Inca civilization message. Incas - information on the portal encyclopedia of world history. And now back to the division of land

There are very few sources of information regarding the history of the Incas, an ancient Indian civilization. Most of the information comes from the Spanish conquistadors and missionaries. Filippo Huaman Poma De Ayaalo - the 16th century Inca artist left one original and priceless document - these are drawings and chronicles that give a detailed description of the Inca society. Realizing that his world might disappear, Uaman Poma described all its splendor. It was his life's work. He intended to give it to King Philip II, in the hope that the monarch would see his colony in a different light and change his attitude towards it.

In his work, he also described the way of life of the Andean peoples before the arrival of the Incas - the Indians led a harsh and complex lifestyle, they were practically savages. But everything changed with the appearance of a creature that was half-man, half-god - the son of Inti, the son of God. His name is Manco Capac. He called himself "Inca" and brought civilization to his world.

He taught people to build cities and cultivate the land. Under his leadership, the Inca world began to flourish. His wife Manco Capaca Ocllo taught the women how to weave.

Such was the world of the Incas, where the same name belonged to both the ruler and his people.

100 years after the formation of the Inca Empire, in the 15th century, this state, located on the territory of Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, ceased to exist. However, more on that later... The article will talk about who the Incas are.

The birth of civilization

According to legend, the sun god Inti created the ancestors of the Inca rulers. They were 4 brothers and 4 sisters who came out of the Tampu Tocco cave. Their leader was Aiyar Manco, who carried a golden staff in his hands. He had to find a place where the staff would enter the ground, which would be a sign of fertile soil.

After a long wandering, Aiyar Manco with his brothers and sisters came to the Cuzco Valley, where the staff finally entered the earth.

Having defeated the warlike locals, the brothers and sisters founded the capital of the Inca Empire. Aiyar Manco began to call himself Manco Capac, which means "ruler of the Incas". He became the first Sappa Inca (paramount chief).

Was it all like that?

Ethnologists of the National Center for Scientific Research are not completely sure of the historical existence of the first eight Incas. Rather, they were mythical characters. Due to the fact that all currently available information about the Incas is closely related to their epic.

Each family of Inca rulers had their own traditions, similar to African ones. Each generation of rulers told the story in its own way.

A significant period in the history of the Incas is associated with the ruler Pachacuti. Among other things, he was the greatest religious reformer. During his reign, the Inca people became much less dependent on the high priests of the solar religion.

Pachacuti Time

In the XII century, the Andes were inhabited by a huge number of different peoples and constantly warring tribes. Pachacuti wanted to create an empire that would unite all the Andean peoples. His name, which means "changing the world", perfectly describes his aspirations.

He united the tribes around the city of Cuzco and his goals became a reality.

At the beginning of the 15th century, the Inca Empire was attacked by the Chanca tribe. The city of Cusco is under threat. Pachacuti took command of the army and managed to repel the attack and, inspired by the victory, began military expansion.

Pachacuti seized territory in the region of Lake Titicaca and expanded the possessions of the Inca Empire of Tahuantinsuyu in the North up to the Cojamarca region.

A few words about lifestyle

Briefly, the culture of the Incas reflects their way of life. When the Incas enslaved peoples, they presented local rulers with special gifts - women and various curiosities. Thus, they made him somewhat grateful, left him in debt. In exchange for these gifts, the leaders had to pay tribute to the Incas or perform various types of work for them. From that moment on, they entered into relations that are historically called vassalage. It could be forced labor, which was called "mita", or an unequal exchange, called "ayne".

This system of relations with the captured tribes became one of the main aspects of the power of the Incas.

Creating an orderly system on such a large scale in one of the largest mountain ranges on the planet was not an easy task. The Incas needed to create collective labor, commodity exchange, a management system and ensure security. All this would not have been possible without the construction of roads.

There is no doubt that the Incas already knew what a wheel was. However, the mountain landscapes were not suitable for the use of wheeled vehicles. Even today, most travel in the Andes is done on foot. But the Incas conquered the mountain peaks, creating a developed network of communications. They built bridges in a world that literally hung between heaven and earth.

A few words about the reign of the Sappa Inca

The power of the Incas, like any other power, required an impact on the minds of people. And the majestic city of Machu Picchu, according to ethnologists, is only part of the image of power. For example, the ruler was not allowed to look in the face. His image has always been associated with sacred rituals. He was revered as the son of the Sun and was a real shrine for the people.

The power of the ruler was perpetuated after his death, when he joined all the gods and himself became a God. The Huaman Poma chronicles describe the Incas' understanding of life after death. They believed that human life force did not disappear after death. In their view, the ancestors could protect those living on earth.

Imperial capital

In the heart of the Andes, at an altitude of more than 3 thousand meters, was the city of Cuzco - the capital of the Inca Empire. In 1534, it was practically razed to the ground by the Spanish invaders. The city of Cusco is the political and spiritual center of the Inca Empire.

In addition to Cusco, there were several administrative centers; there were not so many cities in the Inca Empire. Most of the territory is small villages where the Incas lived and worked on plantations. Agriculture was the centerpiece of their economy.

rituals

To figure out who the Incas are, you should turn to their epic.

In the chronicles of Mana Poma, one of the chapters is devoted to a rather strange ritual - capacocha. During some events, such as a solar eclipse, a volcanic eruption, or epidemics, children were sacrificed to earn the favor of the spirits. It also happened that they were the children of the leaders of the tribe.

Capacocha was an important part of the political and religious cult in Cusco.

Counting system

Although the Incas did not have a written language, they used a system of knots and ropes called quipu to record numbers and possibly other information. Thanks to the decimal system, the taxation of subjects was orderly and efficient.

Taxes in the form of food were collected throughout the empire and added up to the colpos. This system provided the population with acceptable living conditions and was an important aspect in controlling the empire's economy.

They lived at high altitudes, where every 5-6 years there might not be a crop, so they just needed to stock up.

In return, the empire provided security, maintained infrastructure, and provided the inhabitants with a livelihood. For this, large warehouses with essential goods were built everywhere. Such kolpos existed in every region.

And now back to the division of land

The son of Pochacuti - Tupac Inca - continued to conquer new territories and in 1471 became the ruler. By the end of his reign, the empire extended throughout Western South America. He showed the inhabitants of neighboring tribes who the Incas were.

In 1493, the ruler was replaced by his son Huayna Capac. The wars of the new ruler on distant frontiers increased the level of discontent in the empire.

In 1502, having won a civil war, Atahualpa's army faced invaders from Europe. And although the Incas outnumbered the Europeans, Francisco Pizarro, with a small detachment of conquistadors, completely defeated their huge army. With the help of guns and horses, which the Incas had never seen before, the Spaniards were victorious. Atahualpa was taken prisoner and killed a year later.

However, according to historians, this is not the only reason for the fall of the empire. At that time, it was in the process of fragmentation and wars, which became the main reason for the collapse.

The great rise of the Inca empire was almost as fleeting as its fall. And now, unfortunately, we can find out who the Incas are from the few sources that have survived to this day.

Civilization of the ancient Incas

At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. on the Pacific coast and in the northern regions of the South American continent, the first empires arose. The most significant of them was the state of the Incas. During its heyday, from 8 million to 15 million people lived here.

The term "Inca" denoted the title of the ruler of several tribes in the foothills of the Andes; this name was also worn by the tribes of the Aymara, Huallacan, Keuar, and others who lived in the Cusco Valley and spoke the Quechua language.

The Inca Empire covered an area of ​​1 million square meters. km, its length from north to south exceeded 5 thousand km. The Inca state, divided into four provinces around the city of Cusco and located in the vicinity of Lake Titicaca, included the territory of modern Bolivia, northern Chile, part of present-day Argentina, the northern part of the modern Republic of Peru and present-day Ecuador.

The supreme power in the state belonged entirely to Sapa Inca - that was the official name of the emperor. Each Sapa Inca built his own palace, richly decorated according to his taste. The best artisan jewelers made for him a new golden throne, richly adorned with precious stones, mostly emeralds. Gold in the Inca Empire was widely used in jewelry, but was not a means of payment. The Incas did without money, since one of the main principles of their life was the principle of self-sufficiency. The whole empire was a huge subsistence economy.

Religion occupied an important place in the life of the Incas. Each population group, each region had its own beliefs and cults. The most common form of religious representations was totemism - the worship of a totem - an animal, plant, stone, water, etc. with whom believers considered themselves to be related. The lands of the communities were named after deified animals. In addition, the cult of ancestors was widespread. The dead ancestors, according to the ideas of the Incas, should have contributed to the ripening of the crop, the fertility of animals and the well-being of people. Believing that the spirits of their ancestors live in caves, the Incas erected stone mounds near the caves, which, with their outlines, resembled the figures of people. The custom of mummification of the corpses of the dead is associated with the cult of ancestors. Mummies in elegant clothes, with decorations, utensils, food were buried in tombs carved into the rocks. The mummies of rulers and priests were buried especially magnificently.

The Incas erected their buildings from various types of stone - limestone, basalt, diorite and raw brick. The houses of the common people had light roofs of thatch and bundles of reeds; there were no stoves in the houses, and the smoke of the hearth came out right through the thatched roof. Temples and palaces were built especially carefully. The stones from which the walls were built were so closely fitted to each other that no binders were required during the construction of buildings. In addition, the Incas built fortresses with numerous watchtowers on the mountain slopes. The most famous of them rose above the city of Cuzco and consisted of three rows of walls 18 m high.

In their temples, the Incas worshiped a whole pantheon of gods who had strict subordination. The highest of the gods was considered Kon Tiksi Viracocha - the creator of the world and the creator of all other gods. Among those gods whom Viracocha created were: the god Inti (golden Sun) - the legendary ancestor of the ruling dynasty; the god Ilyapa - the god of weather, thunder and lightning, to whom people turned with requests for rain, for Ilyapa could make the waters of the Heavenly River flow to the earth; Inti's wife is the goddess of the moon - Mama Kilya. The Morning Star (Venus) and many other stars and constellations were also revered. In the religious ideas of the ancient Aztecs, a special position was occupied by the extremely ancient cults of the mother earth - Mama Pacha and the mother sea - Mama Kochi.

The Incas had many religious and ritual festivities associated with the agricultural calendar and the life of the ruling family. All holidays were held on the main square of Cusco - Huakapata (Sacred Terrace). Roads radiated from it, connecting the capital with the four provinces of the state. By the time the Spaniards arrived, there were three palaces in Huacapata Square. Two of them have been turned into shrines. When an Inca ruler died, his body was embalmed and the mummy left in his palace. From that time on, the palace became a sanctuary, and the new ruler built another palace for himself.

The highest achievement of Inca architecture is the ensemble of temples Koricancha (Golden Court). The main building of the ensemble was the temple of the sun god - Inti, where
There was a golden image of a god adorned with large emeralds. This image was placed in the western part, and it was illuminated by the first rays of the rising sun. The walls of the temple were completely upholstered with sheet gold. The ceiling was covered with wood carvings, the floor was covered with carpets stitched with gold threads. Windows and doors were studded with precious stones. Several chapels adjoined the temple of the Sun - in honor of thunder and lightning, rainbows, the planet Venus, and the main one - in honor of the Moon (Mother Chilia). The image of the Moon in the Inca Empire is associated with the idea of ​​a woman, a goddess. Therefore, the chapel of Mama Chilya was intended for the koim - the wife of the Inca ruler, only she had access to this chapel. Here were the mummies of the dead wives of the rulers. In the chapel of the moon, all the decoration was made of silver.

Various crafts among the Incas reached their peak. The Incas mastered mining quite early and mined copper and tin ores in mines to make bronze, from which axes, sickles, knives and other household utensils were cast. The Incas could smelt metal, knew the technique of casting, forging, chasing, soldering and riveting, and also made products using the cloisonné enamel technique. The chroniclers reported that the Inca masters made a golden cob of corn, in which the grains were golden, and the fibers surrounding the cob were made of the finest silver threads. The pinnacle of Inca jewelry was the image of the Sun God in the Sun Temple in Cusco in the form of a huge golden solar disk with a skillfully chiselled human face.

The golden wealth of the Incas reached its apogee during the reign of Huayn Capac. He orders! line the walls and roofs of their palaces and temples with sheet gold; in the royal palace there were many golden sculptures of animals. During the ceremonies 50 thousand. warriors were armed with golden weapons. A huge portable golden throne with a cape of precious feathers was placed in front of the residence palace.

All this was plundered by conquistadors from the expedition of Francisco Pissaro. The pieces of jewelry were melted down into ingots and sent to Spain. But much remains in hiding and has not yet been discovered.

According to researchers of the Inca culture, their empire died largely because of religion. First, the rite was approved by religion, in which the ruler chose a successor from among his sons. This led to an internecine war between the brothers Huascar and Atahualpa, which significantly weakened the country before the invasion of the Spanish conquistadors led by Pizarro. Secondly, there was a legend among the Incas that in the future new, unfamiliar people would rule the country, who would conquer the empire and become its sole rulers. This explains the fear and indecision of the Incas before the Spanish conquistadors.

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Inca civilization

INCA CIVILIZATION formed in the 16th century. in the regions of South America adjacent to the Pacific coast (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, part of Argentina and Chile).
Initially, the word "Inca" meant the Indians who lived in the capital of Cuzco and spoke the Quechua language. The Spaniards called so all the peoples that were part of the state of the Incas. It was called Tawantinsuyu ("four cardinal directions") and consisted of 4 parts: Chinchasuyu (northwest), Kolyasuyu (south), Kuntisuyu (west) and Antisuyu (east). Parts were divided into provinces, and those - into districts. Each section was headed by a governor. The country was connected by a network of roads.

Inca civilization. Golden mask. 13 - beg. 14th c.

The history of the Incas is divided into 2 periods: legendary (12th c.

Inca Empire

1438) and the period of the empire (1438-1533). Their official history is largely legendary and closely intertwined with myths. In the legendary era, 7 rulers changed: Manco Capac, Sinchi Roca, Lloque Yupanqui, Mayta Capac, Capac Yupanqui, Inca Roca and Yahuar Huakak. The 8th ruler was Viracocha. His reign is a transitional period from legendary to historical history. Pachacutec, who ruled after Viracocha (from about 1438), subjugated neighboring communities and laid the foundation of a great empire.

Traditional Inca costume

The supreme power was inherited. The Sapa Inca was the supreme ruler. The closest relatives, Incas by blood, were a serious political force. The community members in Tahuantinsuyu united in tribal groups - the foundation of the political system of the empire. Temple and palace servants, settlers-colonists, artisans (coppers, tanners, jewelers, potters, priests - interpreters of the quipu knot letter) were excluded from the community system.
The basis of the economy was agriculture. Cattle breeding was developed in the highlands: llamas, alpacas, vicunas and guanacos were bred. These animals were used as pack animals (for transporting goods), their meat was used as food, and fabrics were made from wool. Root crops were grown a little lower. Maize (corn) was sown in the fertile valleys. Due to the lack of fertile land in the valleys, terraced agriculture was carried out on the slopes of the mountains.

Craftsmen mastered the cold processing of meteoric iron, made products from gold, lead, copper, and tin. Jewelry, figurines of people and animals were made from precious metals. Fabrics were considered the most valuable products; the Incas reached great heights in their production. Taxes were collected in kind. A third went to the Sapa-Inca (state), the gods and the producers themselves. Education depended on social status. Children of the nobility in special institutions studied theology, history, mathematics, geography, engineering, and economics. The children of the community members learned from their parents and the elderly.

In the era of the empire, 3 gods of the sky were considered the main ones: the god-creator of the Universe (he had many incarnations of Viracocha, etc.), the god of the Sun Inti and the god of thunder Ilyapa. The main female deity (Mama Kilya - the wife of the Sun god) was associated with the Moon. The ruling Inca was considered the incarnation of the Sun, and his wife was considered the incarnation of the Moon. Ancestors were revered (the Incas worshiped their mummies, which were kept in special rooms).
In 1532, the Spaniards, led by F. Pizarro, invaded the territory of the Incas, in 1533 they occupied Cusco and soon, using the discontent of the Indian tribes conquered by the Incas, took possession of the entire empire. The Incas conquered by the Spaniards later joined the Quechua.

Inca civilization

Quechua, the language of the Incas, has a very distant relationship with the Aymara language, which was spoken by the Indians who lived near Lake Titicaca. It is not known what language the Incas spoke before Pachacutec elevated Quechua to the rank of the state language in 1438.

Inca culture

Through a policy of conquest and migration, Quechua spread throughout the empire and is still spoken by most Peruvian Indians to this day.

Agriculture.

Initially, the population of the Inca state consisted for the most part of farmers who, if necessary, took up arms. Their daily life was subject to the agricultural cycle, and under the guidance of connoisseurs, they turned the empire into an important center for the cultivation of plants. More than half of all food consumed in the world today comes from the Andes. Among them are over 20 varieties of corn and 240 varieties of potatoes, “camote” (sweet potatoes), squash and pumpkin, various varieties of beans, cassava (from which flour was made), peppers, peanuts and quinoa (wild buckwheat). The most important agricultural crop of the Incas was the potato, which can withstand severe cold and grow at altitudes up to 4600 m above sea level. Alternately freezing and thawing potatoes, the Incas dehydrated them to such an extent that they turned them into a dry powder called “chuno” . Corn (sara) was grown at altitudes up to 4100 m above sea level. and was consumed in various forms: cheese on the cob (choklo), dried and lightly fried (kolyo), in the form of hominy (mote) and turned into an alcoholic drink (saraiyaka, or chicha). To make the latter, women chewed corn kernels and spat the pulp into a vat, where the resulting mass, under the influence of saliva enzymes, fermented and released alcohol.

In that era, all Peruvian tribes were at approximately the same technological level. The work was carried out jointly. The main tool of the farmer's labor was the taklya. , a primitive digging stick - a wooden stake with a point burned for strength.

Arable land was available, but by no means in abundance. Rains in the Andes usually fall from December to May, but dry years are not uncommon. Therefore, the Incas irrigated the land using canals, many of which testify to a high level of engineering. To protect soils from erosion, terraced agriculture was used by pre-Inca tribes, and the Incas improved this technology.

The Andean peoples practiced predominantly sedentary agriculture and rarely resorted to slash-and-burn agriculture, adopted by the Indians of Mexico and Central America, in which areas cleared of forests were sown for 1–2 years and left as soon as the soil was depleted. This is explained by the fact that the Central American Indians did not have natural fertilizers, with the exception of rotten fish and human excrement, while in Peru the farmers of the coast had huge reserves of guano, and in the mountains llama (taki) manure was used for fertilizer.

These camelids are descended from wild guanacos that were domesticated thousands of years before the arrival of the Incas. Lamas endure alpine cold and desert heat; they serve as pack animals capable of carrying up to 40 kg of cargo; they give wool for making clothes and meat - it is sometimes dried in the sun, calling it “charki”. Llamas, like camels, tend to defecate in one place, so that their dung is easy to collect to fertilize the fields. Lamas played an important role in the formation of the settled agricultural cultures of Peru.

social organization. Islew. At the base of the social pyramid of the Inca Empire was a kind of community - Ailyu. It was formed from family clans who lived together in the territory allotted to them, jointly owned land and livestock, and shared crops among themselves. Almost everyone belonged to one or another community, was born and died in it. Communities were small and large - up to the whole city. The Incas did not know individual landownership: the land could only belong to the Ailly or, later, the emperor and, as it were, was rented out to a member of the community. Every autumn there was a redistribution of land - plots increased or decreased depending on the size of the family. All agricultural work in the Isle was carried out jointly.

At the age of 20, men were supposed to marry. If the young man himself could not find a mate, a wife was chosen for him. In the lower social strata, the strictest monogamy was maintained, while representatives
ruling class practiced polygamy.

Some women had the opportunity to leave the ailya and improve their situation. We are talking about the “chosen ones” who, for their beauty or special talents, could be taken to Cuzco or to the provincial center, where they were taught the art of cooking, weaving or religious rituals. Dignitaries often married the “chosen ones” they liked, and some became the concubines of the Inca himself.

State of Tahuantinsuyu. The name of the Inca empire - Tahuantinsuyu - literally means "four connected cardinal points". Four roads ran out of Cuzco in different directions, and each, regardless of its length, bore the name of the part of the empire where it led. Antisuyu included all the lands east of Cusco - the Eastern Cordillera and the Amazonian selva. From here, the Incas were threatened with raids by tribes that they had not pacified. Continsuyu united the western lands, including the conquered cities of the Costa - from Chan Chan in the north to Rimak in Central Peru (the location of the current Lima) and Arequipa in the south. Collasuyu, the most extensive part of the empire, extended south from Cuzco, covering Bolivia with Lake Titicaca and parts of modern Chile and Argentina. Chinchasuyu ran north to Rumichaki. Each of these parts of the empire was ruled by an apo, related by blood to the Inca and answerable only to him.

Decimal administrative system. The social and, accordingly, the economic organization of Inca society was based, with some regional differences, on a decimal administrative-hierarchical system. The accounting unit was purik - an adult capable man who has a household and is able to pay taxes. Ten households had their own, so to speak, “brigadier” (the Incas called him pacha-kamayok), a hundred households were headed by a pacha-kuraka, a thousand by a fry (usually managing a large village), ten thousand by a provincial governor (omo-kuraka), and ten The provinces constituted a "quarter" of the empire and were ruled by the apo mentioned above. Thus, for every 10,000 households, there were 1,331 officials of various ranks.

Inca. The new emperor was usually elected by a council of members of the royal family. Direct succession to the throne was not always respected. As a rule, the emperor was chosen from the sons of the lawful wife (koya) of the deceased ruler. The Inca had one official wife with countless concubines. So, according to some estimates, Huayna Capac had about five hundred sons alone, who happened to live already under Spanish rule. His offspring, who constituted a special royal ailya, the Inca appointed to the most honorable positions. The Inca Empire was a true theocracy, since the emperor was not only the supreme ruler and priest, but also, in the eyes of the common people, a demigod. In this totalitarian state, the emperor had absolute power, limited only by customs and fear of rebellion.

5 Art of American Civilizations

Report: Inca Empire

Another great state of pre-Columbian America was the Inca Empire, or, as the Incas themselves called their country, Tahuantinsuyu or "Land of the Four Parts". The last name is due to the fact that the country was divided into four provinces: Kuntinsuyu, Colyasuyu, Antisuyu and Chinchasuyu with the capital in the city of Cusco. The foundation of the country is attributed to the legendary Inca Manco Capac. The very word "Inca" never referred to the name of the tribe, it denoted only the ruler of the state. Under his successors, the territory of the state was constantly expanding, especially when a regular army was created under Yaruar Huakak.

Conquering any state or city, the Incas resettled other tribes on their territory, due to which the national element that could lead to a liberation war disappeared. In the conquered territories, the state language of the Incas, Quechuan, was introduced on a mandatory basis, which also contributed to the unity of the vast country. The symbol of the power of the country was the city of Cusco, one of the most beautiful cities in the world, on the territory of which hundreds of palaces and temples were located. The main square in the city was Wakapata (sacred terrace), from which roads branched off to the four main provinces of the country. Palaces towered there, one of which had an area of ​​30 by 160 meters. The wealth of the Inca rulers can be judged at least by the fact that when the old Inca emperor died, his body was embalmed and placed in the palace, which from now on became a sanctuary. His successor was to build a new palace for himself. No European ruler could afford such a luxury. But most of all, the temple complex of Cusco Coricancha (golden courtyard) amazed with its splendor. Its main building was the temple of the sun god Inti, in which there were a huge number of tons of gold alone. Golden windows, doors, walls, roofs, floors, ceilings, religious objects amazed people. The center of the temple was a multi-meter disc of pure gold, symbolizing the Sun God. Near the temple there was an Intipampa courtyard (a golden field), on which there were trees made of gold, plants and herbs, deer, butterflies, shepherds, etc. Moreover, all this was done in full size and everything moved (!) With the help of the most skillful mechanisms . It was truly a miracle without equal in the world. No less pride of the empire were its roads, which are not inferior to modern highways. One of these roads was 5250 kilometers long - the longest highway in the world until the beginning of the 20th century. The roads were up to 7.5 meters wide, and in some places were located at an altitude of 5160 meters above sea level. At a certain distance from each other, inns with warehouses were built on the roads.

Stone statues of Easter Island. Chile

The Incas also had a state post office, which, you see, looks almost fantastic. Despite these magnificent achievements, the Incas did not know either the wheel or the written language. However, they had writing, but in the form of a “knot letter”: the threads in this knot denoted either gold - a yellow rope, or a soldier - red, etc. The numbers were indicated by knitting a certain number of knots. However, this did not interfere with the development of science and poetry. The life of the Incas was unthinkable without religious rites, which, like those of the Aztecs, were distinguished by incredible cruelty. The "caste" of professional priests, headed by the high priest, was responsible for the performance of the rites. The gods of the Incas were Inti - the God of the sun, Mama Kilya - the Goddess of the moon, Mama Pacha - the Goddess of the earth, Mama Kochi - the Goddess of the sea, and others. inordinate amount.

Relief on the Gate of the Sun at Tiahuanaco.

The Incas. Reconstruction

During each of them, thousands of people were thrown onto the altar, whose blood flowed in rivers from the altars of the insatiable gods. Moral values ​​were also trampled, reduced, in the end, to zero. Religious fanaticism and cruelty, combined with depravity, corroded from the inside, like rust, an outwardly brilliant empire. On November 15, 1532, a detachment of Spaniards-conquistadors, led by Pizarro, crossed the Andes and entered the land of the Incas. The history of the collapse of the Aztec state was completely repeated. Taking advantage of the strife that began among the Incas in the struggle for the throne, Pizarro with a small handful of people defeated the greatest empire, which soon turned into a Spanish colony.

Inca rulers:

1. Manco Capac (1150)

2. Sinchi Roca

3. Loque Yupanki

5. Capac Yupanqui

21. General characteristics of the culture of the Incas.

Inca Roca

7. Yaruar Huakak

8. Viracocha Inca

9. Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (1438-1471)

10. Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1471-1493)

11. Huayna Capac (1493-1527)

12. Huascar (1527-1530)

13. Atahualpa (1530-1532)

Like the idol on clay feet from the book of the prophet Daniel, the Inca empire looked menacing and majestic, but if we take a closer look, we will see that its foundation was, like that of the idol, clay. Built on false religion, cruelty and depravity, the Inca empire collapsed, leaving behind miserable degraded tribes of unfortunate people who do not know how to sew clothes, or shoot from a bow, or build on their own.

Truly, without God there is no future, no life itself!

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The Inca Empire existed for a relatively short time from the beginning of the 15th century. until 1532ᴦ., when the country was captured by the Spanish conquerors. The writing of the Incas is not fully deciphered. The capital was the city of Cusco, famous for its Golden Garden (perhaps the masters who created it were from the Chimu people).

The architecture is simple and unadorned. Temples, dwellings, fortresses are made of huge boulders (up to 350 tons in weight) very precisely fitted to each other, but not fastened with binding solutions (Saxahuaman fortress).

The houses had powerful stone walls and cramped interior spaces. Most of the houses have no windows and are lit through the doors. According to the descriptions of travelers, the buildings were originally decorated with wide belts of thick gold plates. The use of precious metals not as money, but as a decorative material is typical of the Incas. For example, in the Temple of the Sun in the city of Cuzco, several rooms are decorated with images of the Sun, Moon, rainbow and stars made of gold, silver and precious stones. Unlike Central America, the Incas built pyramids up to 40m high. not for temples, but for burials. Trapezoidal entrances and niches are characteristic features of Inca architecture.

Stone sculpture almost did not develop among the Incas.

The art of making and painting ceramics has been developed. It is conditionally divided into several periods. In the first period, scenes of battle, fishing, mythological scenes are depicted on the vessels. In the second period, the paintings practically disappear, but the vessels themselves turn into real sculpture. Most often, the vessels were made in the shape of a human head, sometimes conveying individual features.

Later vessels appear in the form of animals, fruits and plants.

The main food of the Incas is potatoes (including canned ones), corn, and pumpkins. The Incas cultivated coca, a narcotic plant. In the empire, there was a clear division of the population into the elite and the bulk of the inhabitants. By law, the Inca (ruler of the empire) married his sister, who became his legal wife and, as a rule, the mother of the heir. In addition to the main wife, he had a harem and could live with any of the nuns of the monasteries, as he was the incarnation of the sun god on Earth. The heir was appointed during the life of the ruler by the rite of public hair cutting. The future heir helped his father and learned management. There were 10 age groups of the population, each of which had certain rights and obligations. Group 1: infants. Group 2: children under 2 years old. Group 3: children playing. Group 4: children 9-12 years old. Group 5: teenagers 12-18 years old. Group 6: 18-25 years old - serving in the army. Group 7: 25-50 years old - married and running a household.

Group 8: 50-80 years old - old people. Group 9: 80 years and older - deaf old people. 10 group: sick.

There were no uprisings in the state. This social system provided provision for old age. In this regard, it is sometimes called ʼʼIndian socialismʼʼ. There was no money in the empire, only barter in the market. Gold is used as decoration. The army is well trained and equipped (maces with stone or metal ends). There were excellent roads and a post office. The messengers ran from parking to parking for about two kilometers, as a result of the relay race, 2000 km were overcome in 3 days. The Incas composed poems that were later written down by the Jesuits.

Inca culture

Quipu knot writing is widespread, on which you can count up to 1,000,000. Nobles studied at universities for 4 years, where she studied the Quechua language, solar religion, quipu knot writing, history and military affairs. The Incas wove dense fabrics with a density of 80x45 threads/cm (modern parachute fabric has a density of 60x30 threads/cm). Οʜᴎ did operations, incl. and craniotomy.

The last Inca was called Tupac Omaru.

Additional information.

The oldest cultures of Peru date back to the 3rd millennium BC.

Close to ᴦ. Lima there was a culture at that time, whose representatives did not know about the existence of metals, but erected clay and stone temples on artificial platforms.

The Temple of the Crossed Hands is famous. Later, this gesture-sign is found in Colombia.

culture Chavin, associated with the cult of the Jaguar was widespread at the end of II - the middle of the Ithousand. BC.

culture Nazca(mid-2nd century BC) corresponds to the valleys of the Ica, Pisco and Nazca rivers. Here was found the ʼʼwooden Stonehenge of Peruʼʼ - the sanctuary of Escuqueria. It consists of hundreds of dried mesquite trunks. The center of the composition is a square formed by 12 rows of 12 columns each. Found gigantic images in the Nazca desert. Pampa de Nasca Gallery - ϶ᴛᴏ platforms, lines, spirals, human and animal ʼʼfigurasʼʼ (geoglyphs). The head of a giant bird (length 120m) is directed to the point of sunrise on the day of the winter solstice. According to M. Stingl, the Indians buried the deceased with a triangular-shaped balloon. The deceased was placed in a wicker basket at sunset, the balloon rose above the sea and disappeared over the horizon.

culture Mochica(I-VII centuries BC) left behind the pyramids of the Sun and the Moon. In Pampa Grande. The Pyramid of the Sun has a base of 342×159 m. Gold items are unique. The legend of the existence of a golden garden has come down to us and eyewitness accounts of a room with five thousand golden butterflies, each of which weighed less than a gram and soared in the air with slight fluctuations in the air. Butterflies were melted down by the conquerors. As a result, they received 4 kg 700 ᴦ. pure gold. Around Lake Titicaca, many chulpas were found - burial towers of rectangular and cylindrical, expanded upwards.

According to legend, the founder of the Chimu culture sailed to Peru from the north with his detachment on rafts. His name is Naimlan. ʼʼNaymʼʼ means ʼʼbirdʼʼ or ʼʼflightʼʼ. Chimu built the city of Chan Chan with an area of ​​18 square meters. km. The city is surrounded by two rows of defensive walls and is divided into 10 quarters of 450x300 m. In many respects, the customs that prevailed in the state of Chimu differed little from those of the 25th century. Incas. In the 1460s. Two cultures collided - the coastal culture of Chimu, worshiping the moon, and the mountain culture of the Incas, worshiping the Sun. The victory remained for the second. Clay reliefs depicting birds, fish, lizards, foxes, and ornaments have been preserved from the Chimu culture. Since ancient times, the supreme deity in Peru has been depicted framed by a snake arch, surrounded by predators. The arch symbolized the rainbow, the Milky Way, thunder, the firmament.

culture Olmec- one of the cultures of ancient Mexico. San Lorenzo - the capital of the Olmecs - was abandoned for unknown reasons in 900ᴦ. The second capital of the Jaguar Indians was La Venta. Huge stone heads found in La Venta.

Tribes Chol and Zelltal left in Palenque (Mexico) the famous ensemble, in which the tower of the palace, a 4-storey building, was also an observatory.

Interesting culture of the Toltecs. The Pyramid of the Morning Star in Tula (Tollan) has been preserved.

It is believed that The Incas came to the Cusco Valley, where they founded the capital of the empire, around 1200. The American archaeologist J. X. Rowe, who excavated in the Cusco region, suggested that before the first half of the 15th century. the Inca state owned only a few mountain valleys, and the countdown of the imperial period began from 1438 - the date when the ruler of the Inca state, Pachacuti Yupanqui, defeated the warlike Chunk Indians and annexed the “western part of the world” to his state. However, the Inca civilization certainly carried out expansion before the defeat of the Chunk, but it was directed mainly to the south of Cuzco.

In 1470, the Inca armies approached the capital. After a long siege, the Chimu empire fell. Many skilled artisans were resettled by the winners in their capital, Cuzco. Soon the Incas conquered other states, including them in their new empire: Chincha in the south of Peru, Cuismanca, which united the coastal valleys of the central part of the country, including the temple city of Pachacamac, the small states of Cajamarca and Sikan in the north.

But the legacy of the Chimu Empire was not lost. The Inca Empire did not destroy the capital of Chan Chan and kept roads, canals, terraced fields intact, making these lands one of the most prosperous provinces. The centuries-old culture of the Indians of Peru became the basis of an ancient civilization.

From amazing wonders and treasures Inca empire Almost nothing has survived to this day. Having captured the ruler of the Incas, Ataualitu, the Spaniards demanded - and received - as a ransom for his life 7 tons of gold and about 14 tons of silver items, which were immediately melted down into ingots. After the conquistadors executed Ataualita, the Incas collected and hid the gold that remained in the temples and palaces.

The search for the missing gold continues to this day. If someday archaeologists are lucky enough to find this legendary treasury, we will undoubtedly learn about the civilization " children of the sun" a lot of new. Now the number of products of Inca masters can be counted on the fingers - these are gold and silver figurines of people and lamas, magnificent gold vessels and breast discs, as well as traditional crescent-shaped tumi knives. Combining their own technology with the traditions of the Chimu jewelers, the Inca metallurgists achieved perfection in the processing of precious metals. Spanish chroniclers recorded the story of the golden gardens that adorned the temples dedicated to the Sun. Two of them are authentically known - in the coastal city of Tumbes in the north of the empire and in the main sanctuary of Cusco, the Koricancha temple. The trees, shrubs and herbs in the gardens were made of pure gold. Golden shepherds grazed golden llamas on golden lawns, and golden corn ripened in the fields.

Architecture

The second highest achievement of the Incas can rightfully be considered architecture. The level of stone processing under the Incas surpasses the best examples of the craftsmanship of Chavin and Tiahuanaco masons. Simple, "typical" buildings were built from small stones, fastened with a clay-lime mortar - pirka. For palaces and temples, giant monoliths were used, not fastened together by any solution. The stones in such structures are held by numerous protrusions clinging to each other. An example is the famous dodecagonal stone in the wall in Cuzco, so tightly fitted to neighboring blocks that even a razor blade cannot be inserted between them.

Inca architectural style severe and ascetic; buildings overwhelm with their power. However, once many buildings were decorated with gold and silver plates, giving them a completely different look.

In the cities, the Incas used planned development. The main element of the city was the kancha - a quarter consisting of residential buildings and warehouses located around the courtyard. Each major center had a palace, barracks for soldiers, a temple of the Sun, and a "monastery" for aklya virgins consecrated to the Sun.

Great Inca Roads

All the cities of the empire were interconnected by a network excellent roads. Two main highways, to which smaller roads adjoined, connected the extreme points in the north and south of the country. One of the roads ran along the coast from Guayaquil Bay in Ecuador to the Maule River, south of modern Santiago. The mountain road, called Capac-can (Royal Way), began in the gorges north of Quito, passing through Cuzco, turned to Lake Titicaca and ended in the territory of modern Argentina. Both of these arteries, together with the secondary roads adjoining them, stretched for more than 20 thousand km. In wet places, roads were paved or filled with a waterproof mixture of maize leaves, pebbles and clay. On the arid coast, they tried to lay roads along the outcrops of hard rocks. Stone dams were erected in the swamps, equipped with drainage pipes. Poles were erected along the roads, indicating the distance to settlements. At regular intervals there were inns - tambo. The width of the canvas on the plains reached 7 m, and in the mountain gorges it was reduced to 1 m. The roads were laid in a straight line, even if this meant chiselling a tunnel or cutting down part of the mountain. The Incas built wonderful bridges, the most famous of which are suspension bridges, designed to cross mountain streams. Stone pylons were erected on each side of the gorge, thick ropes were attached to them - two served as a railing, and three supported a canvas of branches. The bridges were so strong that they withstood the Spanish conquistadors in full armor and on horseback. Local residents were charged with the duty to change the ropes once a year, as well as to repair the bridge if necessary. The largest bridge of this design across the Apurimac River was 75 m long and hung 40 m above the water.

Roads became the basis of the empire, stretching over a vast area from Ecuador in the north to Chile in the south and from the Pacific coast in the west to the eastern slopes of the Andes. The very name of the state claims to world domination. This word in the Quechua language means "four interconnected parts of the world." According to the cardinal points, there was also an administrative division: in the north was the province of Chinchasuyu, in the south - Kolyasuyu, in the west - Kontisuyu and in the east - Antisuyu.

During the reign of the most famous emperors - Tupac Yupanqui, who took the throne in 1463, and Vaino Capac (1493-1525), the state finally acquired the features of a centralized empire.

Society

At the head of the state was the emperor - Sapa-Inca, the only Inca. A census of the population of the empire was carried out and a decimal administrative system was introduced, with the help of which taxes were collected and an accurate count of subjects was kept. In the course of the reform, all hereditary leaders were replaced by appointed governors - kuraks.

The entire population of the country bore labor duties: processing state fields of maize and sweet potatoes (potatoes), maintaining state herds of llamas, military service and work in the construction of cities, roads and mines. In addition, subjects were required to pay tax in kind - in textiles and livestock.

The practice of mass migrations in the conquered territories spread widely. The Quechua language spoken by the Incas was declared the official language of the empire. The inhabitants of the provinces were not forbidden to use their native language. Compulsory knowledge of Quechua was required only from officials.

Writing

It is believed that the Incas did not create their own script. To transmit information, they had a knot letter "kipu", perfectly adapted to the needs of management and the economy. According to one of the legends, the Incas once had writing, even books, but all of them were destroyed by the reformer ruler Pachacuti, who “rewrote history”. An exception was made for only one, kept in the main sanctuary of the Koricancha empire. Robbers of the capital ancient civilization of the Incas the Spaniards discovered in Coricancha canvases covered with incomprehensible signs, inserted into golden frames. The frames, of course, were melted down and the canvases burned. Thus perished the only written history of the Inca empire.

Lake Titicaca is located in the Central Andes at an altitude of 3810 meters above sea level. This is the largest lake in South America. Its area is 8300 square kilometers, and it ranks 18th in size among the largest lakes in the world. The depth of the waters is more than a hundred meters, and in some places reaches 300 meters.

It was here, on the banks of a huge and deep reservoir, that in the days of fabulous antiquity there was one of the centers of highly developed civilizations of mankind.

Around him, habitable lands were bounded to the east by the impenetrable jungles of the Amazon Basin, and to the west by the boundless waters of the Pacific Ocean. Ancient people densely populated the narrow western strip of the continent, which began at the borders of modern Ecuador and ended in the central regions of Chile.

In the first millennium BC, civilizations such as Chavin, San Augustin and Paracas existed here. The latter has chosen for itself the coastal region of the Andes (the southern coast of modern Peru) and the Paracas Peninsula (sandy rain).

The main attraction of this people, which has come down to our times, are the necropolises. They consist of spacious burial chambers; they contain many mummies. The deceased, wrapped in several layers of fabric, decorated with rich ornaments, are in a sitting position. The knees rest on the chins, the arms are crossed on the chest.

What is of particular interest is that some of the mummies have deformed, egg-shaped skulls and show signs of trepanation. It's hard to believe, but the facts are a stubborn thing: once, more than two thousand years ago, the ancient Aesculapius successfully performed operations on the brain. This is confirmed by the partial replacement of the bones of the cranium with gold plates.

Paracas civilization sunk into obscurity in the second century BC. Its traces have been lost in the endless stream of time, but there are a number of testimonies that cast a faint light on the fate of this mysterious people. These testimonies indicate that the descendants of those ancient Aesculapius did not disappear from the earth, but continue to live, skillfully applying invaluable medical knowledge in practice.

But before considering this interesting question, it is necessary to get acquainted with the historical events that took place in the period from the 13th to the 16th centuries in the western lands of South America.

History of the Inca Empire

Nine hundred years ago, the Sun God Inti, who oversaw the above-mentioned territory, took care of the poor living conditions of people. To cheer up mere mortals, to instill confidence in them and make them feel the joy of life, he sent his son Manco Capaca and his beloved daughter Mama Oklew to them.

The master's instructions were short and to the point. He gave the children a staff of pure gold and ordered them to settle on those lands where this expensive product would enter the soil.

Divine offspring exactly fulfilled the will of their father. They roamed the mountainous terrain for a long time, testing it for strength. The stony earth did not want to accept the precious metal, and the children were already beginning to despair. But here they were in the Cuzco Valley, near the village of Pacara-Tambo, at the foot of the Wanakauri hill. And here a miracle happened: the staff easily entered the hard, like granite, soil. The son and daughter looked at each other happily and founded a settlement on this place, which they called Cusco.

The Inca people who lived in the nearby territory praised Manco Capac and Mama Oklu, recognized them as their rulers and began to call their country Tahuantinsuyu (the land of four parts).

Years passed. Cusco gradually turned into a large and beautiful city. It was located at an altitude of 3416 meters above sea level and was surrounded by two mountain ranges.

Inca Wars

In parallel with the construction of their capital, the people, who received the support of the gods, waged aggressive wars. At first, he fought for a long time with the Sora and Rukan tribes, who lived in the western lands adjacent to the Cuzco valley. Having conquered these tribes, the conquerors significantly expanded their borders and began to prepare for further military expansions.

A very strong and brave people of Chunk turned out to be a serious opponent. The war with him was long, difficult and cruel. Only by the middle of the 15th century did the Incas succeed in defeating their main enemy. At this time, their ruler was Pachacutec, the son of the legendary Manco Capacu.

At the beginning of the second half of the 15th century, the descendants of the divine offspring subjugate all the tribes living in the basin of Lake Titicaca. These conquests are not limited. Military expansion continues, and by the end of the 15th century, the conquered territory expands to enormous proportions. This is already an empire, whose possessions stretch from the southern border of modern Colombia to the central regions of Chile and Argentina.

Government of the Inca Empire

A large state needs competent administrative management. The conquerors divided all the conquered lands into four provinces: Kuntisuyu, Kolyasuyu, Antisuyu and Chinchasuyu. In the center of Cusco was Huakapata Square. From it, in different directions, four roads leading to these administrative formations of the empire diverged.

The Incas loved and knew how to build roads. They made them wide with an even coating. The longest stretched for 5250 kilometers and had a width of 7.5 meters. True, the Indians did not know the wheel, so they moved along such highways on foot; the cargo was carried on oneself or transported on llamas.

The great conquerors did not speak any written language, but despite this, the state post office worked perfectly. Numerous messengers constantly hurried to different parts of the empire and transmitted decrees and resolutions through "knot letters" or orally.

The Incas were well developed: agriculture, animal husbandry, handicrafts. There was no single monetary standard. The process of buying and selling took place between the seller and the buyer at numerous fairs through the exchange of goods. Such fairs, as a rule, were held in cities at least once every ten days.

The conspicuous division of society into rich and poor did not exist. Everyone's standard of living was about the same. The main part of the population lived in tribal communities - ailyu. A separate family had a land allotment - topu. Each member of society carried a labor service - a mit. Important issues of public life were resolved at general meetings - kamachiko.

The Incas came up with the idea of ​​​​taking into the army at 18

When a man reached the age of 18, he was taken to the military or courier service. Her term lasted 7 years. Every inhabitant of the country had to go through this. Then, after the end of the seven-year term, the man became purehi. So called people who worked for public needs and paid taxes. After 50 years, a person moved to another age category and was engaged in raising children.

In a great empire, any inhabitant could reach a high position in society. The main thing was not origin, but service to the empire. An experienced warrior or a talented speaker enjoyed universal respect and reverence, regardless of who his parents were.

The supreme power in the country was inherited. The one who ascended the throne received the prefix "Inca" to his name. In a narrow sense, it meant the title of the ruler, as in Europe the king or emperor. The Incas were also called full-fledged members of the Cusco community, who were descendants of an ancient tribe that recognized the power of the children of the Sun God Inti. They seemed to be considered "Incas by blood."

Representatives of other tribes that inhabited the empire could also receive the corresponding title for special services to the state. In this case, it was inherited by the whole family, and its members were considered "Inca by privilege."

The last years of the empire

In 1525, the supreme leader of the empire, Huayna Capacu, dies. He divides the state into two parts between his sons. One will be inherited by Atahualpa, the other by Huáscar.

The capital of Cuzco goes to Huascar, and he rightfully acquires the supreme title of the Inca. But the second brother does not agree with the will of his father. An internecine war begins.

It ends only in 1531 with the defeat of Huascar. He is captured and sent to a high mountain village, where he must live as a prisoner until his death. All power passes to Atahualpa. The situation in the empire is stabilizing.

But the new year 1532 makes its own adjustments to a more or less settled life after the great strife. Spanish conquistadors appear on the lands of the empire. 110 foot soldiers and 67 horsemen are disembarked from a sailing ship to conquer a land that contains as much gold as sand in the desert.

History of Francisco Pizarro

Francisco Pizarro (1475-1541) is in command of the Spanish military detachment - a powerful, cruel, ruthless man. Adventurer to the marrow of bones, without principles and ideals. He has one goal - gold.

He was born in Spain, becoming a sad consequence of the sinful relationship of a loving Castilian nobleman, Captain Gonzalo Pizarro and a frivolous peasant woman. The parents cursed their daughter, but they raised the child. Having become a mature young man, he entered the royal military service. But in the lands of the Old World on the battlefield he did not show himself in any way and already at an advanced age (by the standards of the 16th century) he left for Panama.

The life of a colonist, the future merciless conqueror of the Indians, began in 1519. From the general mass of hunters for luck, he did not stand out in any way. He lived quietly and inconspicuously. Few people paid attention to him: an elderly man, limited in means, without serious connections and opportunities.

One autumn day he goes hunting and suddenly disappears. His disappearance did not excite anyone, and the appearance alive and healthy three months later did not cause either joy or surprise among those around him.

But after a few days, everyone notices that it is not clear where the person who has been absent for a long time has changed dramatically. He becomes energetic and eloquent, easy to communicate and charming, shows brilliant abilities in learning foreign languages. Causing universal disposition, he makes many friends, and in just a few months he is elected mayor of the city in which he lives.

Very soon, Francisco Pizarro establishes friendly relations with the governor of Panama and his entourage. He charms ladies, evokes sympathy in men. The doors of the wealthiest houses in the colony open wide before him. But our hero understands: he is no longer young and it is too late to make a brilliant career.

Soon he meets the inveterate adventurer Diego de Almagro and the priest Hernando de Luca, greedy to the marrow of his bones. These two rave about gold, which lies in incredible quantities in the temples and palaces of Indian cities located far to the south.

Using his gift of persuasion and charm, skillfully playing on base feelings, our hero persuades the governor to equip a military expedition to the lands of modern Colombia. Here, according to him, there are many rich cities of the redskins, stuffed with gold.

In 1524, the governor gives the go-ahead, and Pizarro becomes the head of his first military expedition. It ends in complete failure after 12 months.

But the failure does not discourage the Spaniard. On the contrary, she inspires him to new attempts to get rich quick and take the appropriate place in high society.

In 1526, the second military expedition sets off to the lands of modern Ecuador. It lasts more than two years and does not bring a single peso. But instead of the despicable metal, the cunning and dexterous adventurer receives very important information, which is worth no less in value than a chest of gold.

The locals tell him about the fabulously rich country. It lies far to the south in the mountains. There is a lot of gold in those lands, it just lies underfoot. Our hero understands that this is his last chance. At the same time, he does not want to share fame and fortune with the governor of Panama.

In 1530, Francisco Pizarro leaves the New World. A high-speed sailboat delivers him to the lands of Spain. Here, with amazing ease, he achieves an audience with King Charles V.

It is not known what the adventurer was talking about with the crowned lady, but he returns back as a captain-general, adelantade, and his cloak adorns the family coat of arms of the marquis. In his hand he victoriously squeezes the letter signed by His Majesty. It speaks of the right given to him to the governorship over all the lands lying 1000 miles south of Panama.

The newly-made governor does not waste time in vain and equips the third military expedition in 1531. A few months later, he lands on the lands of Tahuantinsuyu. The Inca Empire in all its glory lies before him.

The Incas got scared of horses?!

High Chief Atahualpa learns very quickly about the pale-faced strangers. He tells his scouts to find out everything about these strange aliens, but the thing is that the Indians have never seen horses in their eyes. Hence, the reports of the latter differ, causing bewilderment and confusion at the court.

So some scouts claim that beings with four legs and two heads are leading the aliens. They sleep standing up, see at night as during the day, and instead of words they make strange loud sounds.

Others say that unknown creatures on four legs have two parts that can separate from each other and walk on their own. The bottom part is the main one. The upper one serves only to collect fruits that grow on trees.

The detachment led by Francisco Pizarro meets no resistance from the locals. Horror and fear run before the Spanish conquistadors. Cities and villages on the path of fortune hunters are empty. The population hastily leaves them, leaving their homes and acquired property to the mercy of fate.

The detachment is located in the city center. The soldiers are tired after a long march, they need rest. But the ambitious commander is impatient. He insists on a further march to the Indian capital of Cuzco.

A military council is assembled, which continues until late at night. So without making an unambiguous decision, the conquistadors disperse, deciding to continue the debate with a fresh mind. But the morning dawn makes its own adjustments to the strategic plans of the conquerors.

A small detachment of Spaniards is surrounded. A huge 40,000-strong Inca army filled all the surrounding streets, cutting off the conquistadors from the outside world.

Long negotiations begin. Pizarro uses all his intelligence, eloquence, insight and, in the end, arranges a meeting with the supreme leader of the land of Tahuantinsuyu.

November 16, 1532 Atahualpa, surrounded by a large retinue, is on the square of the city of Cajamarco. Under the terms of the treaty, the Indians are unarmed.

The Incas were deceived

Our hero approaches the supreme leader, and they talk face to face for a while. From the outside it seems that the conversation is very friendly and warm. The people accompanying Atahualpa relax, lose their vigilance.

Suddenly, the conquistadors rush at the unarmed Indians. A terrible massacre begins. The whole retinue perishes, no one is left alive. The lord of the empire himself is declared a prisoner of the Spanish king.

For his release, the Spaniards demand heaps of gold and silver. The subjects of the supreme leader collect the required amount of precious metals and bring them by conquistador. But Atahualpa is not released. On August 29, 1533, he was treacherously killed, and on November 15, the invaders entered the city of Cusco.

The Spaniards seize power, but are not able to manage a huge state. They do not know the customs of this land and understand that they will not be able to keep the people in obedience.

Pizarro appoints Huascar Capac, the brother of the slain, as supreme leader. The adventurer hopes that he has found a worthy assistant, but then his intuition fails him.

Huascar Capacu raises an uprising and in 1536 besieges Cuzco. The siege lasts six months, but the Incas, unaccustomed to such a war, begin to scatter. The rebel leader is forced to retreat to the mountains.

Here, in an area inaccessible to the conquistadors, he creates the Novoinsky kingdom. It becomes the center of the struggle for independence, which continues for many more years. Only after the assassination of Huascar Capacu in 1572 did the rebels stop resisting and recognize the authority of the Spanish crown.

The further fate of our hero develops as follows. He becomes the royal governor, concentrates in his hands enormous power and wealth. In 1535, by his decree, the city of Lima was founded. It seems that the ambitious Spaniard has achieved everything he dreamed of.

But in 1540 a strange metamorphosis takes place with him. From a tough, strong-willed and domineering leader, he turns into a timid, insecure and conscientious person. His surroundings instantly feel it.

The result is immediate. The closest friend and assistant of Diego de Almagro accuses the governor of unauthorized appropriation of a large amount of gold. Enraged conquistadors kill the recently adored commander and ally.

This happens in 1541, but shortly before his death, the great adventurer talks with a priest and tells him a strange story.

The amazing story of Francisco Pizarro

Twenty years ago, he went hunting, fell off a cliff, hit his head on a stone and lost consciousness. I woke up in an unfamiliar place, surrounded by strange people with elongated heads.

These people explained that he had a fatal head injury, but they managed to save the unlucky hunter by performing a craniotomy and replacing the crushed bones with gold plates.

The brain also suffered, so the mysterious Aesculapius had no choice but to manipulate the gray matter. During the operation, they activated some of the repressed centers of his hemispheres.

Now our hero has changed internally: he has become more courageous, resolute. His intuition woke up, oratorical talent appeared, memory became perfect, concentration of attention increased, intelligence improved significantly. True, the Aesculapius could not make him a kind and disinterested person, as they were very limited in time.

When asked by our hero why they needed all this, the mysterious people replied that they could not do otherwise. For thousands of years they have been improving human nature by interfering with the vital activity of the brain. Operations are carried out with a cycle of 15 years. After each, the shape of the skull changes slightly, eventually, the head is stretched out, becoming like a large egg.

History has not preserved the name of the priest who spoke with the great adventurer shortly before his death. But interestingly, at the end of the 19th century, a burial dated to the 16th century was found in Peru. Several bodies were found in it, which had elongated skulls. The frontal and occipital bones on them were professionally surgically removed and replaced with gold plates.

In the future, pundits considered this a skillful falsification. Maybe they are right, but in any case, the earth holds amazing secrets. The amazing fate of Francisco Pizarro is another confirmation of this.

It is known about several civilizations that existed in South America, but the Inca civilization is considered the most significant. In the fifteenth century, its population was at least six million people, who lived on a vast territory. At the head of the Empire was the son of the Sun Inca - the divine ruler. The economy was based on agriculture. All citizens were obliged to work for a month in public works, building state facilities: fortresses, canals, bridges, roads. The state regulated all aspects of the life of citizens, including personal life. The Incas created legends, myths, religious hymns, epic poems and even dramatic works. This civilization did not have a real written language, so little has been preserved of its cultural heritage. The Inca Empire fell with the arrival of conquerors from Europe in the middle of the sixteenth century.

The Inca Empire (Quechua Tawantin Suyu, Tawantinsuyu, Tawantinsuyu, Tawantinsuyu, Tawantinsuyu) is the largest Indian early class state in South America in the 11th-16th centuries in terms of area and population. It occupied the territory from the present Pasto in Colombia to the Maule River in Chile. The empire included the entire territory of present-day Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador (with the exception of part of the flat eastern regions overgrown with impenetrable selva), partly Chile, Argentina and Colombia. The first European to enter the Inca Empire was the Portuguese Alejo Garcia in 1525. In 1533, the Spanish conquistadors established control over most of the empire, and in 1572 the Inca state ceased to exist. There is a hypothesis that the last independent refuge of the Incas is the undiscovered city (country) of Paititi (until the middle or end of the 18th century).

Archaeological studies show that a large number of achievements were inherited by the Incas from previous civilizations, as well as from their subordinate neighboring peoples. By the time the Incas appeared on the historical arena in South America, there were a number of civilizations: Moche (the Moche culture, famous for colored ceramics and irrigation systems), Huari (this state was the prototype of the Inca Empire, although the population apparently spoke a different language - Aymara) , Chimu (the center is the city of Chan Chan, characteristic ceramics and architecture), Nazca (famous for creating the so-called Nazca lines, as well as for their systems of underground water pipes, ceramics), Pukina (the civilization of the city of Tiahuanaco with a population of about 40 thousand people, located east of Lake Titicaca), Chachapoyas ("Warriors of the Clouds", known for their formidable fortress of Kuelap, which is also called "Machu Picchu of the North").

The name of the country in Quechua, Tawantinsuyu, can be translated as four united provinces (Tawantin - "a group of four items" (tawa "four" with the suffix -ntin, meaning "total"); suyu - "country", "region" or "province "). As the Quechuan linguist Demetrio Tupac Yupanqui points out: “-ntin is “the whole integrated”, “everything that makes up one whole”. The previous parts disappear to make room for one great integration - one whole. It creates what, on a whim, we call a "legal entity", the subject and the bearer are distinguished by their constituent parts. As if there were one enterprise in which a legal entity takes responsibility, thereby freeing the constituent parts.

This name is due to the fact that the country was divided into four provinces: Kuntinsuyu (Kunti Suyu Quechua), Kolyasuyu (Quulla Suyu Quechua), Antisuyu (Anti Suyu Quechua) and Chinchasuyu (Chinchay suyu Quechua). In addition, four roads left Cuzco (Quechua Qusqu) in four directions, and each of them was named after the part of the empire to which it led.

In the Andean region and the coast adjacent to it in the 1st millennium BC. e. - 1st mill. e. developed agricultural civilizations Chavin, Paracas, Nazca, Mochica, Tiahuanaco, etc. arose. In the 12th century, a people appeared on the shores of Lake Titicaca, led by the Inca, the supreme ruler. He moved to the new capital - Cusco and spread his influence over a vast territory, covering by the XV-XVI centuries. most of modern Ecuador, Peru, a significant part of Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, as well as a small area of ​​Colombia.

The creation of the state is attributed to the legendary Inca Manco Capac, he also founded the capital - the city of Cusco, at an altitude of 3416 meters above sea level, in a deep valley between two mountain ranges.

After the creation of the country's territory has been constantly expanding. Especially after the Inca Yahuar Huakak created a regular army in the empire. Great conquests were made by Inca Pachacuti. He created a real empire, because before that the Incas were just one of the many Indian tribes, and Cusco was an ordinary town. Most of the Inca-controlled lands were conquered by Pachacuti and his son Tupac Inca Yupanqui. A small part of the territory was annexed by the eleventh Inca - Huayna Capac. The rulers of Huáscar and Atahualpa were the sons of Huayna Capac. After his death, they began a grueling internecine war. By the time the Spaniards arrived, Atahualpa had won the war.

When conquering neighboring tribes, the Incas, on the one hand, used their strong and numerous army, and on the other hand, they attracted the elite of the conquered regions. Before undertaking military action, the Incas three times invited the rulers of the conquered region to voluntarily join the empire. They forced the conquered tribes to learn the Quechua language, imposed their customs and introduced their own laws. The local nobility and the priesthood of the conquered peoples retained their position, and the practice of local religions was not forbidden, subject to the obligatory worship of the all-imperial sun god Inti. The Incas paid great attention to the preservation of local folk crafts and costume, so that by the dress of any inhabitant of Tahuantinsuyu it was easy to determine his origin and social status.

The Incas were characterized by the division of power and society into: warriors and non-warriors. The main commanders and commanders were either the rulers of the Empire, or people appointed by them from the ruling ethnic group - the Incas. At the same time, it seems that there was still some kind of dual power - a full-fledged duumvirate: when the ruler (governor) of the city of Cusco was engaged in the economic activities of the Empire, supplying and providing troops, which is repeatedly mentioned by the historian Juan de Betanzos.

At the peak of its existence, the Inca Empire was one of the largest states on Earth. The number of subjects of the empire reached, according to various sources, from 5-6 to 12 million people.

In 1521, Hernán Cortes conquered the Aztecs. This conquest inspired Francisco Pizarro. According to the report of Juan de Samano, secretary of Charles V, Peru became known for the first time in 1525 in connection with the completion of the first Southern expedition of Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro. The expedition left Panama on November 14, 1524, but was forced to return in 1525. After that, two more campaigns were carried out. In 1532, Pizarro arrives on the coast of modern Peru with 200 foot soldiers and only 27 horses. However, on the road, his army is replenished by those dissatisfied with the rule of the Incas. The Incas fiercely fight the conquerors, but the empire is weakened by internal turmoil and civil war, in addition, a large number of Inca warriors die from smallpox and measles brought by the Spaniards.

By deceit, Pizarro was able to capture and execute the Great Inca Atahualpa, after which the resistance was led by the commander Rumiñavi for 2 years. The capital of the Incas, the city of Cusco, was conquered by the Spaniards in 1536. Inca Manco Inca Yupanqui, with a small number of adherents, hides in the mountainous region of Vilcabamba, where the rule of the Incas continues for about 30 years. In 1572, the last Inca ruler, Tupac Amaru, was beheaded. This marked the end of the Tahuantinsuyu empire. The state was plundered, the culture of the Incas was destroyed.

In the book Chronicle of Peru, Cieza de Leon was the first European to question the reason for such an easy conquest of the Inca Empire:

Thus, although I have depicted Peru as three deserted and inhabited Cordilleras, from among them, as I said, by the will of the Lord, valleys and rivers protrude, beyond which in no way could people survive: this is the reason why the locals were so easily conquered and why they serve without raising rebellions, because if they did, then everyone would die from hunger and cold. Because (as I said), with the exception of the land inhabited by them, most of them are uninhabited, they are solid snow-capped mountains and peaks of amazing height.
- Cieza de Leon, Pedro. Chronicle of Peru. Part one. Chapter XXXVI.

The conquered Incas became part of the Quechua people. The result of the Spanish conquest was clearly noted by the same chronicler Cieza de Leon:

I do not approve of the overthrow of power in any way, but still I lament the extortion and mistreatment perpetrated by the Spaniards on the Indians, enslaved by cruelty, regardless of their nobility and such a high dignity of their people. Because of this, all these valleys are now almost deserted, in the past they were densely populated, as many know.
- Cieza de Leon, Pedro. Chronicle of Peru. Part one. Chapter LXI.

The empire was divided into 4 parts: Chinchaysuyu - it corresponded to red, Kolasuyu - blue, Antisuyu - green, and Kuntisuyu - yellow, in turn, each such part consisted of provinces:

north of Cusco were: Vilcas, Xauxa, Bombon, Caxamalca, Guancabamba, Tomebamba, Latacunga, Quito, Carangue ;

on the other side of Cuzco, to the South: Hatuncana, Hatuncolla, Ayavire, Chuquiabo, Chucuito, Paria and others, stretching to Chile.

Each province had its own capital, where the collection of taxes flowed, where there was a temple of the Sun, foundries and jewelry workshops, a garrison, large inns, warehouses, as well as a representative of the Court - the governor.

Separately, in the administrative division, as the capital, the city of Cusco stood out. It was marked in yellow. Each village, which was the capital of the province, had its own number. For example, to indicate that “Manco Capac, the first ruler of the Inca, conquered the first capital of the province, one large knot was introduced into the thread, the second two large knots, and so on with all the others. Cuzco, the capital of the Empire, is known to have had three or four nodes, one above the other." It is also known that the remoteness of a province from the capital of the empire, Cuzco, was often made dependent on ordinal reckoning: for example, the closer the province, the closer it or its representative, the kuraka, to the Inca ruler in services, campaigns, rituals, and ceremonies.

To define the provinces of the Tawantinsuyu Empire in the Kipu script, each province had its own mixture of colored threads. On the thread, in turn, a red thread could be placed (inserted) to indicate those who died in their army “from / in such and such a province”. Also, the use of the thread color for the provinces of the Empire was found in quipus related to the statistics and taxation of such provinces. The same system extended to reports on the geographical and economic description of the Empire.

Pedro de Ciesa de Leon, in his Chronicle of Peru, reported on the unprecedented accuracy of accounting using the quipu: from silver, gold, clothing, and livestock, down to firewood, and other much more insignificant things; and with the help of these same quipu, after one year, or ten, or twenty, they informed the one who was charged with collecting reports[s]; and it was done so well that even a couple of alpargata could not be hidden.

Cieza de Leon cited information on the number of posts of kipukamayoks in a single territorial unit: “and in every valley this account is still available today, and there are always as many bookkeepers in inns as there are stewards in it [the valley], and every four months they provide their reports the aforementioned way." For the provinces, the reporting period was set at 1 year, since “at the end of the year, each province ordered that all people, both those who died there that year, and, accordingly, those who were born, be brought into the kip according to the number of its knots. And by the beginning of the year they entered, they came to Cusco with a kipu, from which it became clear how many were born that year and how many died.

In the vicinity of the village of Cotapachi in Cochabamba, there were 2076 kolkas (a round-shaped storage), which is 22.09% of the storage buildings of the 9395 units known today in the Inca Empire, that is, it was one of the strategic regions of the empire, where procurement and storage of provisions took place. The average diameter of the vaults in Cotapachi was 3.5 m, and the approximate height was 2 m, therefore, the volume of rounded vaults in the Cochabamba Valley could be 45,000 m3 (almost the entire volume was filled with provisions), which was a very significant figure even in relation to other provincial centers empire of the Incas. In modern terms, this is comparable to 1360 TEU (20-foot containers), which could fit on a Handymax Class container ship (1000-1700 TEU). In general, the scale of the warehouse economy of the Incas was so great that it is quite comparable with our modern ones.

The absence of a distinguished layer of free artisans and the associated weak development of private exchange, the absence of trade and any sort of intermediaries were a feature of the Inca society, in contrast to the Aztecs. It is explained by the fact that in Peru the early despotic state appropriated the labor of the community members, leaving them little surplus for exchange.

coins
In general, coins were not used in domestic trade, but in foreign trade mulu shells, coca leaves, clothes, and copper hatchets were used. In the XV-XVI centuries, the Indians of the Chonos culture (Ecuador) smelted copper with a content of 99.5% and used it as a coin in the form of hatchets 2 cm on the sides and 0.5 cm thick. This coin circulated all over the western coast of South America, including in the state of the Incas in the province of Chincha, where 6,000 merchants lived.