do not go to the side of the paths and roads.

To maintain health, we recommend preventive measures against malaria: vaccinations, mosquito repellents. Do not drink tap water, be sure to purchase bottled water. Products purchased at the market must be thoroughly processed before eating.

Business climate

Although Laos has great potential to become the "economic miracle" of Southeast Asia, it is still far from being an attractive investment destination. Unpredictable government policies and economic decline, human trafficking, labor shortages and environmental pollution - all these factors deter potential foreign investors.

At the same time, the Department of Promotion and Management of Domestic and Foreign Investments of Laos has determined a number of preferences for foreign investors, primarily with regard to taxes. Thus, an incentive tax rate of 20% is applied to foreigners (35% to local companies), and income tax is 10%. Non-tax benefits are also established for foreign companies: it is allowed to hire foreign specialists, lease land for up to 50 years, and it is guaranteed protection against nationalization or requisition without compensation.

To date, these positive changes, unfortunately, are not able to significantly affect the business climate in Laos: it is still very difficult to develop your business in this country. The World Bank and International Finance Corporation, analyzing the ease of doing business in their economic survey, ranked Laos 171 out of 183 countries.

Real estate

Since Laos has been in a long political isolation, at present foreigners do not yet seek to acquire property in this country. In addition, the formation of the real estate market here is in its infancy, the proposals are mainly limited to the capital Vientiane and the cities of Pakse and Luang Prabang.

The main obstacle to foreign investment in real estate is local laws, according to which the land belongs to the state, and foreigners can not own land or real estate. Only long-term lease of an apartment or house is possible up to 30 years, and commercial real estate - up to 50 years, but the extension of the contract is not guaranteed. Recently, such a form of housing ownership as an apartment in a condominium has been slowly spreading, but, again, foreigners cannot register the ownership of such an apartment for themselves, but are forced to look for “gray” schemes. In such a situation, there is no active demand for real estate in Laos from foreign investors.

True, with regard to average prices for houses and apartments, Laos appears in an attractive light. A house in Vientiane, for example, can be found for $10,000. However, due to the lack of a normal market, prices can be both low and unpredictably skyrocket.

When planning to visit the reserves of Laos, remember that many of them will only let you in with an official guide. Therefore, take care of the guide in advance, and if you want to save money, we advise you to contact the Department of Tourism, and not the local travel agencies.

Tipping in public restaurants and hotels is usually automatically included in the bill, in private establishments it is left at the discretion of the client (it is recommended to leave 5-10% of the bill).

As for the prohibitions, most of them are typical for Southeast Asia: in Laos you can’t point your feet at other people, also don’t try to step over people or touch their heads. Women should not dress provocatively. The most serious is the ban on drug use. Don't be fooled by their availability, the police keep a close eye on whether tourists use drugs. If a traveler is caught red-handed, at least a large fine awaits him, and in some cases the case may end in prison. By the way, the sexual relations of foreigners with Laotians are officially prohibited if they are not married.

LAOS, Lao People's Democratic Republic (Satalanalat Pasatipatai Pasason Lao).

General information

Annually renewable water resources are 334 km 3 , water availability is about 54 thousand m 3 per person per year - the highest in Asia. The annual water intake is small - about 3 km 3 (of which 90% goes to the needs of agriculture, 4% is consumed by industrial enterprises, 6% is spent on domestic water supply). 79% of urban and 43% of rural residents have access to high-quality drinking water. 17% of arable land is irrigated.

Soils, flora and fauna. Mountain red-yellow ferralitic soils predominate, on the plains of the Mekong River - lateritic gley and alluvial meadow soils, altered by long-term cultivation of rice. The flora includes 8286 species of higher plants (18 species are endangered). Forests occupy about 70% of the territory. Up to a height of 1000-1500 m, evergreen tropical forests grow with the participation of dipterocarps; monsoon deciduous forests are common on some slopes; many valuable tree species are found, including teak, sandalwood, mahogany, ebony and rosewood. Above - evergreen broad-leaved forests with magnolias, laurels; in the ridge part of the mountains - mixed forests (oak, pine). On the Bolaven and Xiangkhuang plateaus, in the spurs of the Truongshon mountains, there are significant areas of coniferous forests of Merkuza and Khasia pines. Forests in Laos have suffered from slash-and-burn agriculture and fires. Secondary savannahs, thickets of bamboo and alang-alang are widespread on the site of reduced forests. The rate of deforestation is 0.5% per year. Primary forests have been preserved on an area of ​​1490 thousand hectares (9% of forest land). Forest plantations have been established on an area of ​​224,000 ha, accounting for only 1.4% of forest land (2005). Deforestation has led to increased soil erosion and increased flooding.

The animal world is rich and varied. 172 species of mammals are known, 31 species are endangered (couprey bull, white-breasted bear, leopard, white-armed and black gibbons, etc.). Of the large mammals, there are elephant, tiger, leopard, panther, wild boar, various types of deer, wild buffalo, monkeys (gibbons, macaques, thin-bodied). Bats are common. There are numerous reptiles (142 species in total) - cobra, pythons, lizards, crocodiles, etc., 12 species are endangered, including the Siamese crocodile, several species of turtles. The fauna of nesting birds is diverse - there are 212 species, of which 20 are endangered, including black and giant ibises, 3 species of vultures. There are peacock, parrots, jungle chicken. 49 species of fish live in the rivers (6 species are endangered).

Protected natural areas occupy 4.4 million hectares. In Laos, there are 22 national territories for the protection of biodiversity (mainly forest reserves), including 2 transboundary corridors for the migration of large mammals (elephant, tiger, ungulates) in the Than and Khampo river basins, 1 wetland of international importance.

Lit.: Wildlife in Lao PDR: 1999 Status report. Vientiane, 1999; Alekseeva N.N. Modern landscapes of foreign Asia. M., 2000; Global Forest Resources Assessment: progress towards sustainable forest management. Rome, 2005.

N. N. Alekseeva (physical and geographical essay).

Population

The main population of Laos is the Laotians. The majority (62.3%) are Thai peoples: Lao - 46.5%, Tai mountain - 12.8% (futai - 2.9%, fuan - 2%, thai dam - 1%, thai khang - 1%, tai kao - 0.8%, tai deng - 0.6%, nya - 0.2%, etc.), Thais - 2.2%, Shans - 0.8%. There are 26.4% Mon-Khmer peoples, including mountain Khmers make up 23.2% (Khmu - 11.0%, So - 2.5%, Katang - 2%, etc.), Viet - 3.1% , Khmer - 0.1%. In the north of Laos live the Miao-Yao peoples (Miao - 6.8% and Yao - 0.4%) and Tibeto-Burmese peoples (2.4%; Akha, Lahu, Hani, etc.), Chinese (1.7% ).

The population of Laos is rapidly increasing (3584 thousand people in 1985; 4612 thousand people in 1995; 5609 thousand people in 2005). Rates of natural population growth over 2.3% (2009); birth rate 34.0 per 1000 inhabitants, death rate 10.8 per 1000 inhabitants. The fertility rate is 4.4 children per woman. Infant mortality is very high - 77.8 per 1000 live births (2009). The proportion of children under 15 years old is 40.8%, people of working age (15-64 years old) 56.1%, people 65 years old and over 3.1% (2009). On average, there are 98 men for every 100 women. Average life expectancy is 56.6 years (men - 54.5, women - 58.8 years, 2009).

The average population density is 25.8 people/km2 (2010). The most densely populated are the fertile river valleys, where the population density in some places reaches 100 people / km 2, the lowest population density in the mountainous regions of the country. The share of the urban population is over 30%. Largest cities (thousand people, 2010): Vientiane (237.3), Pakse (119.8), Savannakhet (77.4), Luang Prabang (62.3).

In total, the economy of Laos employs about 2.1 million people (2006), including about 80% in agriculture, industry, construction and services - a little over 20%. The unemployment rate is about 2.4% of the economically active population; 26% of the country's inhabitants live below the poverty line (2005).

Religion

According to various estimates (2006-08), from 50 to 60% of the population of Laos profess Theravada Buddhism, about 1% - Mahayana Buddhism; from 30 to 40% - adherents of traditional beliefs; from 1.5 to 2% - Christians (mainly Catholics and representatives of Protestant denominations). Adherents of other confessions (Bahais, Muslims, Taoists, etc.) are few in number.

Buddhism is practiced mainly by the “plain” Lao (laolum), traditional beliefs are the population of the mountainous regions of Laos, Mahayana Buddhism is common among immigrants from China and Vietnam. There are 4 apostolic vicariates of the Roman Catholic Church. The largest Protestant organization is the Evangelical Church of Laos (founded in 1956).

Historical outline

Laos from ancient times to the end of the 19th century. The oldest man appeared on the territory of Laos in the Paleolithic. More reliable data have been obtained for the Meso-Neolithic (the Mesolithic is not distinguished as a special stage) - the Middle Neolithic; these antiquities belong to the Hoa Binh culture. In the province of Luang Prabang, the cave sites of Tamhang related to it (southern, with a layer of this time up to 3 m, and northern), Tampong and others were studied; among the finds are roughly hewn tools made of river pebbles, a crouched corpse. Later materials are close to the Bakshon culture. Late Neolithic sites in northern Laos belong to the Bankao culture, which is also known in other parts of Indochina.

The Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age in northeastern Laos (Sankongfan, Keohintan, and others; Huaphan Province) include megaliths and tombs with stone steps leading to chambers covered with mica schist disks (there are very few bone remains); among the inventory - stucco undecorated vessels (flat-bottomed, round-bottomed, with a stem); bronze rings; discs made of mica schist, 30-40 mm in diameter, decorated with a dotted star-shaped pattern, with a hole in the center. In central Laos, on the Xiangkhuang Plateau (“Valley of Pitchers”, Xiangkhuang Province), several hundred jugs made of local soft stone are known (on average, a height of about 1.5 m, a diameter of about 1.5 m; there are up to 3 m in diameter and weighing up to 14 tons); stone disks, including those with relief images of four-legged animals or spread-eagled human figures. In large stone jugs, glass beads, fragments of bones, vessels, pieces of iron are found; near the jugs in the ground, molded ceramic vessels are found (usually they were covered with other vessels), round-bottomed and on a leg, often with incised ornamentation, some are decorated with wavy lines and zigzags applied with a comb stamp. In the central part of the "Valley of Pitchers" a cave was explored in a limestone hill, with 2 chimneys; a lot of ashes and charred human bones were found on the floor; among other finds: stone rings, adzes with shoulders; bronze bracelets, spirals, bells; iron axes, knives, spearhead; ceramic head of an animal (probably a zebu), spindle whorl. To the north-west of the "Valley of pitchers" a combination of pitchers and not carefully processed stones or a group of only stones was noted; sometimes up to 6 ceramic vessels were covered with stones. In one of the vessels, a bronze anthropomorphic figurine was found (possibly from the handle of a dagger) with body proportions similar to those of the Dong Son culture figurines. There are also finds in Laos of typical Dong Son drums. On the territory of Laos, tin mines were developed, the raw materials from which reached the metallurgical center of Nonnoktha in Thailand. On some monuments from the end of the 1st millennium BC, small stone jugs with lids, pendants in the form of axes with holes, miniature bronze bells decorated with a spiral relief ornament, iron sickles and axes with a beveled blade are found.

In the 3rd-12th centuries, the territory of South and Central Laos was under the influence of the Khmer states of Funan, Chenla and Cambujadesh. In the middle of the 1st millennium, the migration to Laos of the Tai-speaking peoples from South China, mainly from the state of Nanzhao, intensified, which partially assimilated, partially forced out the Austro-Asian natives to the mountainous regions. During this period, the Tai-speaking population of Laos began to unite in the Muangs, which were first related associations, then feudal principalities. At the end of the 13th century, many of them fell into vassal dependence on the Thai state of Sukhothai.

In 1353, in the context of the weakening of Cambujadesh and the replacement of Sukhothai by the state of Ayutthaya, the principalities of Laos were united into the feudal state of Lan Xang. Its founder, Sua Fangum (1353-1371 or 1393), the prince of the northern Mueang, carried out military and administrative reforms, introduced the positions of viceroy (upahat), commander and council, and divided the territory of Laos into provinces. At the end of the 14th century, the population of Laos was divided into 3 classes: nobility, commoners, peasants, slaves. Slavery did not have a great influence on the economic life of Lan Xang. The nobility consisted of princes of the blood and local feudal officials. Personally free peasants cultivated the land owned by the state. Buddhism played a significant role, temple construction was carried out. In 1563 the capital was moved from the city of Luang Prabang to the city of Vientiane, located at the crossroads of trade routes with Siam and Dai Viet. In the second half of the 16th and 17th centuries, mainly during the reign of Sulinyawongsa (1637-94), Lan Xang flourished. There was a lively trade with neighboring countries, benzoin resin, gold, honey, fabrics were supplied to the foreign market. Architecture, fine arts, crafts, literature and music developed. In 1707, as a result of the struggle for the throne, Lan Xang broke up into the kingdoms of Luang Prabang and Vientiane [the southern kingdom of Champasak (Champassak) separated from the latter in 1713].

In 1778, Vientiane and Champasak became dependent on the strengthening of Siam. The attempts of the Vientiane ruler Anulutthalat (Anuruttharata; 1805-28) to free himself from the power of Siam ended in the defeat of the kingdom and its capital. The right-bank (along the Mekong River) Muangs of Vientiane and Champasak became provinces of Siam, the left-bank - its vassal territories. The Kingdom of Luang Prabang retained formal independence and the former dynasty, but recognized the suzerainty of China, Dai Viet and Siam.

In 1883-84, Siam sent troops to Luang Prabang to counter a possible attack on it by armed detachments (formed from representatives of the Thai people, Chinese, etc.) operating in Vietnam. France took advantage of this, making efforts since 1885 to establish its dominance in Indochina. In 1885, Siam agreed to the opening of a French vice-consulate in Luang Prabang. In 1887, a French mission was established here, headed by Vice-Consul O. Pavy, which began demarcating the kingdom's border with Vietnam. In May 1893, under the pretext of protecting its citizens from Chinese rebels, France sent troops to Laos.

By agreement with Siam, Luang Prabang on 10/3/1893 passed under the protectorate of France, the Lao territories east of the Mekong River were recognized as a zone of French influence, French troops occupied Southern Laos. Under the name French Laos, these lands became a French protectorate (the center is the city of Vientiane), which was ruled by a commissar general (since 1894), a resident (since 1895), a commissar (since 1945), who was subordinate to the governor general of the French Indochinese Union. In 1896, this agreement was recognized by Great Britain.

Laos in the 20th - early 21st century. In 1904, after the transfer by Siam to French Laos of a number of territories along the right bank of the Mekong River, it was divided into 11 provinces headed by French residents (in Central and Southern Laos) and government commissioners (in the three provinces of Luang Prabang). The French retained the structure of the patronage-client system on the territory of Laos at the middle and lower administrative levels: muangs (by the French definition, “native districts”), tasengi (“native cantons”), bani (villages), but put them under the control of residents and commissioners . The natural conditions of Laos, the low level of its socio-economic development held back the penetration of French capital into the country. Only tin mining (Phontiu district, Khammuan province) and logging were of importance; plantation economy and industry were practically non-existent. The French administration levied a poll tax on the population of Laos, introduced a monopoly on opium, salt and alcohol. The small number of French settlers led to the poor development of health care and education (in Laos there was only one secondary specialized educational institution - the School of Lao Administration and Law; opened in the city of Vientiane in 1928).

Until the early 20th century, the anti-colonial movement in Laos was weak. It was attended mainly by representatives of national minorities. In 1918-22, a Miao uprising broke out in northern Laos, led by Batchai, who was called the heavenly ruler (chau fa). From the beginning of the 20th century until 1939, the "movement of virtuous people" (phu mi bun) played a prominent role in Central and Southern Laos. Powerful peasant uprisings also took place in southern Laos in 1910-1936 under the leadership of Ong Keu and Ong Kommadam.

At the end of 1940, taking advantage of the defeat of France in the war with Germany, Thailand tried to seize the lands inhabited by Thais from the Indochinese Union with the help of military force. Under pressure from Japan, in May 1941, France signed an agreement with Thailand, according to which it ceded to it part of the territories on the left bank of the Mekong River. With the establishment of the so-called Franco-Japanese regime in the Indochina Union in 1940-41 (Japanese military occupation and the preservation of the French Vichy administration), the French authorities of Laos made concessions to the Laotian leaders: Laotians were appointed governors of the provinces, annexed to Luang Prabang as the provinces of Vientiane, Huaisai and Xiangkhuang, the government of the Luang Prabang Protectorate was created, headed by Prince Phetsalat, popular among the Laotians.

On March 9, 1945, Japanese troops stationed in Indochina staged a coup and dissolved the French colonial administration. On April 8, 1945, King Sisawang Wong (1904-46) of Luang Prabang proclaimed its independence, and then the independence of all Laos, under pressure from Japan. At the same time, the national movement Lao pen lao (“Laos to the Laotians”) arose in Laos, whose members were associated with the anti-Japanese Thai organization Seri Thai (“Free Thailand”). The Communist Party of Indochina, whose Laotian section was created as early as 1930, also stepped up its activities.

After the capitulation of Japan in August 1945, nationalists, communists, and also émigrés united in the Lao Itsala (“Free Laos”) movement, whose active members were Princes Souphanouvong and Souvanna Fuma. 10/12/1945 Lao Itsala proclaimed the independence of Laos, which received the name Pathet Lao ("Land of Lao"). The People's Assembly and government were formed, an interim constitution was adopted, and King Sisawang Wong of Luang Prabang was deposed.

In 1946, France, seeking to restore its positions in Laos, sent troops to its territory. The population of the country began a guerrilla war against the colonialists. In order to strengthen its position in Laos, the French administration contributed to the ascension to the Lao throne of Sisawang Wong (crowned on 23/04/1946). On July 19, 1949, the French government signed an agreement with him, according to which Laos was declared an "adjoined state" that is part of the French Union. France retained the exclusive right to decide questions of defense, foreign policy, foreign trade and finance. After that, the Lao Itsala movement collapsed: moderate nationalists, led by Prince Souvanna Phuma, began to cooperate with the royal government, and the communists and left-wing nationalists, led by Prince Souphanouvong and Kayson Phomvihan, withdrew their armed formations to the Vietnamese border and continued the guerrilla war. In August 1950, Neo Lao Itsala (Lao Liberation Front, FOL) was formed under their leadership. In the subsequent period, the FOL, with the help of Vietnamese volunteers, took control of a significant part of the territory of Northern and Central Laos. The French government, unable to counteract the national liberation movement, recognized Laos as an independent state on 10/22/1953. At the Geneva Conference of Foreign Ministers in 1954 (see the Geneva Accords on the Restoration of Peace in Indochina), the independence of Laos received international recognition, French troops and Vietnamese volunteers were withdrawn from the country.

In September 1954, a meeting took place between Souphanouvong and the prime minister of the royal government, Souvanna Phouma, at which an agreement was reached on a political settlement in Laos. The intervention of the United States, which took control of the economy and the army of Laos, led to the removal from power of Souvanna Phouma [the leader of the National Party of Laos (founded in 1947) Kathai Don Sasorit was appointed head of government] and the termination of the initiated dialogue. On March 22, 1955, the Communist People's Party of Laos (since 1972 the People's Revolutionary Party of Laos, PRPL) was created, headed by Kayson Phomvikhan, which operated underground.

In 1954-73, a civil war was going on in Laos between a group led by Souphanouvong (in 1956 it was called the Patriotic Front of Laos, PFL), right-wingers (Un Sananikon, Phum Nosavan, Prince Boon Um, Kupasit Athay), oriented first to France, and then on the United States, as well as "neutralists" led by Souvanna Fuma. All attempts to reconcile the parties and create a coalition government (see the Vientiane Accords, the Geneva Accords on Laos) failed because of the resistance, as a rule, from right-wing groups supported by the United States. Since 1960, Laos has been involved in the "Vietnamese War", since communications of the warring parties passed through its territory. Since 1964, the United States has increased its intervention in the affairs of Laos, considering it as a springboard for military operations in Indochina, in May of the same year, American aircraft began bombing areas of Laos that were under the control of communist forces and the PFL. The main force of the PFL was the Laos People's Liberation Army and North Vietnamese troops, and the governments were detachments of mountain tribes (Miao) led by General Vang Pao. The fighting in the south and east of the country was carried out with varying success (especially intense fighting took place in the "Valley of Pitchers"). With the conclusion of the Paris Agreements of 1973 on the restoration of peace in Vietnam and the beginning of the withdrawal of American troops, the situation in Laos also began to change, and the influence of the Communists in the country increased. On February 21, 1973, the Agreements on Restoring Peace and Achieving National Accord in Laos were signed in Vientiane, after which a coalition Provisional Government of National Unity headed by Souvanna Phuma and a National Political Advisory Council headed by Souphanouvong were created. Their troops in April 1975, after the unification of Vietnam, took control of the "Valley of Pitchers", in May they occupied the main cities of Southern Laos, in June - Luang Prabang, and in August of the same year they entered the capital. Armed formations subordinate to Wang Pao retreated to the territory of Thailand. By the fall of 1975, the old administration was replaced by people's committees, and in October 1975 the NRPL was legalized. On December 1-2, 1975, the National Congress of People's Representatives was held, which abolished the monarchy and removed King Sisawang Vatthana (ruled from 1959) from power, proclaimed the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPR), created a legislative unicameral Supreme People's Assembly (from December 1992 the National Assembly) and the government of the Lao PDR. Souphanouvong became president, and Keyson Phomvihan, general secretary of the Central Committee of the NRPL, became prime minister.

In 1978-79, relations between the Lao PDR and the PRC and Thailand escalated due to its support for Vietnamese actions to overthrow the Pol Pot regime in Cambodia.

In the early 1980s, a course was set in Laos to build socialism. In 1981, the government began to implement the first 5-year plan for the development of the national economy, began to carry out the nationalization of industry and the collectivization of agriculture. In the autumn of 1982, opponents of the NRPL raised an uprising in the north of the country, announcing the creation of the Democratic Government of the Kingdom of Laos, but the speech was suppressed.

Due to significant economic difficulties, the leadership of the Lao PDR in 1985 announced the creation of a "new economic mechanism", proclaiming the equality of various forms of ownership (state, cooperative, private, mixed). Collectivization was suspended, state intervention in the economy was limited, prices were released. Since the beginning of the 1990s, the leadership of Laos has withdrawn the slogan of building socialism, has embarked on the development of relations with Western countries and international financial organizations (the resulting high degree of dependence of Laos on external gratuitous and credit assistance, which has become a source of covering the country's budget deficit, which has arisen as a result of such a policy, remains and at the beginning of the 21st century; the main "donors" of Laos are Japan, Australia, Germany, France, Sweden, as well as organizations of the UN system). In August 1991, the Constitution of the Lao PDR was adopted, in accordance with which direct elections to the National Assembly were held in December 1992. Kayson Phomvihan became the President of Laos (1991-92). After him, this post was occupied by Nuhak Phumsawan (1992-1998), Khamtai Siphandon (1998-2006), Chummali Sayyason (since 2006).

Diplomatic relations between Laos and the USSR were established on 10/7/1960. In 1994, an agreement on the foundations of friendly relations was signed between Laos and the Russian Federation. Contacts are maintained between the foreign ministries of the two countries on an ongoing basis. At the level of the leadership of the two states, the practice of exchanging messages and visits has been developed, contacts have been established through the parliamentary line. The Intergovernmental Russian-Lao Commission for Trade, Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation is functioning. The volume of trade between the Russian Federation and the Lao PDR is 3.2 million dollars (2007), of which 90% is accounted for by Russian exports.

Lit.: Annales du Laos, Luang Prabang, Vientiane, Tranninh et. Bassac. Hanoi, 1926; Colani M. Megalithes du Haut-Laos. R., 1935; Iché F. Le statut politique et international du Laos français. Toulouse; R., 1935; Dementiev Yu. P. French policy in Cambodia and Laos. M., 1960; Laos: its people, its society, its culture. New Haven, 1960; Manich J. M. L. History of Laos. Bangkok, 1961; Burchett W. Vietnam and Laos in the days of war and peace. M., 1963; Le Boulanger R. Histoire de Laos francais. Farnborough, 1969; Ioanesyan S. I. Laos: Socio-economic development (late XIX - 60s of the XX century). M., 1972; Kozhevnikov V. A. Essays on the recent history of Laos. M., 1979; Bellwood P. Human conquest of the Pacific Ocean. M., 1986; Conboy K. War in Laos, 1954-1975. Carrollton, 1994; Laos: Handbook. M., 1994; Stuart-Fox M. History of Laos. Camb., 1999; Higham Ch. Early cultures of mainland Southeast Asia. Tatien, 2000.

V. A. Tyurin; D. V. Deopik, M. Yu. Ulyanov (archeology).

economy

Laos is one of the underdeveloped countries in the world. The volume of GDP is 14.6 billion dollars (according to purchasing power parity, 2009), per capita - about 2.1 thousand dollars. Human Development Index 0.619 (2007; 133rd among 182 countries and regions of the world).

At the beginning of the 21st century, the average annual GDP growth rate is about 6% (3% in 2009). The state economic policy is aimed at creating favorable conditions for the development of the private sector of the economy and the inflow of foreign investment into the country. The volume of foreign direct investment is 971.4 million dollars (2007), of which 56.1% is directed to industry (including hydropower, mining and logging), 25.5% - to the service sector (tourism, hotel and restaurant business, systems communications, etc.), 18.4% - in agriculture. Investments come from China, Thailand, Vietnam, as well as Australia, Canada, the Republic of Korea, Russia and other countries. Significant problems of economic development remain the poverty of a significant part of the population, the poor development of economic (including transport) infrastructure, as well as the lack of qualified personnel, aggravated by the significant scale of the “brain drain” (some of the specialists trained in the country go abroad in search of higher earnings). In the structure of GDP, agriculture accounts for 39.2%, industry and construction - 33.9%, services - 26.9% (2009).

Industry. The fastest growing sector of the economy (growth in production volumes about 12% in 2007, 2% in 2009). Electricity generation 3075 billion kWh (2007). Hydroelectric power stations form the basis of the electric power industry (they account for about 97% of the total electricity production). Most of the local electricity consumption is provided by the Nam Ngeum (Nam Ngum) HPP on the Ngeum River (960 MW) in Vientiane Province (part of the electricity is exported to Thailand). The Nam-Theng hydroelectric power station operates on the Theng River in Central Laos (150 MW). HPPs Nam-Then 2 (design capacity 1070 MW), Nam-Ngym 2 (615 MW) and others are under construction (early 2009). base of the Khongsa lignite deposit).

Lignite mining (about 620 thousand tons in 2007; 233 thousand tons in 2006) is carried out in the provinces of Luang Namtha and Sainyabuli with the participation of Thai companies (fuel is mainly exported to Thailand). Anthracite mining (about 35 thousand tons in 2005) is carried out in the province of Vientiane, mainly for the needs of the cement industry.

Mining and processing of non-ferrous metal ores is the leading export sector of the country's economy, developing mainly due to the influx of foreign investment. The production and full cycle of processing of gold and silver-bearing ores of copper from the Khanong and Thengkham deposits (located 40 km north of the city of Sepon, in the province of Savannakhet) is carried out by Lane Xang Minerais Ltd. (LXML; 90% of the assets are owned by the Australian company Oz Minerais, Ltd.). Production of refined (cathode) copper at the LXML copper smelter is 62.5 thousand tons, gold - 3185 kg, silver - about 4.5 tons (2007). The extraction and processing of gold and silver-bearing copper ores from the Phukham deposit, Vientiane province (about 120 km north of the country's capital), is carried out by the Australian company Pan Australian Resources Ltd. ("PanAust"). The company's enrichment plant has been operating (since 2008) with an annual capacity of 260 thousand tons of copper concentrates (about 65 thousand tons in terms of copper), about 2.1 tons of gold and 14 tons of silver. Copper ores are also mined in the province of Luang Namtha (a state-owned Lao-Chinese company), alluvial gold is mined in the GPC Vientiane (a joint Lao-Chinese enterprise). With the participation of foreign companies in the province of Vientiane, zinc ores are being mined (about 1.1 thousand tons in terms of metal, 2007).

Gypsum is mined from non-metallic raw materials (775 thousand tons in 2007; Savannakhet and Khammuan provinces), precious stones, mainly sapphires (about 1200 thousand carats; Bokeu province, etc.), limestone (the main raw material of the cement industry; about 750 thousand tons; provinces Vientiane and Khammouan), barites (29 thousand tons; Vientiane province), as well as rock salt (35 thousand tons), granite, etc.

Manufacturing industries are developing in cities. A steel plant in Vientiane with a capacity of 50 thousand tons per year (with the participation of Japanese capital) partially satisfies the country's domestic needs for steel fittings, wire, roofing iron (steel is smelted from scrap in electric furnaces). There are enterprises for the assembly of electronic devices, vehicles, etc. from imported components and parts. The production of agricultural implements, leather, ceramic products, perfumes, medicines, building materials, etc. has been launched. Cement production is about 400 thousand tons (2007), the largest enterprise is a plant in Vang Viang in the province of Vientiane (with the participation of Chinese capital). An export-oriented clothing industry is developing (mainly to the US and EU countries). There are enterprises in the food industry (including rice cleaning, the production of soft drinks), tobacco (mainly the production of cigarettes), and brewing industries. Crafts play an important role in the production of everyday items and souvenirs.

Agriculture. Growth in agricultural production 2.4% (2007). More than 4.3% of the country's territory is cultivated (2005; including arable land - 4.0%, planting of perennial crops - 0.3%). The area of ​​irrigated lands is about 1.8 thousand km2 (2003). According to the Constitution of Laos, land belongs to the state. Small farms predominate. At the end of the 20th century, the country achieved self-sufficiency in rice (the most important food product of the population) and its export to Thailand was established. More than 1/2 of arable land is used for growing rice. Rice is cultivated everywhere, the main rice-growing areas are the fertile lowlands and river valleys of Southern Laos and the Savannakhet Valley in Central Laos. Natural conditions allow 2 crops per year to be harvested on irrigated lands. The harvest of brown rice is about 2.7 million tons (2007). Corn is grown everywhere, including in the mountainous regions in the north of the country; corn harvest 690.8 thousand tons (2007). Other food crops (collection in 2007, thousand tons): sweet potato (126), cassava (edible cassava; 233), as well as vegetables (660), watermelons (72), bananas (48), other fruits (38), pineapples ( 37), etc. Industrial crops include tobacco (41.5 thousand tons of leaves in 2007), coffee (33.2 thousand tons of green beans), sugar cane (323.9 thousand tons). In a number of remote mountainous regions in the north of Laos, the illegal cultivation of opium poppy remains the main source of income for peasants (since the end of the 20th century, poppy seed production has been declining due to measures taken to destroy plantings and stimulate the cultivation of cash crops).

Animal husbandry is an auxiliary branch of agricultural production. Livestock is kept in all peasant farms. Bulls and buffaloes are mainly used for field work, horses for transporting goods. Pigs, small cattle, poultry are bred. Production of the main types of livestock products (2007, thousand tons): pork 46, beef 23, buffalo meat 18.5, chicken meat 16. Forestry industries (wood harvesting, collection of resins, medicinal and aromatic herbs), river fishing are developed.

Most of the wood harvested (6137 thousand m 3 of roundwood in 2006) is used as fuel. Export of timber 625 thousand m 3 , including valuable species (teak, pink, black, sandalwood). Collection and primary processing of cardamom seeds, benzoin resin (dewy incense). Fishing in rivers, ponds and paddy fields.

Services sector. A rapidly developing sector of the economy, mainly due to the growth in the volume of services related to serving foreign tourists. In 2007, the country was visited by about 1.6 million people, of which 82% - from ASEAN countries (mainly Thailand, Singapore and Vietnam), 12% - from EU countries, 6% - from the USA. Most of the visits were made to the provinces of Vientiane, Luang Prabang, Savannakhet, Champasak, Bokeu. Tourism revenue $235 million (2007). The hotel and restaurant business, domestic (wholesale and retail) trade, communications and telecommunications systems are developing.

Transport. The total length of motor roads is 29.8 thousand km, including roads with a hard surface - about 4 thousand km (2006). There are no railroads. The length of inland waterways is about 4.6 thousand km (2008; including 2.9 thousand km with fairway depths of less than 0.5 m and are suitable only for temporary navigation of small vessels). The main water transport artery is the Mekong River with a number of tributaries. The main river port is Vientiane. Oil product pipeline port Vinh (Vietnam) - Vientiane (in Laos - 540 km). There are 9 airports with paved runways (2009); international airports in Vientiane (Wattay), Luang Prabang, Pakse.

International trade. The volume of foreign trade turnover is 2311 million dollars (2008; including export 1033 million, import 1278 million). The structure of commodity exports is dominated by refined copper (41% of the value in 2007), non-ferrous metal concentrates (copper, zinc, tin), precious metals (gold, silver) and stones, electricity; industrial timber, agricultural products (including rice, coffee), garments, etc. are also exported. The main importers of goods from Laos in 2007 are Thailand (32.7%), Vietnam (14.3%), China (5.9 %), Republic of Korea (4.8%). The main articles of merchandise imports are machinery and equipment, including automobiles, petroleum products, and consumer goods. The main suppliers of goods to Laos in 2007 are Thailand (68.5%), China (9.3%), Vietnam (5.5%).

Lit .: Ioanesyan S. I. Laos in the XX century. (economic development). M., 2003; Rigg J. Living with transition in Laos: market integration in Southeast Asia. L., 2005.

Armed forces

The armed forces (AF) include the Lao People's Army (NAL; 29.1 thousand people; 2008) and paramilitary forces - the people's militia (self-defense forces; 100 thousand people) and reserve troops. The NAL consists of field (supported by the budget of the Ministry of Defense and self-sufficiency) and local troops. The field forces include infantry, artillery and tank units, as well as the Air Force (directly subordinate to the Minister of Defense) and air defense troops. Local troops (consisting of infantry, artillery and special forces units) are formed according to the administrative-territorial principle, are subordinate to the General Staff of the NAL and provincial governors, are maintained at the expense of the budgets of the Ministry of Defense, administrative units and self-sufficiency. The people's militia, created on a voluntary and contract basis, includes self-defense units organized according to the territorial production principle. Military annual budget about $13.3 million (2006).

The Armed Forces are grouped into 4 military districts. The combat strength includes 5 infantry divisions, 7 separate infantry, 1 engineering, 2 engineering and construction regiments, 5 artillery and 9 anti-aircraft artillery divisions, 65 separate infantry companies, as well as 5 aviation squadrons (2 fighter, transport, training, helicopter). The armament consists of about 35 tanks (including 10 light ones), 50 armored personnel carriers, 82 field artillery guns, as well as mortars, anti-aircraft artillery guns and MANPADS. The river component of the Armed Forces (about 600 people) has over 50 river patrol boats, 4 landing craft. The Air Force (3.5 thousand people) has 22 combat, 15 military transport and about 10 training aircraft, about 30 helicopters.

Aircraft staffing is mixed. Duration of military service not less than 18 months. The military command pays great attention to the organized reserve of regular troops, formed from former military personnel, as well as from civilians who have undergone military training. Mobilization resources are about 1.5 million people.

V. D. NESTERKIN.

Healthcare. Sport

In Laos, there are 40 doctors per 100,000 inhabitants, 100 nurses and midwives (2004), and 0.15 dentists (2003); 12 hospital beds per 10 thousand inhabitants (2005). Total health spending is 3.6% of GDP (budget funding 21.6%, private sector 79.4%) (2005). The legal regulation of the healthcare system is carried out by the Constitution. The healthcare system includes 726 clinics per 10,000 settlements (2007). Low level of medical care (especially for the rural population), provision of medical equipment and medicines. Folk healing has become widespread in urban and rural areas. The most common infections are bacterial and amoebic dysentery, hepatitis A, dengue fever, malaria (2008).

The National Olympic Committee of Laos was founded in 1975, recognized by the IOC in 1979. Athletes from Laos made their debut at the Olympic Games in Moscow (1980), participated in 7 Olympics (1980, 1988-2008); no awards won. At the Olympic Games in Beijing (2008), 4 athletes participated (athletics and swimming). The most popular sports are football (Football Federation was founded in 1951, since 1952 in FIFA), rugby, athletics, water sports, etc. Among the most famous athletes is runner S. Ketavong, a participant in marathon races at the Olympic Games in Atlanta (1996) and Sydney (2000).

Education. cultural institutions

The education system includes: pre-school education of children from 3 to 5 years old, compulsory 5-year primary education, 3-year incomplete secondary and 3-year complete secondary education, vocational education based on primary school; specialized secondary education (pedagogical, medical, technical, agricultural) on the basis of an incomplete secondary school; higher education. In 2006, there were about 1,000 preschool institutions (more than 45,000 pupils), more than 12,000 primary schools (including 10 religious ones; about 891,000 students), 952 secondary schools (including 34 religious ones; more than 388,000 students). Pre-school education covered (2006) 11% of children, primary education - 84%, secondary education - 43%. The literacy rate of the population over the age of 15 is 72.5%. The higher education system includes the National University (1958) in Vientiane, 10 state pedagogical colleges (institutes), several Buddhist institutes; a number of non-state universities - trade, business management, computer technology, etc. The main libraries and museums of Laos are located in Vientiane.

Mass media

Among the largest national newspapers (all in the city of Vientiane): "Pasason" ["People"; founded in 1965 (in 1975-83 it was called "Sieng Pasason" - "Voice of the People"); daily; press organ of the Central Committee of the People's Revolutionary Party of Laos; about 30 thousand copies], "Vientiane May" ("New Vientiane"; published since 1975, daily; printed organ of the Vientiane City Committee of the People's Revolutionary Party of Laos; about 2.5 thousand copies), "Num Lao" ("Youth of Laos"; since 1979, 1 time in 2 weeks; printed organ of the Central Committee of the Union of People's Revolutionary Youth; about 6 thousand copies). Magazines (all in the city of Vientiane): "Alun Mai" ("New Dawn"; since 1985; theoretical organ of the Central Committee of the People's Revolutionary Party of Laos), "Khosana" ("Agitator"; since 1987; theoretical organ of the Central Committee of the People's Revolutionary Party Laos), “Syksa May” (“New Education”; since 1981, monthly; print organ of the Ministry of Education of the Lao PDR; about 6 thousand copies), “Sathalanasuk” (“Health Care”; since 1982, 1 time in 4 months; print organ of the Ministry health care of the Lao PDR; about 5,000 copies).

Broadcasting since 1951. The state-owned National Radio of Laos broadcasts programs in Lao, Vietnamese, Khmer and Thai, as well as some in French and English. There are 14 VHF and 7 SV radio stations. Television broadcasting since 1983, carried out by the state company National Television of Laos. There are 7 television channels, including a channel broadcast from the city of Hanoi (Vietnam). Khaosan Pathet Lao State News Agency (established in 1968).

Literature

The earliest written monuments found on the territory of Laos are steles with inscriptions in the Khmer language. After the formation of the state of Lan Xang in 1353, the Lao alphabet Tham appeared. The rootedness of the literature of Laos in folklore predetermined the leading role of poetic forms in it. Compositional techniques and plots were borrowed from Indian literature, which were subject to changes, even if their source was the Buddhist canon; borrowings from the literature of Chiang Mai (Northern Thailand), close in language and type of development, were more complete.

The initial period of formation of Lao literature (14-15 centuries), testifying to highly developed mythological and folklore epic traditions (ancient epic stories are known from literary adaptations), is represented mainly by epigraphy, annals, as well as religious and didactic prose created by Buddhist monks. In 1485-95, Maha Theplung wrote the poem "Mahasat" ("Great Birth"; another name is "Pha Vet"), the plot of which is close to the traditions of the Lao folk epic (a story about the past births of the hero's mother, the intervention of the god Indra in his fate). The monk Visunmahavihan, the author of the didactic story "Nang Tantrai" (early 16th century), borrowed a number of plots from the "Panchatantra", used the technique of a framed story, reminiscent of the composition of the book "A Thousand and One Nights": King Virasena postpones the execution to hear a new tale from the lips skillful Tantrai storyteller. In the same period, on the basis of the epic about Hung (Rung or Ruang), the poem “Thao Hung-Thao Thiang” is created, the hero of which fights with a Vietnamese prince who was avenging his refusal to marry Hung’s cousin to him. In Laos, 2 prose versions of the story about Hung were also found: the story "Nitthan Thyang Lun" (in the Pali language) and "The Tale of Thyang".

Heyday of Lao literature - 17th century; the most significant work of this era is the poem "Shinsai" by Pankham. Some of the images of the poem are taken from the Pannasajataka collection (15th century), created by the Buddhist monks of Chiang Mai on the basis of folklore stories. The author of the poem had imitators who composed "continuations" of the poem "Shinsai", in which either the hero himself acts after the resurrection, or his sons and descendants of treacherous brothers. In the 17th century, the genres of the didactic poem (“Inthinyan’s Instructions to the Daughter”, “Phanya Patasen Finds Out the Reason” by Lasamata, “Instructions of the Grandfather to the Grandchildren” by Keu Dangt, etc.), as well as didactic stories, were formed. The story "Sieu Savat" (1642-43) is based on scenes from the Panchatantra, commentaries on the Dhammapada, as well as from Lao tales about orphans and animals; descriptions of national customs, the inclusion of Lao sayings and riddles gave it a local flavor. The story became a model for the creation of other religious and didactic works, but their composition was simplified, and the influence of folklore intensified. Among other genres of Lao literature of this period are the jataks (saat) created by monks, stories about a good deed and retribution for it (song genre), stories about the founding of temples, the origin of relics, etc. (tamnan genre).

Since the 18th century, due to the collapse of the Lan Xang state, the literature of Laos has been in a state of decline for a long time. The Siamese authorities, on pain of death, banned the use of the Lao alphabet, and the French colonial administration (since the end of the 19th century) did not develop the education system, sending Vietnamese officials and specialists to the country. A few significant works of this period include the lyric poem "Message of the Eclipse" ("San leuphasun"), dedicated to the tragic defeat of the uprising of King Anulutthalata (Anuruttharata; 1826-1828), which has the form of a message to the beloved and is written in song meter kon phan, as well as patriotic poem "The Tale of Vientiane" ("Phyn Vieng", 1st half of the 19th century).

The revival of literature in the Lao language began in the late 1940s in an atmosphere of rising anti-colonial struggle and the growth of national identity. Due to the lack of printing presses, the first newspapers in Lao were printed in Thailand. Publicism appeared in the 1950s and 60s; poetry was revived, represented by traditional poems by authors from Vientiane and political songs (kon lam). The Literary Committee of the Kingdom of Laos was created (1951), which published textbooks, classical and folklore monuments, and held literary competitions. Sila Wilawong prepared dozens of literary works for publication and wrote the first textbook on Lao literature (1960). S. P. Nginn, Vilawong, U. Vilasa, K. Pradit, N. Sithimolat revived the traditions of the didactic poem. Traditional enlightenment also influenced the work of the revolutionary poets of the older generation - Phumi Vongvitit, Suwanthon Bupkhanuvong and Somsi Desakamphu (the poetic pseudonym of So Des), who created poems stylized as improvisation songs. In the late 1960s, the short story was born in the literature of Laos, journalism and documentary genres developed rapidly, and there was a more noticeable demarcation between the literature of Vientiane and revolutionary literature, which was dominated by essays and propaganda poems. Belief in the possibility of improving society by means of literature led to the development of the genres of essay and satirical story, represented by the work of members of the Club of Fine Literature (Samoson aksonsin), which published the almanac Bamboo Thorn (Nam Phai, 1972-73). The core of this association was the Vilawong family, which was joined by a group of young writers “Young man with a sharpened pen” (“Num pakka hien”): Seliphan, Singdong, and others. Young writers denounced social vices from the standpoint of Buddhist morality. The most striking figure among them was Pakien Vilawong (pseudonym Panay), author of satirical stories, essays and song verses [collection "Kavi saoban" ("Village Poetry", 1972)].

In 1975 (after the proclamation of the Lao PDR), the literature of Vientiane ceased to exist; only the work of revolutionary writers received further development. In revolutionary poetry, the contradiction between the desire to expand the range of topics and traditional artistic means became more acute. In the late 1970s, the poet So Desa managed to overcome it, creating new poetic forms and rethinking traditional images and plots, correlating them with the events of our time (collections: "Historical Songs", 1976; "Moon of Laos", 1980, etc.) . Prose writers Khamlieng Phonsena and Humphan Rattanawong made a great contribution to the formation of a new literary language. The genre of the documentary story is developing: “The flame of the revolution flares up” (1978), “The surviving diary” (1979) by Champadeng, dedicated to the revolutionary events of early 1975; "Escape" Thonsie Khotvongsi (1982) - about the escape of PFL leaders from prison in May 1960. In the stories of P. Thyunlamuntli, K. Phetsadawong, U. Bunnyavong, heroes of a new type appear - emigrants or people who stood aside from the political struggle, who entered into the ranks of the builders of a new life. Bunnyawong in his stories seeks to reveal the inner world of the characters, but his psychological analysis borders on sentimentality, he is often traditionally didactic (the collections Greedy Kho Fish, Her Smile, both 1979). Khamphei Luangphasi's story "One Blood" (1978) is based on the plot scheme of classical poems (separation and recognition of relatives). P. Phuangsaba's story "A Month in Selabam" (1982) tells about the organization of self-defense units in the late 1960s, his heroes are people of a new generation who are able to repulse the oppressors. The prose of revolutionary writers, including the most famous ones, for example, S. Bupkhanuvong, is characterized by stylistic heterogeneity, the proximity of political vocabulary to proverbs and dialectisms, and publicism combined with the methods of didactic storytelling and folklore. In the 1980s, landscape lyrics were born, and a lyrical hero appeared in political poetry. Dala Kanlanya-Wilawong and Duangdyan Bunnyavong-Wilawong play an active role in the movement of women writers, led by the editor-in-chief of the newspaper Menying Lao (Lao Woman), Vilayvieng Phimmason.

Poetry of the late 20th - early 21st century is represented by the works of Dauvieng Butnakho, Pakkadeng, S. Dongdeng, S. Phengphong, B. Siwongsa, Kulapsavan, B. Sithongdam, O. Pasavong and others, who, while maintaining the continuity of themes in general, are searching for new poetic forms. Prose writers B. Somsaiphon, Phengphong, V. Savengsyksa successfully master new genres, use elements of psychological analysis, methods of generalization and typification. As a result of the accelerated development of the new literature of Laos, in just half a century, the tasks of reviving the written literary tradition and creating a modern system of genres and literary language were solved.

Lit.: Wilawong Strength. Phongsawadaan Laao. Vientiane, 1973; Osipov Yu. M. Literature of Indochina: Genres, plots, monuments. Laos, 1980; Afanasyeva E. N. Traditional Lao versification // Literature and culture of the peoples of the East. M., 1989; she is. Influence of Indian Didactic Prose Traditions on the Development of the Literature of Thailand and Laos // Relationships and Regularities in the Development of Literature in Central and East Asia. M., 1991; she is. Theravada Buddhism and the Laotian didactic story "Sieu Savat" // Buddhism and Literature. M., 2003; she is. Buddhism in the revolutionary poetry of Laos (on the example of Somsi Desakamphu's work) // Religions in the development of Asian and African literatures of the 20th century. M., 2006.

E. N. Afanas'eva.

Architecture and fine arts

Evidence of cultural activities of people from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic and the Bronze Age is found mainly in the territory of Northern Laos. Stone and bone tools of the 4th-2nd millennium BC were found in the caves of Phu Lei (Huaphan province). The oldest monuments include menhirs and crypts in the provinces of Hua Phan, Luang Namtha, Luang Prabang (1st millennium BC). The most famous megalithic structures are located in the northeast of the country in the "Valley of Pitchers" (Xiangkhuang Province) - more than 1 thousand stone vessels, height from 40 cm to 3 m, weighing from 10 kg to 14 tons, scattered in groups among low hills (according to the local legend, they were used as wine jugs by an ancient tribe of giant people). According to a number of theories, the vessels served as funeral urns and were created 2-2.5 thousand years ago by representatives of the Austronesian peoples who lived here, who were also familiar with pottery, bronze and iron metallurgy.

In the 1st millennium of our era, the religious and philosophical teachings of Buddhism and Hinduism began to spread in Laos; Wat Phu (Monastery of the Mountain; founded in the 5th century, rebuilt in the 10th-12th centuries) became an important religious center in the south of the country, which was part of the Mon-Khmer state of Chenla in the 6th-8th centuries. The architectural and spatial solution of the complex is based on the idea of ​​ascending to a sacred place: from the palace buildings at the foot - to the temple on the ledge of the mountain, rising 1200 meters above the surrounding valley. The sanctuary, originally dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva and called Lingaparvata, was converted into a Buddhist temple at the end of the 13th-14th century. It is decorated with stone reliefs depicting scenes from Hindu mythology; so, on one of the beams, Indra is depicted on a mythical three-headed elephant. When clearing the temple, a head of Vishnu cast in silver (weight 21 kg) was found in a characteristic cylindrical headdress (5th-6th centuries). A number of other places of worship were built in the Khmer style in the provinces of Champasak and Savannakhet. One of the largest - that Ingkhang (10 km from the city of Savannakhet), founded in the 6th century, rebuilt several times and in the middle of the 16th century turned into a 25-meter Buddhist stupa from decreasing square tiers with a characteristic completion in the form of a "banana bud". The stone Buddha from the village of Tkhalat (8th-9th centuries, Phakeu Museum, Vientiane) belongs to the early Buddhist monuments of sculpture. The remains of brick religious buildings of the city of Saiphong (12 km from Vientiane), as well as a basalt stele with an inscription in Sanskrit, containing the decree of Jayavarman VII on the founding of the hospital, the head of Avalokiteshvara and other deities, date back to the 11-13th centuries. The cloisters of the so-called forest monks were the rock sanctuaries of Vangsang and Dansung with huge statues of buddhas carved into niches (Vientiane province, 11-12 centuries).

The creation of the first Lao state of Lan Xang in 1353 contributed to the formation and flourishing of the national artistic culture. With the approval of Theravada Buddhism as the state religion by King Sua Fangum (ruled 1353-1371 or 1393), intensive construction of Buddhist stupas and monasteries - wats began in the country. First of all, the capital is being rebuilt - Luang Prabang (the city of the "Golden Buddha", named after the sacred statue of Buddha Prabang). The architectural ensemble of the city, elongated in the form of a triangle along the Mekong River, is formed around Phousi Hill (“Wonderful Mountain”) standing in the center. In the 14th-16th centuries, the principles of planning the temple and monastery complex and the types of buildings were formed. The central place in the wat is occupied by a temple (sim), which is a basilica structure with a 2-pitched roof, columned porticos and an altar in the eastern part of the interior, usually divided by rows of columns into 3 or 5 naves. A classic example of a medieval temple is the Xiengthong Wat Sanctuary in Luang Prabang (1561). The cruciform wooden building has a picturesque system of multi-tiered ceilings with a decorative composition of spires-umbrellas on the crest, figuratively called a "bouquet of heavenly flowers". Other religious buildings include wata (library), hokong (an arbor for a monastery drum or bell), hopha (temples for sacred Buddha statues), kuti (living quarters for monks). The earlier Buddhist complexes of Luang Prabang, which have come down to us in the later reconstructions of the late 19th and 20th centuries, had a similar structure: Manol (1372-73), Visun (1503-12), Aphay (1529), Mynna (1533), That ( 1548). Stupas located on the territory of monasteries, called in Laos thats (from the Pali dhatu - a relic), have elegant, elongated shapes, but rather modest sizes. The only exceptions are stupas containing especially revered relics: in Luang Prabang - that Makmo (1504) with a bell-shaped body and a stepped base, the prototype of which is an ancient Indian stupa.

The largest Laotian stupa, that Luang, is located in Vientiane, where the capital of Lan Xang was transferred in 1563. The stupa was built in 1566 on the site of an ancient thata, founded, according to legend, in the 3rd century BC, when Indian missionaries visited Laos and presented a piece of Buddha's relics to the ruler of the city. The relic was immured in a new thaat, which received the official title of Lokatulamani (“Crown of the Universe”) as a symbol of the Buddhist Universe with the mythical Mount Meru in the center. The upper, gilded, part of the stupa (height 45 m) has a specifically Laotian shape, resembling a 4-sided bottle topped with a pyramidal umbrella. The Laotians call this architectural form tau (“gourd bottle”). It is repeated in the outlines of 30 small thats (symbols of Buddhist virtues) surrounding the central spherical part, standing on a massive square base.

In the 1560s, such large wats as Kang, Phya, Ongty, Phasaisettha, Inpeng, Phonsai were also built in Vientiane. The largest temple of the capital - Phakeu, or Ho Phakeu (1565, reconstructed in the 1920s and 30s according to the project of the architect Suwan Phuma), was built for the sacred statue of the Emerald Buddha brought from Chiang Mai (in 1778 it was taken away by the Thais who captured the city to Bangkok) . The temple stands on a high platform and is surrounded on all sides by a columned gallery, like an ancient Greek peripter. The lower 4-pitched roof supports a 2-pitched multi-tiered ceiling with triangular gables. Phakew, like all Laotian sims, is richly decorated. The corner slopes of the roofs, the consoles, the railings of the stairs are made in the form of curved fantastic serpents with dragon heads. Wooden pediments, panels of door and window openings are covered with intricate carvings, varnish, gilding and inlaid with colored mirror glass. On the reliefs, images of gods, heroes of jatakas (stories about the previous births of Buddha), etc. are placed as temple guards.

After the collapse of Lan Xang into 3 independent kingdoms at the beginning of the 18th century, religious construction continued on the basis of established traditions, but new features appear in a number of structures. The Wat Mai (“New”) temple, founded in 1796 by King Anulut in Luang Prabang, should be attributed to the unique in a constructive sense. It has a 5-tiered roof and porticos set perpendicularly along the axis of the building. Built in 1818-24 near the royal palace in Vientiane, Wat Sisaket, built in 1818-24, has original features: it is oriented to Bangkok (that is, to the southwest, and not to the east, as tradition dictates), which was perceived by the Laotians as opposition to Siamese expansion. It is also unusual that the temple is surrounded by a covered gallery, where over 2 thousand sculptures of Buddhas are installed (there are 6840 of them in the monastery). Traditional Thai houses, probably preserved from antiquity, are wooden and bamboo buildings on stilts, which also serve as roof supports; they can be covered with paintings and carvings.

In the cult sculpture of Laos, the image of the Buddha is predominantly developed. In the stepped composition of the temple altar, the central position is usually occupied by a monumental statue, surrounded by many smaller sculptures of Buddhas, made mainly of wood and metal. Some of them, enjoying special reverence, have acquired the status of national shrines. Such is the statue of Buddha Phabang, created, according to legend, by the divine master Phitsanukam (Vishvakarman) from pure gold. In fact, this is a gilded bronze figure of a standing Buddha (height 83 cm) of the Khmer type (12th - 1st half of the 13th century). Lao masters, adhering to the canonical rules, introduced their own nuances into the iconography of the Buddha: they gave his face "ethnic" features - a nose with a slight hump ("like an eagle's beak"), slightly protruding lips with a smile, elongated earlobes, but not touching the shoulders. Especially peculiar is the interpretation of ushnisha (a protrusion on the crown of the head, a sign of wisdom), usually completed by a high flame-shaped finial. Most clearly, these features of the national style are shown by the grandiose statue of Buddha Manol (“Pleasing the soul”) cast in 1372 in Luang Prabang and the bronze sculpture of Pha Ongta (“Buddha weighing billions of buddhas”, 16th century), located in the Ongta wat in Vientiane. Both sculptures represent the Buddha in the pose of the "defeater of the demon Mara", with the gesture of bhumisparsha ("touching the earth"). In addition to this, the most common type of Buddha, there are more than 50 different images in Lao iconography, each of which corresponds to a certain combination of mudra and asana (that is, gesture and posture). The most popular are the figures of the sitting Buddha in the pose of vira (“winner”) with a gesture of samatha (meditation), the standing Buddha with his hands down (“causing rain”) or raised in the gesture of abhaya (which means “calming down, stopping quarrels”) . Often there is a walking Buddha (“descending from heaven”), less often a lying one - “passing into nirvana”. Excellent collections of medieval Lao sculpture are housed in the museum-converted Phakew Temple in Vientiane and the National Museum of the former Royal Palace in Luang Prabang.

Formation of types and genres of traditional painting refers to the heyday of Lan Xang art (15-17 centuries). This is, first of all, monumental painting, including wall paintings and lacquer compositions. The latter are associated with the use of natural lacquer and gold leaf, with the help of which black-gold and red-gold drawings were created using various techniques: stencil, engraving and laikhotnam (“water-washed ornaments”). If ceilings, columns, door and window panels, and sometimes the walls of many religious buildings were covered with lacquer decorations, then only the walls of temples were decorated with paintings. They wrote on special plaster with glue paints, the pigments for which were obtained from various plants and minerals. Due to constant renovations, almost no old, original, murals have been preserved. The best examples of traditional painting include the murals of the 18th and 19th centuries in the Luang Prabang temples of Longkhun, Pakhe and Pahuak, as well as in the Sisaket temple in Vientiane, which are characterized by such techniques as combining episodes of different times, parallel perspective and bird's-eye view, inclusion inscriptions commenting on the plots, mainly based on Buddhist legends and epic tales. On the same topics, picturesque panels on fabric were made, which were hung on the inner walls of the temple or the entrance portico on the days of religious holidays. Panels in the form of scrolls depicting the Buddha with his disciples, sometimes with scenes from his life, were called phabot ("Buddha for the temple"). Phabots were also created using the technique of sewing with gold and silver metal threads.

With the beginning of French colonization (end of the 19th century), residential buildings of the European type appeared in Laos, mainly concentrated in large cities, where new streets were laid according to a regular plan. The public buildings of this period include the Royal Palace in Luang Prabang in the forms of traditional Lao architecture (1904-24; since 1976 the National Museum), the building of the Office of Public Works (1907; now the French Embassy) and the Sacré Coeur Church (1930) in Vientiane with elements of European architecture. With the independence of Laos in Vientiane, the building of the National Assembly (1950s, architect Souvanna Phuma; now the office of the Prime Minister), the triumphal arch of Patusai (Victory Monument; 1957-60), the Presidential Palace (1973-78, architect K. Phonkau) were erected in Vientiane ) that combine the traditions of European classicism or modernism with Lao decor. In architectural ornamentation, along with wood, cement was often used in the 20th century. Oil and watercolor painting appeared in Laos during the colonial period. The first art school was opened by the French artist M. Lege (1940), who also participated in the creation of the National School of Fine Arts in Vientiane (1959). Among the Lao artists of the 2nd half of the 20th - early 21st century: K. Kaumingmyang and K. Luanglat, who work in line with expressionism, M. Tyandavong, who continues the tradition of post-impressionism, painters of the realistic direction A. Suvaduan and S. Bannawong. In the 20th century, Western-style realistic sculpture was created by T. Prityayyan (Monument to King Setthathilat in Vientiane, 1960). In the style typical of the monumental cult sculptures of Indochina of the 2nd half of the 20th century, the so-called Buddha Park was made in Thadya (on the banks of the Mekong River, 24 km from Vientiane) with many large sculptures on the themes of Hindu-Buddhist mythology and local legends (1950 -60s, sculptor Luang Phu). Traditional Lao crafts continue to develop - woodcarving, weaving, ceramics, metalworking. The city of Luang Prabang and Wat Phu are included in the World Heritage List.

Lit.: Boun Souk (Thao). Louang Phrabang: 600-ans d'art bouddhique lao. R., 1974; Ozhegov S. S., Proskuryakova T. S., Hoang Dao Kin. Architecture of Indochina. M., 1988; Parmentier H. L'art du Laos. R., 1988. Vol. 1-2; Bounthieng S. Luang Prabang et son art. R., 1994. Vol. 1-2; Laos: Handbook. M., 1994; Lopetcharat Somkiart. Lao Buddha: the image and its history. Bangkok, 2000; Giteau M. Art et archéologie du Laos. R., 2001; Heywood D. Ancient Luang Prabang. Bangkok, 2006; Siripaphanh V., Gay V. Lao contemporary art. Singapore, 2007; Petrich M.N. Vietnam, Kambodscha und Laos: Tempel, Klôster und Pagoden in den Ländern am Mekong. Ostfildern, 2008.

N. A. Gozheva; N. I. Frolova (architecture and art of the 19th - early 21st century).

Music

The musical culture of the early states on the territory of Laos (from the 7th century) developed in conjunction with the culture of the early states on the territory of modern Thailand and Cambodia. A single cultural area is formed by the musical traditions of Laos and Northeast Thailand. The oldest monuments of musical art on the territory of Laos - bronze drums (Dong Son culture) - are still preserved in the musical and ritual practice of some peoples of Laos. The main musical instrument is the khen bamboo mouth organ, the emblem of Lao music. The classical (formerly courtly) musical tradition of lam dem, actively developing from the 14th century mainly in Luang Prabang, also existed in Vientiane and Champasak (Champassak) by the beginning of the 18th century. It is represented by instrumental ensembles of sepnoi or maholi (Luang Prabang) and piphat (Vientiane). They included (end of the 19th century): 2 so-called circular gongs (khong wong nyai - low register, khong wong noi - high; each of them is a set of 16-17 gongs of different sizes, fixed in a circle horizontally on a wooden frame; performer sits in the center) 2 bamboo xylophones (lanat ek - high register, lanat thum - low); large 2-sided barrel-shaped taphon drum; double drum kong thap and other idiophones and aerophones (including a reed drum with a quadruple reed pi keo). The play of such ensembles accompanied palace ceremonies, court dance performances (until the 18th century they were dominated by Cambodian influences, later - by Thai, more precisely Siamese) - the so-called Lao royal ballet. To perform entertaining music, the ensembles included 2-string bowed instruments: so u (low register), so i (high register; appeared as a result of Mongolian influence). Nowadays, similar ensembles are used in a reduced composition (one "circular gong", one xylophone, etc.). Ensemble music is an indispensable component of all varieties of traditional theater: the shadow theater of the lakhon ngao, the masked dance theater of the lakhon khon, the court ballet of the lakhon nai (developed from the 14th century; the text was sung by soloists and a women's choir), the musical drama of the lakhon lamlyang. The latter arose in the 19th century as a result of the union of Thai lyke theater with the Lao vocal-instrumental tradition (solo and duet singing is used, accompanied by one or more khans, sometimes also xylophone and drum). Traditional ensembles of small compositions (khen, bowed so, lute plucked phin and syng, cymbals, drum, etc. ) usually accompany singing. Performances of folk comedy lakhon kom are accompanied by khen playing and percussion. Singing is often accompanied by playing lute instruments or percussion idiophones kup kep (2 wooden records). Among other instruments: citrate tyake, khim cymbals, longitudinal bamboo flute khui (Thai - khlui), bie sanai horn, sang conch-pipe.

Ensemble instrumental music of Laos is polyphonic (in particular, heterophony is used), the part of each instrument is independent. The rhythm is clear, 2-beat. A peculiar temperament (the octave is divided into 7 approximately equal intervals; the pitch is relative) is almost lost in instrumental music (at the beginning of the 20th century, the system of gongs, xylophones was close to evenly tempered), but it is preserved in traditional vocal music. 5-step scales predominate, sometimes with 2 additional tones; the terts tone sounds neutral.

Buddhist ritual music included the recitation and chanting (katha) of sacred texts, usually in a responsorial manner, accompanied by sing bowl-shaped cymbals. Hymns (set) are sung by a male choir (in the Pali language) in one voice in a low register. Temple instruments include khong gongs and kong drums; in some temples, the custom, dating back to the ancient Indian tradition, to hit them at certain hours of the day (in order to drive away evil spirits) is preserved. After 1975, the Buddhist tradition was almost lost.

Among the Lao, songs of various rites of basi (good wishes on various occasions), rites of joint libations, etc., performed by singers mo lam or mo khap (“master of singing”) are widespread. There are different types of singing: hong (various texts are sung to a fixed melody), lam (khap in Northern Laos) (this melody is associated with a specific text). Panya are widespread - antiphonal songs-dialogues of young men and women (sometimes in a question-answer form) to improvised texts of moralizing, love (often frivolous), topical and even political content (accompanied by wind and percussion instruments). A similar type of singing was also known in the monastic environment (thet - an impromptu sermon in Lao). Sang bun fai responsor songs are sung at the iconic Boon Bang Fai rain and fertility festival (a festival of rockets made from knees of bamboo). Jatakas are performed in a recitative manner, epic poems (Shinsai, etc.) are sung solo. Shaman songs are known - communication with spirits (lam phu fa; sung by elderly women). 8 regional vocal styles identified in Southern Laos and 5 in Northern Laos; the southern Lao style of fast songs and dances salavan (named after the province of Salavan) stands out with its originality; in the north of Laos, fast dances are performed to the tunes of tang wai ("quick rhythm").

European musical influences entered Laos in the late 19th century with the establishment of French colonial rule. By the middle of the 20th century, European musical instruments had spread, and the harmonica, close in timbre to the khen, became especially popular. Mass songs spread widely. Traditional music is the basis of the repertoire of the national ensemble of music and dance "Natasin". Since 1959, the School of Fine Arts in Vientiane (since 1992 the National School of Folk Music and Dance) has been functioning with 2 forms of education: traditional and European. Since the 1990s, there has been a revival of classical and Buddhist musical traditions. Vientiane hosts an annual Arts Festival. Since the beginning of the 1990s, the study of the musical folklore of the peoples of Laos has intensified.

Lit.: Compton C. Courting poetry in Laos: a textual and linguistic analysis. , 1979; Esipova M. V. Music // Laos: A Handbook. M., 1994.

M. V. Esipova.

Theater and dance

The traditional theater of Laos is based on dance pantomime and owes its origins (circa 2nd century BC) to an ancient regional tradition of ceremonial dancing. Indirectly, through the culture of the Hinduized states (primarily the Khmer Empire), he was influenced by the Indian theater (theatricalization of plots from the Ramayana, Jataka). Stylistically, it is closely related to the theaters of Cambodia and Thailand. The two largest forms of traditional theater are the Lakhon Nai, a female court classical song dance dance (known in the world as the Court Ballet of Laos, the Royal Ballet of Laos, founded in the middle of the 14th century) and the Lakhon Khon, a male masked story song dance, lakhon khon (from the Khmer khaol - "mask" ). Their repertoire consists of texts created on the basis of classical poems of the 17th and 18th centuries. The texts are sung by storytellers to the accompaniment of an orchestra of traditional instruments. In the women's court ballet, the male roles are performed by dancers, while in the male lakhon khon, the female roles are performed by men. The costumes of lakhon nai actresses stylize the silk clothes of court ladies (a skirt with a wide pleat, tied with a forged gold belt, a blouse with short sleeves, a wide scarf or cloak) with an abundance of gold embroidery and decorations, a high decorative headdress, similar to the spire of a Buddhist temple. The choreographer of dances and stage movement (phu kamkap) also wrote scripts for performances. The leader of the orchestra could also become the director and author of theatrical texts (bot pkhak). The dance is based on the finest mastery of rhythms, the aestheticized plasticity of folk dance, symbolic movements and pas (“lotus opens its petals”, “giving a flower”, “my heart opens towards you”, bird movements, etc.), fencing and acrobatics ( for male roles). Dance training begins at the age of 4-5 (lasts 11 years), is carried out at the Royal Ballet School of Luang Prabang (Luang Prabang, founded in the 19th century) and at the Lao School of Fine Arts in Vientiane (1959, since 1992 National School of Folk Music and Dance) . The successors of the lakhon nai tradition are the Natasin State Dance Ensemble (Vientiane, 1976) and the Educational Theater of the Ministry of Information and Culture (Vientiane, 2004). The lakhon khon male mask dance also uses colorful costumes with many bracelets, necklaces and a mask (for female roles - mask-like makeup). The plastique of the male dance imitates the plastique of the shadow theater puppets: the actor works “flat”, fixes the turn of the head and body in profile, moves with a lateral step, etc.

The third form of traditional theater in Laos is the Lakhon Ngao shadow puppet theater, borrowed from the Mon-Khmer peoples. The oldest traditions of the theater of shadow figures have been preserved among the Ta Oi people living in the south of Laos (Liphi region). Performances are held in the evenings and last 5-6 hours (until the 18th century, actors performed at the funeral of aristocrats for several nights in a row). Theatrical texts, the singing of which accompanies the action, are called "Tyambang" or "Kambang" (after the name of the nyaka demon, the antagonist of Rama). The plots are significantly different from the Indian versions of the Ramayana - they include elements of local myths and epics. The text is read by the narrator to the accompaniment of percussion (castanets, small drum and gong). The puppeteers have over 100 2m x 1.5m flat leather character puppets on bamboo poles. The movements of the puppeteers depend on what kind of figure they are carrying, as well as on the nature of the action - jumps depicting the flight of Hanuman, the wide steps of the nyaks or the mincing gait of Sita. Lakhon ngao is shown in front of a white screen, a huge fire is lit behind it.

In the 19th century in Laos, under the influence of the Peking Opera, the theater of musical drama Lakhon Lamlyang (actors and actresses in the troupe) arose. The folk farce lakhon kom is also preserved (comic scenes for 2-3 characters, often rude and obscene, with fights, Thai boxing techniques, etc.). In the 1960s, the Lakhon Wau Amateur Drama Theater appeared - a theater of spoken drama (modeled on the European one), which staged plays by Lao authors on topical issues. In 1979, the Lakhon Tukata Puppet Theater was established. In the 2000s, performances of the traditional theater of Laos are held in Vientiane on Republic Day (December 2), during the celebration of the New Year (April 13-14), etc. Traditional performances are also held in Luang Prabang during the New Year, including a procession of mythological characters - the lion-ka Singkham ("golden lion") and shaggy first ancestors - Grandfather and Grandmother Nyo (Pu Nyo, Nya Nyo). In 2000, the House of National Culture opened in Vientiane - a theater with 1.5 thousand seats; the Central Theater Company (1955), the Conversational Drama Theater (1980) also work here. The largest theater festival in Laos has been held annually since 1995 in Vientiane, Luang Prabang and Champasak.

Lit.: Laos: its people, its society, its culture. New Haven, 1960; Blazhenkov S. Laos. M., 1985; Parmentier H. L'art du Laos. R., 1988. Vol. 1-2.

is a state in Southeast Asia. In the north it borders with China and Vietnam, in the east - with Vietnam, in the south - with Cambodia, in the west - with Thailand, in the northwest - with Myanmar. Laos is the only country in Southeast Asia that has no access to the sea.

The name of the country comes from the ethnonym of the people - Lao.

Official name: Lao People's Democratic Republic

Capital: Vientiane

The area of ​​the land: 236.8 thousand sq. km

Total population: 6.2 million people

Administrative division: 16 provinces (khueng).

Form of government: Republic.

Head of State: The president.

Composition of the population: 70% are Laotians. Thais (up to 20%), Vietnamese, Chinese and other peoples also live in the country.

Official language: Laotian. Separate nationalities and tribes speak dialects of Lao, close to the Thai language. English, French and Vietnamese are also used.

Religion: 60% of the population practice Buddhism; 1.5% of the inhabitants are Christians.

Internet domain: .la

Mains voltage: ~230 V, 50 Hz

Phone country code: +856

Climate

Subequatorial monsoon. The average temperature in January ranges from +15 C to +23 C, in July - from +28 C to +30 C. There are three seasons: hot humid (May-October), dry cool (November-January, average temperature from +23 to 25 C) and dry hot (February-April, average temperature from +32 to 34 C). The temperature regime varies markedly depending on the altitude of the place.

In the Mekong Valley in March-April, the air temperature fluctuates around +38 C, while on the nearby mountain slopes it does not exceed +22 C. During the rainy season, daytime temperatures average around +29 C in low-lying areas, and about +24 C in the mountains (cases of temperature drops to -4 C have been recorded), while in the northern regions it can drop to +9 C.

Precipitation falls up to 3000 mm per year, and it is quite differentiated - up to 3500 mm of rain is recorded on the eastern slopes of the mountains, while the northern and western slopes are noticeably drier - usually no more than 700 mm of precipitation per year falls here. Humidity is 70-80% in the dry season and 75-90% in the rainy season (May to October).

Geography

Laos belongs to the countries of Southeast Asia. It is located on the Indochina Peninsula and covers an area of ​​236.8 km2. The length of Laos from north to south is 1700 km, from west to east - 500 km in the widest part and 140 km in the narrowest.

The country borders China to the north, Vietnam to the northeast and east, Cambodia to the south, Thailand to the west, and Myanmar to the northwest. Laos is a predominantly mountainous country with medium-altitude ranges and plateaus.

Mountains with heights of 1500 - 2000 m predominate in the north. In the central part of Laos, there is the Xiangkhuang plateau, about 1200 m high, to the south of which rises the highest mountain of the country, Bia (2819 m). In the southeast are the Truong Son mountains, which are replaced by low plateaus, ledges breaking off to the wide Mekong valley. In the extreme south of the country there is a vast Bolaven basalt plateau with average heights up to 1200 m.

The country's main river is the Mekong, along which most of its border with Thailand passes. The length of the Mekong in Laos is 1850 km. Most of the other rivers belong to the Mekong basin. The largest of them are Tha, U, Lik, Ngum, Bangfai, Banghiang, Don, Kong, Then. Rivers are the main means of communication, but navigation on many of them is limited due to numerous rapids and waterfalls. The Mekong is navigable for 500 km from Vientiane to Savannakhet, where the river is 1.5 km wide.

Flora and fauna

Vegetable world

In the north, evergreen humid subtropical forests are widespread with a large participation of magnolias, laurels, lianas, and ferns. Above 1500 m, they are replaced by mixed coniferous-deciduous forests with oak, pine, and chestnut. The plateaus of central and southern Laos are dominated by light monsoon deciduous forests with teak, shoreea, dipterocarpus, lagerstromia, and bamboo thickets.

The valleys of southern Laos and the slopes of the Truong Son mountains are overgrown with evergreen tropical rainforests, which are dominated by dipterocarps (yans, takyan, etc.), palm trees, fruit trees, bamboo, and tree ferns. Lianas grow wildly.

The most valuable tree species of Laos are pink, black, sandalwood and iron trees, teak. There are also wild bananas, breadfruit, durian and other plants in the forests that the Laotians include in their diet.

Tall-grass savannahs are widespread in places in areas of insufficient moisture.

Animal world

Quite significant herds of wild Indian elephants have been preserved. Monkeys (gibbons, macaques, etc.) and semi-monkeys are found in the forests; tigers, leopards, marble panthers, Malay and white-breasted bears are predators. In some places there are palm marten and marsh lynx. Of the ungulates, bulls (banteng and gayal), buffaloes, deer, wild boars are widespread, of reptiles - lizards, cobras, pythons and other snakes.

There are many birds, of which the most prominent representatives are parrots, peacocks, pheasants, as well as pigeons, ducks, etc.

Attractions

Laos was known in ancient times as "Lang Sang" which means "The Kingdom of a Million Elephants". This name was given to the country by King Fa Ngum after the reunification of the country in 1353 AD. Since then, this mysterious country, access to whose territory was very difficult until the end of the 20th century, has acquired the aura of the most unusual state in Southeast Asia.

Many ancient temples, rich culture, a wide variety of peoples and ethnic groups, vast tracts of tropical forests inhabited by millions of exotic inhabitants, a picturesque mountain landscape - these are the main attractions of the country.

Banks and currency

Kip (LAK), nominally equal to 100 cents. There are banknotes in circulation in denominations of 5000, 2000, 1000, 500 and 100 kip.

There are no coins in circulation. The kip is the country's only legal currency, but the Thai baht and US dollars are accepted everywhere, especially in cities. It is most reasonable to use kip for cheap purchases, baht for mid-price goods and domestic transport, and US dollars for expensive purchases.

Banks are open from Monday to Friday from 08.00 to 12.00 and from 13.30 to 17.30.

Currency can be exchanged at exchange offices, at the airport and at banks, but many banks only accept US dollars or Thai baht. In bank exchange offices, the exchange rate is usually somewhat more favorable than in street points. Even better exchange rates can usually be found at exchange offices in markets and shopping districts, but in this case there is a high risk of fraud.

Credit cards of the leading international systems are accepted for payment in large banks, in the capital's restaurants, hotels and shops. In the provinces, it is almost impossible to use them. Traveler's checks can only be cashed at the offices of international banks. To avoid additional costs due to fluctuations in the exchange rate, it is recommended to take checks in US dollars or Thai baht with you.

It should be borne in mind that kip is an inconvertible currency, and it is almost impossible to exchange it outside the country.

Useful information for tourists

In the ancient capital of Laos, Luang Prabang, there is Pu Xi Hill, which is crowned with a masterpiece of Lao Buddhist architecture - the Tat Chomsi Pagoda. A narrow stone staircase leads up the hill from the Mekong side. Here tourists and townspeople bring donations and state their requests in front of a Buddha statue sitting in the shade of the sacred Champa tree.

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I.general characteristics

Laos- a state in Southeast Asia, on the Indochina peninsula. It borders on the north with the People's Republic of China, on the north-east. and East with Vietnam, in the south with Cambodia, in the west with Thailand, in the northwest. - with Burma. Has no access to the sea. The area is 236.8 thousand km2. Population 3110 thousand people (1972, UN estimate). The capital is Vientiane, the residence of the king is Luang Prabang.

Administratively, it is divided into 16 provinces (Khuen): Attapa, Bori Khan, Vapikhan Thong, Vientiane, Khammuan, Luang Prabang, Phongsali, Savannakhet, Sainyabuli, Sarawan, Sedon, Xiangkhuang, Sithandon, Champatsak, Huakhong, Huanhan.

Practically (since 1964) there are two zones in Laos: the areas under the control of the Patriotic Forces (PFL) and the areas controlled by the Vientiane government (see section Historical Outline).

II. Political system

Laos is a constitutional monarchy. The current constitution was adopted on May 11, 1947 (in 1956 its text was substantially revised). According to the constitution, the head of state is the king. He has the right to approve bills passed by the National Assembly; issue decrees having the force of law; sign treaties with foreign states and ratify them (after approval by the National Assembly); establish and assign civil and military ranks, as well as the right to pardon and commute punishments; he is the supreme commander of the armed forces. As the highest patron of Buddhism, he is endowed with supreme religious authority. The highest body of legislative power is the Parliament (National Assembly), whose deputies are elected by the population for 5 years. The right to vote is granted to citizens of Laos who have reached the age of 18. The Constitution refers to the legislative rights of the National Assembly the adoption of laws relating to the budget, national loans, administrative expenses, the resolution of amnesty issues, etc. The advisory body under the head of state is the Royal Council (12 members; 6 are appointed by the king at his own discretion, 6 - on the recommendation National Assembly). To solve the most important issues (for example, changing the constitution), the Royal Council and the National Assembly unite in the so-called. National Congress.

The highest body of executive power is the government (Council of Ministers). The President of the Council of Ministers, appointed by the king, forms the government, the composition of which is approved by the National Assembly.

Each province is headed by a government-appointed governor (chao kueng), under which a popularly elected provincial council acts as an advisory body. The governors of the provinces and rural districts are also appointed by the government. Large cities have municipal councils headed by mayors.

The highest court is the Supreme Court of Appeal. The lowest court is the tribunals of the 1st degree (mostly civil cases are considered). All judges are appointed by royal decree. The Supreme Council of the Magistracy exercises control over the activities of the judiciary.

V. I. Yastrebov.

III. Nature

Laos is a predominantly mountainous country with medium-altitude ridges composed of granites and gneisses, sandstone limestone plateaus. In the bend of the river The Mekong is the Trannin Highlands, composed mainly of intrusive rocks of the Upper Paleozoic (the highest point of Laos is the city of Bia, 2820 m). In the east, part of the Annam Mountains, the southwestern slope of the Chyong Son Range, with a predominance of granites and limestones, broken up by faults into separate massifs with domed peaks (altitude from 1500 m to 2711 m); this slope descends in steps to the alluvial low-lying valley of the river. Mekong. In the south is the Boloven basalt plateau (with elevations up to 1572 m). Large deposits of iron ore (near Xiangkhuang), as well as tin and other non-ferrous and rare metals.

The climate is subequatorial, monsoonal. The average January temperature ranges from 15°C in the north to 23°C in the south; frosts occur in the mountains in the north. In summer, the air temperature is everywhere high (in July 28--30 ° C). Precipitation from 1500-1700 mm in the plains to 3000 mm in the mountains per year; rainy season from June to October. The largest river The Mekong flows for the most part along the western border of Laos, is navigable in some areas, its tributaries are of a mountainous nature (the most significant are U, Ngum, Theng, Banghiang). On S.-V. within Laos is a section of the river. Ma. Mountain lateritic soils predominate. Over 2/3 of the territory is covered with monsoon forests (with teak, bamboo, pink, black, sandalwood and other trees). Above 1000 m - evergreen broad-leaved forests with magnolias, laurels; in the ridge part of the mountains - mixed forests (oak, pine). On the plateau and in the valleys there are secondary savannahs. The animal world is rich and varied. Of the large animals, there are elephants, tigers, leopards, panthers, white-breasted bears, wild boars, wild bulls, monkeys (gibbons, macaques, thin-bodied). There are numerous reptiles, cobras, pythons), lizards, and crocodiles. The fauna of birds is diverse (peacocks, parrots, wild roosters); bats are common.

Laos I. Kurakova.

IV. Population

About 70 peoples and tribes live in Laos, united according to ethnolinguistic criteria into 3 groups: Laolum (lowland Lao), Laoteng (Upper Lao) and Laosung (High Lao). The Laolum include the Laotians proper (1,900,000 people, here and below in 1970, estimate) and mountain tai related to them (thai nya, thai black, thai white, phuthai, yuan, ly - about 250 thousand people in total). They speak the languages ​​of the Thai group. The Laoteng includes mountain Mons (Khmu, Lamet, Puteng, etc., about 380 thousand people in total) and mountain Khmers (Sui, Alak, Katang, Taoi, etc. - about 250 thousand people), whose languages ​​belong to Monkhmer family. Laosung (Man, Meo, etc. - about 120 thousand people) speak the languages ​​​​of the Miao-Yao group. Chinese, Vietnamese, Indians, Burmese and others live in Laos. The official language is Lao. The majority of the population professes the Buddhism of the southern branch; mountain peoples retain ancient animistic beliefs. In modern Laos, there are two calendar systems: Lao (lunisolar) and Gregorian (see Calendar).

The average annual population growth is 2.4% (1963-71). Of the economically active population (1.5 million in 1970), more than 4/5 are employed in agriculture, and about 5% in industry and handicrafts. The population is distributed extremely unevenly, most of it is concentrated in the valleys. The proportion of the urban population is 15% (1970). The most significant cities are Vientiane (pop. 150,000 in 1972), Savannakhet, Luang Prabang, Pakse, and Thakhek.

V. Historical outline

Laos in the most ancient period (until the middle of the 1st millennium AD). The oldest traces of human presence in Laos date back to the Upper Paleolithic. From the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. the Austro-Asiatic tribes that inhabited the territory of Laos began to use bronze tools; Their main occupation was rice growing. At the turn of our era in Northern Laos, an original culture of the Early Iron Age arose, for which megaliths in the form of jugs are typical. Crafts and agriculture (irrigation) reached a high level of development, a complex tribal organization took shape; Tai-lingual elements have played a prominent role in the history of Laos. During the 1st half of the 1st millennium AD. e. on the territory of Laos was a significant political and economic influence of the Khmer state of Funan.

The period of feudalism (the middle of the 1st millennium AD - the end of the 19th century). The Khmer states of Chenla of the Earth (seventh to eighth centuries) and Kambujadesh (ninth to 13th centuries) that replaced Funan included the regions of present-day South and Central Laos, where Khmer fortresses and cities arose. In the 6-13 centuries. class relations developed in forms close to Khmer. During this period, the Tai-speaking ancestors of the Laotians intensively settled on the territory of Laos, in which the decomposition of the tribal organization was replaced by the emergence of a class feudal society. In the 9th century In the 17th century, the Thais from the state of Nanzhao began to march to North Vietnam through North Laos, where the first Laotian and Thai feudal principalities arose, which soon began to fight against Kambujadesh. At the beginning of the 13th c. the Thai-Lao element in the ethnos began to dominate in Northern and Central Laos over the local Austro-Asiatic. In the 80s. 13th c. the territory of Northern Laos became part of the Thai state of Sukhothai (Sukhodaya). The dominant religion was Theravada Buddhism (Hinayana). The largest of the Lao principalities subordinated to Sukhothai was the principality of Muang Shwa in the valley of the river. Nam-Un. In 1353, the Laotian principalities on the territory of present-day Laos and Eastern Thailand were united by the ruler of Muang Shwa, Fa Ngun, into a single centralized state, Lan Xang, one of the largest states in Indochina. Among the agricultural population of the riverine valleys and the plateaus of Korat and Xiangkhuang, feudal relations dominated, among the rest of the Laotians and small nationalities, the process of feudalization has not yet been completed (especially in the mountainous regions). In the struggle for hegemony in the Lao principalities located on the territory of modern Northern Thailand, the interests of Lan Xang clashed with the interests of Ayutthaya, the largest Thai state. Lan Xang often fought with the Burmese states that also claimed the area. Relations were more friendly with the Vietnamese state of Dai Viet (see Vietnam), to which Lan Xang provided assistance in the fight against China in 1421. In the 16-17 centuries. Lan Xang reached its greatest prosperity and power. There was an economic upsurge, feudal relations and the Buddhist religion spread to new (internal) regions; Significant monuments of architecture, religious literature, etc. were created. However, the centralization of the state, achieved in the second half of the 17th century, proved to be unstable, and the big feudal lords strove for political independence. In 1707, Lan Xang broke up into the principalities of Luang Prabang and Vientiane, which (from 1710) had the principality of Xiangkhuang (Xieng Quang) as a vassal. In 1713, the principality of Champatsak (Champassak, Bassak) in southern Laos separated from Vientiane. In 1828, part of the territory of the principality of Vientiane, which was defeated by Siam, went to Siam, and the other (nominally) to the neighboring Laotian principalities. In 1832, a large area of ​​Xiangkhouang became part of Vietnam. The largest of the remaining Lao principalities - Luang Prabang and Champatsak (in the south on both banks of the Mekong) - were under strong Siamese and weaker Vietnamese influences. From the middle of the 19th century Northern Laos was subjected to devastating invasions by armed detachments (meo, thai) from southern China.

After the seizure of Vietnam by France and its subjugation of Cambodia in 1863, Laos fell into the sphere of claims of the French colonialists. Great Britain, which had seized Burma and strengthened its position in Siam, also laid claim to influence in Laos. In 1885, France succeeded in establishing its vice-consulate in Luang Prabang.

French colonial domination (late 19th century - 1953). In 1893, France established a protectorate over Luang Prabang. French troops occupied East Tyampatsak and the territory of the former Principality of Vientiane on the left bank of the river. Mekong; at the same time, under an agreement with Siam, the Laotian territories east of the river. The Mekong was recognized as a zone of French influence. All these territories, called French Laos, which actually became a colony, became part of the so-called Indochinese Union (French Indochina). In 1904 the French colonialists annexed part of the right bank of the Middle Mekong to French Laos. The French colonial authorities began the economic exploitation of Laos, turned mainly into a market and a source of tax revenue. The French colonialists sought to preserve backward feudal relations in Laos, capitalist relations developed extremely slowly. The people of Laos repeatedly raised uprisings against French domination (the largest in 1901-07; 1910-1936, etc.).

After World War I (1914–18), the exploitation of Laos by French capital intensified, and a plantation economy was created. Since 1923, tin mining has begun (mainly with the help of labor imported from Vietnam) (the Nam Paten region). The first major strikes of the working class of Laos (in the mines of Nam Paten) and actions of the urban petty bourgeoisie date from 1932-34. The national liberation movement became part of the democratic movement of the peoples of Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, which developed in French Indochina in 1936–38 under the leadership of the Communist Party of Indochina (established in 1930).

During World War II (1939-45), in 1941, Laos was occupied by the Japanese militarists. In the course of the popular struggle against the Japanese invaders in Laos, the anti-colonial movement Lao Issara (Free Laos) arose, whose active figures were Prince Souphanouvong and Prince Souvanna Fuma. After the capitulation of Japan in 1945, the Lao Issara movement, opposing the restoration of French rule in Laos, raised an uprising and on October 12, 1945, proclaimed the independence of Laos. A People's Assembly and government were formed, and an interim constitution was promulgated. After France reoccupied Laos in early 1946, the national liberation movement took the form of a guerrilla war. The created detachments of the People's Liberation Army put up stubborn resistance to the French troops. On August 27, 1946, France was forced to sign an agreement under which Laos received some internal autonomy. In May 1947, the Constituent Assembly, which met in Vientiane, approved the constitution: Laos was declared a constitutional monarchy under the protectorate of France. In July 1949 the formal independence of Laos was recognized within the framework of the French Union. During this period, the Lao Issar movement ceased to exist. The patriotic wing of this movement, led by Prince Souphanouvong, continued the struggle for independence. On August 13, 1950, at the Congress of People's Representatives, the creation of the United National Front of Laos (Neo Lao Itsala) was formalized, and a national liberation government was formed. It functioned in the liberated areas of Laos; in the rest of the territory, the royal government operated, which was under the control of the French authorities. On March 8, 1951, the creation of a united front for the liberation of the peoples of Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia was proclaimed. In the spring of 1953, at the request of the national liberation government, Vietnamese people's volunteers entered the liberated regions of the country and fought alongside the Laotians against the French colonialists. As a result of the success of the national liberation struggle in Laos, the French government was forced to recognize (under an agreement with the royal government of October 22, 1953) Laos as an independent state.

Laos after gaining political independence. At the Geneva Conference of Foreign Ministers of 1954 (see the Geneva Accords of 1954), the independence of Laos received international recognition. Under the Agreement on the Cessation of Hostilities in Laos, French troops and Vietnamese people's volunteers were withdrawn from the country. Parts of the Pathet Lao (the armed forces of Neo Lao Itsala) were concentrated in two northern provinces - Huaphan and Phongsali; the armed forces of the royal government - in the rest of the territory of Laos, the government of Laos undertook to carry out a political settlement in the country by holding general elections to the National Assembly in 1955 and to give the participants in the Neo Lao Itsala movement rights on an equal basis with all citizens of Laos. However, the reactionary circles, relying on the support of the United States, succeeded in September 1954, Souvanna Fuma (since 1951 he was prime minister of the royal government) was removed from power and put at the head of the government the leader of the National Party (founded in 1947), Katai Don Sasorita (until February 1955), who pursued a pro-American policy. This government broke off negotiations with Neo Lao Itsala and ordered the troops to launch an offensive against the provinces of Hua Phan and Phongsali. In December 1955, it held elections to the National Assembly, removing from participation in them, in violation of the Geneva agreements, Neo Lao Itsala. In December 1955, Laos was admitted to the UN. On January 6, 1956, at the 2nd Neo Lao Itsala Congress (often called the 1st PFL Congress in literature), Neo Lao Itsala was reorganized into the Laos Patriotic Front (PFL; Neo Lao Haksat). At the same time, a new program was adopted to build a peaceful, independent, united and prosperous Laos, and broad democratic reforms were planned to be carried out on the basis of the cooperation of all progressive forces. At the same time, the leadership of the PFL and the royal government began negotiations on a political settlement in the country in accordance with the Geneva Accords of 1954.

After the government headed by Prince Souvanna Phuma came to power in March 1956, which proclaimed a policy of peace, neutrality and national reconciliation, negotiations between the Lao parties continued; in 1957-58 a series of documents known as the Vientiane Accords was signed. In accordance with the latter, a coalition government headed by Prince Souvanna Fuma (government of national unity) was formed; it included two representatives of the PFL, which received the status of a legal party; the inclusion of two Pathet-Lao battalions in the royal army was envisaged. In May 1958 by-elections to the National Assembly were held. PFL received 13 deputy mandates (out of 20). In the provinces of Hua Phan and Phongsali, a royal administration was created with the participation of representatives of the PFL

At the same time, reactionary forces consolidated in Laos. An ultra-right political party (the Committee for the Protection of National Interests) was created, demanding the annulment of the Vientiane Accords and the removal of Prince Souvanna Phouma. At the end of 1958, the government of national unity was overthrown and right-wing Laotian forces came to power. The activity of the PFL was prohibited. In May 1959 Prince Souphanouvong and other PFL leaders were arrested. On August 9, 1960, a battalion of paratroopers of the royal army under the command of Captain Kong Le, relying on the support of the population, carried out a coup d'état. Prince Souvanna Fuma was invited to lead the new government. This government, which announced a policy of peace, neutrality and internal accord, was supported by the PFL. An alliance of neutralists (later united in the Neutralist Party of Laos - Lao Pen Kang) and the PFL began to take shape, which played an important role in the struggle against reaction. In September 1960, in the south, reactionary forces set up the so-called Revolutionary Committee, headed by Prince Bun Um and General Nosavan, in opposition to the government of Souvanna Phouma. Since the autumn of 1960, hostilities have unfolded in Laos between the troops of the right-wing grouping, led by Boon Um and Nosavan and supported by the US imperialist circles and their allies in SEATO, on the one hand, and the combined forces of the PFL and the neutralists (led by Souvanna Phouma) - on the other . Thanks to the successes of the national-patriotic forces, which had the sympathy and support of the socialist countries and the progressive world community, it became possible to achieve a settlement of the situation in Laos through negotiations. As a result, on June 11, 1962, a government of national unity was created (Prime Minister Souvanna Fuma), which included representatives of the three political forces of Laos - the neutralists, the PFL and the right (the Bun Uma - Nosavana group). Following this, an international conference (May 16, 1961 - July 23, 1962) of 14 countries, convened to settle the Lao problem, completed its work in Geneva. On July 23, 1962, the Declaration of Neutrality of Laos and the Protocol to the Declaration of Neutrality of Laos were signed (see the Geneva Accords of 1962). The Government of National Unity published a program aimed at pursuing an independent foreign policy, at building a unified, democratic and prosperous state. In September 1962, Laos established diplomatic relations with a number of socialist countries (they were established with the USSR in October 1960).

In 1963, reactionary elements disrupted the negotiations on internal political issues that were being held between the PFL, the neutralists and the right, and paralyzed the activities of the government of national unity. On April 1, 1963, reactionaries killed a neutralist, Foreign Minister Kinim Folsen. Ministers - representatives of the PFL were forced to leave Vientiane. Part of the neutralist grouping began to draw closer to the right forces, gradually forming a right-neutralist bloc that opposed the PFL and a group of left-wing neutralists who remained loyal to the former alliance, the 2nd Congress of the PFL (April 6-10, 1964) adopted a program of action designed to wage a struggle in new conditions. It called on the Lao people to unite in order to achieve the implementation of the 1962 Geneva Accords on Laos.

On April 19, 1964, ultra-right elements attempted a coup to overthrow the government of national unity. They arrested some members of the government, including Suwan Phumu, and tried to seize power. The actions of the rebels were condemned by most of the countries participating in the 1961-62 Geneva Conference on Laos. The rebels were forced to release Souvanna Phumu and other arrested members of the government. However, under pressure from reactionary forces, Souvanna Fuma carried out a reorganization of the government in June 1964; left-wing neutralists were removed, and right-wing neutralists were appointed instead of the ministers who were absent in Vientiane - representatives of the PFL (although formally the seats in the government were retained for representatives of the PFL). Since the summer of 1964, the United States has intensified military intervention in the affairs of Laos, assigning it the role of a strong base for aggressive actions in Indochina. American aircraft began to bombard areas controlled by the PFL, the intensity of which increased as the US military operations in Vietnam expanded [see. American (US) aggression in Vietnam]. The situation in the Vientiane zone remained precarious; the right-wing forces did not abandon their plans to overthrow the government of Souvanna Phouma. In February 1965, General Nosavan made another attempt to overthrow the government of Souvanna Phuma, but was defeated by the remaining troops loyal to Suwan Phuma and fled with his supporters to Thailand.

In con. In 1968, the Third Extraordinary Congress of the PFL was held, which adopted a new political program aimed at strengthening the united front and expanding it in order to intensify the struggle against imperialist intervention. Since 1969, right-wing Lao forces have intensified military operations against the PFL, undertaking a series of major offensive operations against areas controlled by Lao patriotic forces. Subsequently, the troops of the patriotic forces managed to regain control over temporarily lost positions. Since 1970, the strategic initiative at the front again passed to the patriots.

On March 6, 1970, the PFL Central Committee put forward a five-point program for a political settlement of the Lao problem. This document emphasized that the United States should stop all acts of aggression and war against Laos, including bombing, foreign troops and technical personnel should be withdrawn from Laos in order to create conditions for the interested Lao parties to negotiate and independently resolve all problems on the basis of the Geneva agreements. 1962 in Laos

At the beginning of February 1971, American-Saigon troops (30,000 men), supported by American aircraft, invaded South Laos from South Vietnam. At the end of March, 1971, they were driven back. Having stopped the enemy, the patriotic forces of Laos launched a counteroffensive in a number of sectors of the front.

The struggle for a peaceful solution to the Lao problem on the basis of the 1962 Geneva Agreements on Laos continued. During 1971–72, the PFL came up with a number of new proposals that provided for the cessation of hostilities throughout Laos, including the cessation of American bombing of the liberated areas, and the holding of negotiations between the Lao parties. In October 1972, negotiations began in Vientiane between delegations of patriotic forces and the Vientiane government of Souvanna Phuma on the restoration of peace and the achievement of an internal political settlement. The signing in Paris on January 27, 1973, of the Agreement on Cessing the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam created the conditions for achieving a political settlement in Laos and other countries of Indochina.

On February 21, 1973, in Vientiane, an Agreement was signed between the Lao parties on the restoration of peace and the achievement of national accord in Laos. The agreement provides for the cessation of hostilities throughout Laos from February 22, 1973, the creation in Laos of a provisional government of national unity and an advisory political council with the aim of preparing and conducting general elections to the National Assembly and the formation of a permanent government of national unity. The agreement also provides for the withdrawal of foreign military personnel from the territory of Laos. On September 14, 1973, in Vientiane, representatives of the PFL and the Vientiane government signed the Protocol to the Agreement of February 21, 1973, which provides for specific measures to implement the said Agreement.

The struggle of the people of Laos for the right to solve internal problems independently and against imperialist aggression received the support of the USSR and other socialist countries and the peace-loving forces of the whole world. This found its expression in the Appeal of the 24th Congress of the CPSU "Freedom and Peace to the Peoples of Indochina!" (April 1971), Statement of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of July 15, 1970, Statement of the Soviet Government of February 25, 1971, Statement of the heads of government of 8 socialist countries - the People's Republic of Belarus, Hungary, East Germany, Mongolian People's Republic, Poland, SRR, USSR, Czechoslovakia of May 14, 1970, Statement by the Political Consultative Council of the countries participating in the Warsaw Pact in connection with the aggravation of the situation in Indochina (December 2, 1970), Statement by the leaders of the socialist countries at a meeting in the Crimea in July 1973, etc.

Lit .: Documents of the Geneva meeting, "International Affairs", 1954, No. 1; Negotiations for an Internal Settlement in Laos, ibid., 1956, no. 11; Declaration of Neutrality for Laos. Protocol to the Declaration of Neutrality of Laos, Izvestia, 1962, July 31; Popov G.P., For an independent and neutral Laos, M., 1961; Pavlovsky V., Laos in the struggle for freedom, M., 1963; Kozhevnikov V. A., Laos, M., 1962; Kozhevnikov V. A., Sedov Laos A., Laos, M., 1962; Kozhevnikov V. A., Popovkina R. A., Modern Laos, M., 1966; Mikheev Yu. Ya., Americans in Indochina, M., 1972; Burchett W., Up the Mekong (Reporting on Cambodia and Laos), trans. from English, M, 1958; his, Vietnam and Laos in the days of war and peace, trans. from English, M., 1963.

D. V. Deopik (until 1940), V. A. Kozhevnikov (since 1940).

VI. Patriotic Front of Laos and political parties

Patriotic Front Laos (PFL; Nso Lao Haxat), a grassroots patriotic organization. Created in 1956; Neutralist Laos Party (Lao Pen Kang), founded in 1961.

VII. Economic and geographical outline

General characteristics of the economy. Laos is a backward agrarian country with a diversified economy. Unproductive pre-capitalist structures prevail; feudal relations are preserved, manifested mainly in the form of various duties. About 3/4 of the gross national product is accounted for by agriculture and forestry. Natural resources are poorly studied. Modern industry is practically non-existent. Due to the underdevelopment of transport, internal economic ties are very weak. External economic relations are also limited.

After the declaration of independence (1953), a number of economic development plans were adopted in Laos, providing for the country's self-sufficiency in food, the development of transport and industry. Their funding was supposed to come from foreign aid. The aggravation of the internal political situation (see the section Historical outline) and the hostilities caused by imperialist aggression prevented the implementation of these measures, led to severe devastation of the already weak economy of Laos

In areas under the control of patriotic forces, all forms of feudal exploitation have been eliminated; the economic policy of the PFL helps to raise the living standards of the population (the problems of rational development of agricultural land, irrigation, the introduction of drought-resistant varieties of agricultural crops, etc.) are being solved.

Agriculture. The main branch of agriculture is agriculture. Small-peasant land ownership and land use are typical (plots 1-3 hectares); possessions of large landowners no more than 30 hectares. Former French plantation farms (coffee, opium poppy, cotton) collapsed. Slash-and-burn agriculture is widespread in the mountainous regions. Only 17 thousand hectares of land are irrigated (1970). S.-x. lands (1970) make up 7.5% of the country's area (1.8 million hectares), of which more than 1/2 is cultivated, about 1/2 is meadows and pastures. The main part of cultivated land, mainly in the southern regions, is occupied by rice, the main food crop (total sown area, including land yielding two crops, 665,000 ha; harvested 830,000 tons in 1971); corn is also sown in the northern mountainous regions (40,000 ha; 27,000 tons). They grow sweet potatoes, potatoes, vegetables, cassava (tapioca), oilseeds (peanuts, soybeans, etc.), tobacco, cotton, fruits (mango, papaya, citrus fruits, etc.), coffee (on the Boloven plateau), as well as opium poppy. , spices (cinnamon). Cattle are bred, mainly for draft power (in 1970/71, 1.4 million heads, including 0.9 million buffaloes), and also pigs (1.2 million); poultry farming (over 12 million).

Forestry. Harvesting mainly wood of valuable species of trees (sandalwood, teak, polysander, black, etc.); the forest is rafted down the river. Mekong and its tributaries. Elephants are used in logging (about 0.9 thousand). Collection of gummilac, benzoin, cardamom, betel.

Industry. Handicraft production prevails. Tin, iron ore, copper, lead, manganese ore, silver, gemstones are mined from minerals in a small amount. Tin is mined by a French company in the areas of Thakhek and Fontieu; tin concentrates are exported to tin smelters in Malaysia, Thailand and Singapore. There are several small thermal power plants (operating on imported fuel). The International Program for the Use of the Resources of the Lower Mekong Basin in Laos plans to build 3 hydroelectric power stations, one of which has already been built on the river. Ngum. The basis of the manufacturing industry is sawmilling and rice cleaning, production of building materials; there are small sugar, oil-pressing, tobacco, ceramic, textile (including silk-weaving), sewing and knitting, metal-working (small tools and means of transport, dishes, etc.) enterprises. (For the production of certain types of industrial products, see Table.) Traditional arts and crafts (jewelry made of silver, ivory, gems, gold).

Transport. There are no railroads. Through the river Mekong (in the Vientiane region, in Thadya) there is a ferry service to Thailand. The length of auto-drawn roads is about 7,400 km (1970), of which 2,000 km are paved; the rest are country roads, passable only in the dry season. In the fleet (1970) 10.9 thousand cars and 1.8 thousand trucks. Small shipping on the river. Mekong and its tributaries. Airports in Vientiane, Luang Prabang, Savannakhet.

International trade. The foreign trade balance is chronically deficient (mainly covered by foreign aid). Foreign trade relations are mostly unilateral. The main export commodities are coffee, timber and timber, tin concentrates, as well as cardamom, benzoin, gummilac. Main imports: rice, textiles, petroleum products, vehicles. The main trading partners are Thailand, USA, Japan. Monetary unit - kip.

Lit .: Kozhevnikov V. A., Popovkina R. A., Modern Laos, M., 1966; Ioanesyan S.I., Laos. Socio-economic development (late XIX - 60s of the XX century), M., 1972; Halpern J. M., Economy and society of Laos, New Haven, 1964.

S. I. Ioanesyan.

VIII. Armed forces

The Royal Armed Forces of Laos consist of the ground forces, air force, and navy and number (1971) about 67,500 men. In addition, there are military-police and territorial formations (7 thousand people). The supreme commander is the king. The general leadership of the army is carried out by the Minister of Defense, direct leadership is carried out by the commander of the armed forces through the General Staff and the commanders of the branches of the armed forces. The army is recruited on the basis of the law on universal conscription and through the recruitment of volunteers. The ground forces (65 thousand people) consist of an armored cavalry regiment, about 70 separate infantry and light infantry battalions and special forces units. Air Force (about 2 thousand people) have St. 50 combat aircraft, the Navy - several river landing ships. All weapons are foreign-made.

The Laos People's Liberation Army, operating under the leadership of the PFL together with the neutralist troops, consists of infantry, artillery, armored troops, air defense units and subunits, engineering and other troops and has modern weapons and military equipment. In addition to regular troops, there are local self-defense troops and partisan units.

IX. Medical-geographical characteristic

In 1969 there were 30 general hospitals with 1,900 beds (0.7 beds per 1,000 inhabitants); of these, 14 hospitals (975 beds) in cities and 16 hospitals (948 beds) in rural areas. 22 hospitals with 1.7 thousand beds belonged to the state. Out-of-hospital care was provided in polyclinics of hospitals, in 117 dispensaries, as well as by private practitioners. There were 58 doctors (1 doctor per 50 thousand inhabitants), 7 dentists, 8 pharmacists and about 1000 paramedical personnel. There are a school for physician assistants and a school for paramedical personnel. Health care expenditures in 1968/69 amounted to 2.8% of the state budget. In areas controlled by the PFL, health services (military and civilian) are being organized, and anti-epidemic measures are being taken.

O. Laos Losev, A. A. Rozov.

Veterinary business. In pathology page - x. animals are dominated by infectious and parasitic diseases. Great economic damage is caused by pasteurellosis of cattle, sheep, pigs and birds. In Laos registered (1972) foci of swine fever - 9, hemorrhagic septicemia - 25, rabies - 12. Almost all types of agricultural. animals and birds are affected by tuberculosis, anthrax and rinderpest are sporadically recorded. A significant number of cattle is affected by paratuberculosis, horses by trypanosomiasis. Entomoses and helminthiases of page - x are widespread everywhere. animals. Laos has 18 veterinarians (1972).

X. Enlightenment

Until the beginning of the 20th century Buddhist temples were the centers of education in Laos, where monks and novices, along with the study of religious canons, received elementary general knowledge. Secular education in Laos arose after its inclusion in the system of French Indochina. In 1945 there were 11,000 students. In 1951, a law was passed on compulsory free primary education for children between the ages of 6 and 12. By 1955 the number of students had increased to 45,900. The conquest of the independence of Laos served as an incentive for the development and democratization of education. However, due to the actual split in the country, two education systems have developed. The education system in areas controlled by the Vientiane administration includes elementary schools of the 1st and 2nd stage (3 years each), incomplete 4-year high schools (colleges) and complete 7-year high schools (lyceums). Education in elementary schools is conducted in Lao, in secondary school in French. In the 1969/70 academic year, there were 217,000 students in elementary schools and 13,100 students in secondary schools. In the liberated areas, there is a 10-year education system: 4 years of primary school, 3 years of junior high school and 3 years of high school; by 1973 there were about 700 schools at various levels with 82,000 students. Teaching is conducted in Lao.

Secondary vocational education is provided by the National Pedagogical Center in Vientiane and the Pedagogical College in Samnya, the Technical College in Vientiane, medical schools and agricultural schools in Vientiane and Samnya, and others.

In Vientiane there is the Royal Scientific Society (until 1970 it was called the Literary Committee), whose main task is to promote the development of national literature and language, the National Library with a small book fund (temples remain the main repositories of books).

Laos N. Morev.

XI. Printing, broadcasting

In 1971, 9 periodicals were published in Laos. The main publications in Vientiane are: Lansan Kaona (Progress of Laos), a bulletin in Lao, since 1969, circulation 500 copies, published twice a week; Lao Presse Bulletin, official daily bulletin, organ of the Ministry of Information, Propaganda, Tourism, published in Lao (circulation 700 copies) and French (circulation 1300 copies) languages; Lao Samai (Laos Today), daily newspaper, 600 copies, published in Chinese and Lao; Pittupum (Motherland), daily newspaper, circulation 500, published in Lao; "Sat Lao" ("Land of Laos"), a daily newspaper with a circulation of 3.5 thousand copies, expresses the interests of right-wing nationalist circles; Sieng Seri (Voice of Freedom), daily newspaper, circulation 1,000.

In the territory under the control of patriotic forces, the following are published: Lao Haksat (Patriot of Laos), a newspaper, an organ of the Central Committee of the PFL; "Sang Sawan" ("Light"), magazine.

Agencies in operation: Lao Press, government news agency in Vientiane, since 1951; Khaosan Pathet-Lao, PFLao News Agency The Laos National Radio, a government service, operates in Vientiane. PFL radio station - Voice of Pathet Lao.

V. A. Kozhevnikov.

XII. Literature

Early monuments of epigraphy discovered in Laos date back to the second half of the 13th century. After the creation of the state of Lan Xang (14th century) and the spread of Buddhism, the first records of literary works of religious and then secular content appeared: the poem "Prince Hung" about the internecine strife of the Lao rulers, the prose "The Tale of Khun Bolom" - the legendary founder of one of the first principalities in Laos (presumably 13-15 centuries), etc. Ancient Indian literature, including the Ramayana, known in Laos under the name Pa Lak Pa Lam, and translated from the language the Buddhist canon Tipitaka fell, of which the Vessantra Jataka, Kampara Jataka, and other Jatakas were especially popular. The plots of ancient Indian literature, under the influence of local folklore traditions, underwent noticeable processing and rethinking in the literature of Laos. Pa In (Indra), Metaiya (Buddha-Maitreya), the Buddhist ascetic Malayu, along with the characters of their own folklore - the giant Tiet Hai and the crafty boy Siang Miang became popular heroes of the Laotians. The pinnacle of literature Laos 16--17 centuries. is the epic poem "Shinsai" by Pankham. The late Middle Ages also include religious-didactic and didactic-everyday works, which reflected the ethical norms and legal relations of medieval Laos: “Instructions of Intian” and “Instructions of the grandfather to the grandchildren” by Keu Dangt and anonymous framed stories “Siyou Savat”, “Puttasen”, "Munla Tantai".

From the 18th century As a result of the collapse (in 1707) of the Lan Xang state and the loss of independence by the Laotian territories (at the end of the 19th century), literature experienced a deep stagnation. Its revival began only after the end of World War II (1939-45) and the growth of the national liberation movement. In modern literature, works of small forms (small novels, short stories, poems and songs), as well as journalism, predominate. Literature develops more successfully in the liberated regions of Laos: Somsy's poems, Sisan's songs, the stories "Little Si" (1969) by Khamling Folsena and "The Road of Life" (1970) by Dyan Sawan.

Lit .: Finot L., Recherches sur la litterature laotienne, "Bulletin de l" Ecole francaise d "Extreme-Orient", 1917, t. 17, no. 5; Bernard. Thierry S., Litterature laotienne, in: Histoire des litteratures, t. 1, GR., 1955]; Maha Sila Vilawong, Wannakadi lao pya kansiksa, Vientiane, 1960; Phimmasone Phouvong, Cours de litterature Lao, Bulletin des Amis du Royaume Lao, 1971, nos. 4--5.

Laos N. Morev.

XIII. Architecture and fine arts

The oldest monuments of art are huge granite "vessels" (probably funerary urns), concentrated mainly in the Valley of Jars (Tran Ninh Highlands) and dating from the beginning of our era. In the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. In Laos, the influence of the Khmer culture spread. Among the surviving monuments of the middle of the 1st - the beginning of the 2nd millennium and. e. - sanctuaries near Savannakhet (Ing-Rang, etc.), similar to the Prasats of Cambodia 6-11 centuries. With the formation of the state of Lan Xang (14th century), Buddhism became firmly established, and a peculiar artistic culture developed, absorbing the influences of the art of Cambodia and Siam. Numerous monastic complexes have been preserved - “vats”: Xieng Thong in Luang Prabang (1561), Phra Keo (1565, restored in 1938) and Sisaket (1820) in Vientiane, etc. They include temples - “botas” (rectangular in plan buildings with porticos and multi-layer 2-slope tiled roofs), libraries, monks' dwellings and sanctuaries - "thats" (a kind of stupa). Various in size and shape (hemispherical, bell-shaped, stepped, tower-shaped with a spire) thatas were also placed separately, forming independent ones together with terraces, galleries and surrounding small thaats. complexes (That Luang in Vientiane, 16th century, restored in 1909-31). Monuments of the medieval fine arts - stone, wooden and bronze statues of Buddha (known since the 14th century), in which the strict canonicity of the pose and the generalized modeling of the form are combined with clearly expressed ethnic features (bulging, narrow-slit eyes, short nose) and the softness of the lines. Small plastic, often non-Buddhist (figurines of dancers, etc.), ornamental carving with gilding on the wooden pediments of the boats, on doors and shutters, became widespread. Inside, the boots were decorated with paintings on religious themes. The domination of the French colonialists slowed down the development of national culture. In the cities of Vientiane and Luang Prabang, geometrically correctly planned streets with 2-4-storey European-style houses appeared. With the establishment of independence, the traditions of national culture began to revive. The architecture of the buildings uses both modern forms (Lansang Hotel in Vientiane, 1963, architect Khamphet) and traditional national forms (Ministry of the Interior in Vientiane, 1960s, architect Serg). A traditional frame house on stilts with a 2-pitched roof, often with a veranda, remains a mass popular dwelling. Easel painting (lacquer, oil; Nuaraong, Vilivong), graphics (Samnan), sculpture are developing; along with Buddhist mythological scenes, scenes from folk life, landscape and still life began to appear. The traditions of carving on doors and shutters, decorative painting, weaving, metalworking are being revived.

Lit .: Ngo Gui Quin, Architecture of Laos, in the book: General History of Architecture, vol. 9, Laos - M., 1971; Parmentier H., L "art du Laos, v. 1--2, P. - Hanoi, 1954.

S. S. Ozhegov.

XIV. Music

Despite strong Indian and Chinese influences, Lao music has retained the purity and originality of the folk tradition. Its roots go back to the 12th century. In Laos, there is no musical notation, so the performers keep folk melodies in their memory, skillfully varying them during playback. The culture of vocal and choral singing is developed among the people. The most popular improvised ballads of itinerant singers and lyrical duets of lovers. Among the musical instruments, the most common is the original, not found in other countries of South and Southeast Asia, khen (consists of several bamboo tubes), flutes are also popular; from stringed ones - a two-stringed violin (similar to Cambodian); percussion instruments include a variety of drums, gongs, xylophones, and a complex kong won instrument, consisting of sixteen small bronze gongs mounted on a horseshoe-shaped frame. Together, all these instruments form a small Lao orchestra that accompanies choral and solo singing. Late 60s - early 70s. small orchestras include European violins and accordions.

The orchestra, complemented by clarinets and bass drums, participates in royal and religious processions, performances of the Royal Ballet. In the National Orchestra, which accompanies martial dances, the rite of "exorcism of evil spirits", the leading part is performed by gongs; flutes, clarinets, single-string bowed instruments and xylophones are also included.

S. M. Makarova.

XV. Theater

Laos theater, close to the theater of other countries of South and Southeast Asia, combines dance, music, pantomime and drama. Its origins are in folk labor and ritual performances (some are also performed at modern religious and seasonal holidays). Buddhism influenced the formation of the theater. Scenes from the Indian epic "Ramayana", "Mahabharata" became the main dramatic material for the Lao theater. The Laos theater repertoire also consists of dramatizations of romantic tales, legends, religious stories, some of them of Khmer, Siamese and Burmese origin. Actors perform in magnificent costumes and painted lacquer masks, always strictly canonized. Despite the lack of scenery and props, the performances give the impression of a majestic and festive spectacle. For several centuries in Laos there has been the Royal Ballet, which performs in the palace in Luang Prabang, and a few troupes of itinerant actors, playing scenes in the open air. Performances sometimes last all night. Since ancient times, there has been a shadow theater and a puppet theater, which bear traces of the influence of Javanese and Chinese theater, while preserving national features (costumes, plasticity of movements). All theatrical performances are accompanied by a small Lao and National orchestras.

Lao theater was in decline during the colonial period. Having begun to revive during the years of the struggle for independence, he took on the themes of the national liberation movement. A youth troupe has been created, which performs in army units and villages.

Lit .: Parmentier N., L "art du Laos, v. 1--2, P. - Hanoi, 1954; Laos, its people, its society, its culture. New Haven, 1960.

S. M. Makarova.

View of part of the city of Luang Prabang, located on the river. Mekong.

Anti-aircraft calculation of the troops of the patriotic forces of Laos. 1965.

The pediment of the boat in the My-Sai Wat in Vientiane.

Tailoring workshop in the liberated area.

Wilivong. "From the market". 1960s Private collection, Moscow.

State flag. Laos.

Serg. The building of the Ministry of the Interior in Vientiane. 1965.

Buddha statue at Fra Keo Wat Gallery. Bronze.

That Luang in Vientiane. 2nd floor 16th century Restored in 1909--1931.

State Emblem of Laos.

Boat in Wat Fra Keo in Vientiane. 1565, restored in 1938.

Demonstration of youth against US interference in the affairs of Laos. Northern Laos. 1965.

Laos. Sesest waterfall.

Sparse forests on the Phu-Khao-Khue plateau.

"Walking Buddha". After the 15th c. Bronze.

Traditional folk home.

Nuaraong. "Landscape with carriages". Lacquer painting. 1960s Private collection, Moscow.

In the weaving workshop.

Processing of rice field in the liberated area.

Granite "vessels" in the Valley of Jars (Tran Ninh Highlands). Beginning of our era.

Boat at Xieng Muong Wat in Luang Prabang. 1851.

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