Types of air transport operation. Characteristics of the features of aviation transport, as well as its importance in the transport complex. The rolling stock of air transport includes
Air transport in tourist traffic
Russian air transport plays a significant role in passenger transportation. The significant role of air transport in passenger traffic is explained by the large distances of transportation, the underdevelopment of transport infrastructure in some areas.
Technical and economic features of air transport:
1. High speed of transportation of goods and passengers;
2. High mobility and autonomy in flight;
3. Lack of complex transport infrastructure;
4. The opening of new airlines does not require appropriate construction work and does not cause large financial costs;
5. Possibility to significantly shorten the route by straightening the flight path;
6. Organization of end-to-end direct communications;
7. Small carrying capacity and passenger capacity of related types of aviation equipment;
8. Long non-stop flight range.
The geography of passenger transportation is determined by the following factors:
1. the nature of the settlement and development of various parts of the country, the population of gravity areas, the territorial organization of urban settlement systems;
2. placement of large resort areas and public recreation areas;
3. the scale and directions of international traffic;
4. transport mobility of the population of different regions of the country;
5. the number of points covered by the air traffic network and the distances between them;
6. conditions of transportation (tariffs, regularity, comfort, frequency of flights, etc.).
Currently, there are 167 airlines operating at 330 airports in Russia, of which more than 52 are federal and 68 have international status.
Air transport faces the following challenges:
1. increasing the carrying capacity, passenger capacity and speed of aircraft;
2. improvement of the technical equipment of airports;
3. ensuring flight safety;
4. establishing regular air lines in the eastern and northern regions of the country;
5. radical renewal of the existing aircraft fleet and development of new types of aircraft;
6. improving the quality of passenger service during the flight;
7. expansion of international transportation.
According to statistics, the growth rate of the popularity of air transport is higher than that of road transport, which is due to the increasing expansion of the geography of travel and the existing steady trend to reduce travel time in favor of their frequency. Airplanes are the most popular mode of transport in the world. The same can be said about air travel in tourism. Advantages of air transport:
- aviation is the fastest and most convenient mode of transport when traveling over long distances;
- service on flights currently has an attractive appearance for tourists;
- airline companies directly and through international booking and reservation networks pay commissions to travel agencies for each seat booked on an aircraft, thereby motivating them to choose air travel.
The largest airlines in the world in terms of the number of flights are the American Delta Air lines, Pan Amerikan, United, the French Air France, the German Lufthansa, the British British Airways, and others. The Russian Aeroflot is considered a major airline.
The international air transport system consists not only of international air carriers and airports, but also of states connected by international air lines and providing these communications, as well as international organizations in the field of air transport, taking measures to ensure its efficient functioning and safety.
The international transportation network currently covers all geographical regions and more than 150 countries of the world.
Air transport is regulated in three ways:
1) national regulation- licensing of air carriers operating both on domestic and international routes;
2) intergovernmental regulation- when regular air routes are based on agreements between the governments of the respective countries;
3) international regulation- when tariffs for scheduled flights are set (for airline members) on the basis of mutual agreements between participating airlines through the International Air Transport Association (IATA) or a third party.
One type of international air travel regulation is plans to create a pool that connects airlines operating on certain international routes.
Pool agreement connects airlines operating on the same international routes in order to optimize aircraft schedules, reduce the direction and regulate passenger traffic during peak hours and periods, as well as in order to increase profits on these routes and its further distribution between airlines.
Pool agreements are often entered into between airlines of disparate size in order to provide them with the best transportation opportunities and profits. Financing arrangements between pooled carriers typically cap the maximum amount of revenue that can be transferred from one carrier to another to reduce the government's ability to support inefficient carriers. In some countries, however, pool contracts are currently prohibited (for example, in the USA).
International regulation of air transportation is carried out on the basis of international agreements signed between countries for many years.
Warsaw Convention 1929 was the first general agreement between airlines concerning the issues of ensuring the responsibility of airlines for the safety of passengers in the event of their death, injury or loss of baggage during transportation. (The Montreal Protocol later determined that the maximum liability will be periodically reviewed due to inflationary processes. Today, the airline's liability to the passenger is a maximum of 20 thousand US dollars.) This agreement is the basis for insuring passengers, mail and luggage on international air transportation.
Chicago Convention on Civil Aviation 1944., in the discussion on the adoption of which 80 countries took part, contains an agreement on the standardization of air service migration procedures between countries. These principles were adopted to provide the basis for bilateral agreements between countries. The agreement stipulated do not regulate charter flights, allowing countries to apply individual regulations and conditions under which they accept and serve charter flights.
Bermuda Agreement 1946- Anglo-American on transatlantic flights - regulated bilateral agreements on these routes. In 1977, the Bermuda Agreement was revised (and ratified in 1980), in 1986 a new agreement expanded the actual load on routes across the Atlantic, limited to two British and two American carriers.
Since air transport occupies an increasingly strong position in the global transport system every year, the need for its global coordination and regulation has long arose. These issues are dealt with by international aviation organizations. Consider the most influential and famous of them.
International Civil Aviation Organization - ICAO- one of the first most solid and authoritative world structures. ICAO members are 183 states. ICAO works closely with other organizations such as the United Nations Community, World Meteorological Organization, International Union of Electrical Communications, World Post Union, World Health Organization, International Sea Organization.
International Association of Air Transportation - IATA- was created to coordinate the actions of world airlines aimed at ensuring safety and increasing the efficiency of air transportation in all regions of the globe. Founded in 1919 and reorganized in 1945, IATA is the professional association of aviation companies operating international flights. The main function performed by the Association is the regulation of international commercial air traffic, the introduction of uniform rules and procedures for all members and the establishment of agreed tariffs for passenger transportation on international routes. To date, IATA members are 265 airlines, which operate 94% of all international flights.
IOSA(IATA Operational Safety Audit) is an audit program for the operational safety of airlines of the International Air Transport Association, which is designed to evaluate the operational management and control systems of air carriers.
Today IOSA is the advanced harmonized standard of the entire global aviation industry in the field of air transportation and ensuring its safety. IOSA is constantly updated, updated, evaluated and updated in accordance with the changing requirements of the aviation industry and regulatory documents. IATA requires all IATA member airlines to undergo an IOSA audit. The IOSA Standards Guide includes more than 1,000 requirements that an airline must confirm compliance with during an audit.
The IOSA certificate is a kind of "pass" to the international alliances of the world's largest airlines and is a prerequisite for membership in IATA. Recognition of the safety of work at the international level guarantees a higher status of the air carrier both in the domestic market and in the international air transportation market.
The main driving force behind the development of civil aircraft is the need to continuously reduce the cost of air transportation. The operation of a civil aircraft should bring profit, which is obtained as the difference between the tariffs for air transportation and the cost of these transportations:
P \u003d D - a,
Where P- received profit; D– tariff; A - cost of transportation.
There are several methods for determining the cost of transportation, but all methods are based on the same pattern, expressed by the following formula:
A- the cost of transportation, rubles / (t km);
A- the cost of operating the aircraft for one flight hour, r./h;
k Ph.D. – payload factor
(aircraft loading factor), which takes into account the possibility of incomplete loading of the aircraft depending on the time of year (seasonality of transportation) and the direction of flight on different routes;
m Ph.D. is the mass of the payload of the aircraft, t;
Vp – cruise speed
aircraft flight (average flight speed from the moment of take-off on the runway of the take-off airfield to the end of the run along the runway of the arrival airfield), km/h;
relative share of the total number of seats occupied by passengers
passenger capacity
Air Transport, being universal, it is used mainly for the transportation of passengers over medium and long distances and certain types of cargo. Air transport accounts for approximately 40% of intercity passenger traffic. Such a significant role of air transport is associated with the large size of the territory of our country and the insufficient provision of certain regions with other modes of transport. The growth of material well-being, the expansion of cultural, business and scientific ties lead to an increase in the mobility of the population, which leads to the need for high-speed travel - aviation.
The volume of cargo transported by air is insignificant. The range of goods is limited: valuable goods (for example, works of art, antiques, precious metals and stones, furs, etc.); goods requiring urgent delivery, including perishable goods; humanitarian aid; medicines; mail; food and industrial goods for remote regions; cargo for emergencies.
Air transport in a single transport system occupies a special place, as it is able to carry out a number of works necessary for the sectors of the country's economy that cannot be performed by other modes of transport.
The specific areas of air transport activities include: installation of building high-rise structures, main gas and oil pipelines, power lines; traffic inspection; agricultural work (watering, fertilizing, spraying pesticides to control weeds, pre-harvest removal of cotton leaves, aerial seeding of grasses, rice, etc.); firefighting, especially in forest areas; communication with remote and hard-to-reach areas; emergency medical care, including the transfer of specialists of a narrow medical profile in emergency cases in case of their absence or shortage in the area; mail transportation; maintenance of the polar regions; exploration; aerial photography; exploration of oil deposits; ice reconnaissance and pilotage of ships in the regions of the Far North and the Northern Sea Route; delivery of workers to offshore oil fields with a rotational method of work, etc.
Recently, there has been a tendency to unite small companies into 10–12 large airlines (following the model of foreign airlines). If air transport enterprises are privatized (corporated), then air traffic control systems are not subject to privatization, not so much because of their high initial cost and operating costs, but because of the responsibility of the state for flight safety and people's lives.
In addition, the operations of airports are separate from the ownership and operations of airlines. At the same time, equal access of all airlines to the infrastructure of any airport and the free choice of the airport for equal conditions for the competitive struggle of airlines are ensured.
In corporatization, the state owns a part of the shares; Abroad, almost all airlines are private. However, in large foreign airlines (such as Air France, Lufthansa, etc.) there is also state participation.
Main technical and operational features and advantages air transport:
high speed of delivery of passengers and cargo;
maneuverability and efficiency, especially when organizing new routes;
the possibility of rapid redeployment of rolling stock in case of changes in passenger traffic, including due to accidents on other modes of transport;
large non-stop flights (about 10,000 km);
the shortest route;
saving public time due to faster delivery;
unlimited carrying capacity (today they are limited only by the capacity of the airfield);
relatively small capital investments (about 30 times less per 1 km of the air route than per 1 km of the railway).
Relative disadvantages air transport:
high cost of transportation, so air transport is not freight;
dependence on weather and climatic conditions.
The high speed of aircraft makes it possible to overcome, for example, the distance from Moscow to Vladivostok in 8–9 hours on the main types of aircraft and in 4 hours on supersonic ones (by rail, this distance is overcome in 7–8 days).
Work technology air transport has its own characteristics. Movement is carried out:
strictly on schedule, which is associated with the complexity of organizing take-off and landing at the airfield;
according to the system of allocating to each unit of the rolling stock its own traffic corridor, which depends primarily on the speed and carrying capacity of the aircraft.
Traffic corridor - this is the estimated flight altitude and the coordinate system in the longitudinal and horizontal flight planes. The corridor system makes it possible to disperse aircraft in the air to exclude the possibility of their collision. Aircraft are equipped with appropriate systems for measuring and maintaining flight altitude.
A new trend is emerging abroad - the transportation of small consignments of cargo (the so-called parcel cargo) by air. The cost of transportation can be reduced by reducing insurance (theft, loss and damage to goods in air transport are much less common than on land modes of transport), simplifying packaging and packaging due to the absence of external influence.
Problems and development trends air transport are multifaceted. The main problem is to increase the speed of movement (to date, a speed of 2500 km / h has been reached). It is important to create aircraft with increased passenger capacity (the so-called airbuses) and carrying capacity, especially for long-distance routes (for example, Il-86 can accommodate up to 350 people, and Boeing - up to 530 people; cargo aircraft lift a maximum of 250 tons (An-225 "Mriya"). In order to reduce the area of airports, it is necessary to create short and vertical takeoff and landing aircraft for civil aviation (they have existed in military aviation since 1969).
Fig.8.2. Air transport rolling stock classification
Increasing the strength of runways also remains a big challenge due to significant loads and temperatures. An-22 aircraft can operate on dirt roads, but not always. The creation of aircraft with automatic means that ensure take-off and landing in any weather in various visibility conditions (the so-called all-weather ones) will expand the competitive possibilities of air transport and improve the quality of passenger service. Improvement in fuel efficiency is required due to the increase in mass and speed. The solution of this problem will allow not to increase the tariff for transportation. It is necessary to develop fundamentally new flight systems and air transport control systems in the airport area; it is required to create an aircraft maintenance system at the airport; it is necessary to improve the level of passenger service, including the introduction of automated ticketing and baggage transportation systems, and most importantly, to improve traffic safety, which will create more opportunities for passenger service, allow it to compete with other modes of transport and help reduce travel time.
Technical equipment includes rolling stock and airports, including airfields.
Rolling stock classification air transport is presented in fig. 8.2. Planes take off and land on aerodrome- a specially adapted land plot with a complex of structures and equipment for take-off, landing, parking and maintenance. Airfields are the main, alternate and base. To ensure the regularity and safety of flights, airfields are equipped with a set of radio and lighting equipment. Helicopters require small areas to take off and land.
The airport is included in the broader concept of "airport". Airport is a transport company that receives and sends passengers, baggage, cargo and mail, organizes and maintains rolling stock flights. The airport is a complex engineering complex of structures, buildings, technical facilities and equipment, occupying up to several thousand hectares of territory.
Air Transport
The twentieth century was marked by gigantic transformations that took place in all spheres of human activity. Air transport is no exception. Its development was facilitated by the growth of the world's population, an increase in the amount of consumed material resources, urbanization, social, political and many other factors. Its main advantage is to provide significant time savings due to high flight speed.
Air transport arose in the states of Europe and America after World War I (1914-18). In France and Germany, for example, as a form of transport began to develop from 1920-21. In the USSR, the first air line was opened in 1923 on the route Moscow - Nizhny Novgorod.
In modern conditions, air transport is one of the most dynamically developing means of transportation. It plays an important role in the main directions of development of the national economy and civil aviation. The development of air transport for the country is simply necessary. Aviation is the youngest and fastest direction, designed to carry out communication links between different regions. At the same time, it is the most expensive industry. With its help, medicines and mail, industrial and food products are delivered to the most inaccessible corners.
It is worth saying that aviation is the most advanced mode of transport. She does not need roads and is not afraid of various obstacles. It was thanks to aviation that humanity got the opportunity to go into space.
The most common type of air transport is, of course, an airplane. Airplanes have the highest speed of all other types of air transport, so air cargo delivery by air is the fastest. In addition, aircraft are divided into groups according to payload capacity, flight range and speed characteristics.
The next most common form of air transport is helicopters. It is clear that helicopters are mainly used for transportation over short distances (of the order of 500-1000 kilometers) of small consignments.
The third type of air transport is actually maritime, but it has the outlines, design and principle of air transport movement. These are the so-called ekranoplanes and ekranoplanes. They are superior in speed, safety and carrying capacity to many aircraft, but they are inferior to them in maneuverability due to the fact that the flight altitude of these vessels is only a few meters. In addition, ekranoplanes and ekranoplanes do not need airfields or airports for landing, they are able to splash down on almost any water surface.
Air transport has a number of undeniable advantages. First of all, it is high speed. At the same time, important maneuverability is achieved in the organization of passenger transportation. In addition, modern airlines provide non-stop flights over considerable distances.
In order to regulate all the activities of world civil aviation, unify its use and application, as well as exchange experience in all areas of air navigation, in the fall of 1944, under the auspices of the UN, a specialized International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) was formed and is now successfully functioning, of which Russia is also a member. ICAO publishes detailed statistical data on all the various activities and the state of air transport in the world. The activity of ICAO is determined by the Chicago Convention on Civil Aviation - a legal act and a fundamental source of international air law. Anticipating the global development of air transportation, the founders of ICAO managed, in particular, to avoid dissension, which at one time complicated the establishment of uniformity in railway traffic (right-left-hand traffic, wide-narrow gauge, etc.). All ICAO regulations are aimed at ensuring flight safety, aviation security (protection against terrorism) and the maximum simplification of the process of air transportation between states. Of the many specialized agencies operating under the auspices of the UN, ICAO is not only the largest, but also the most efficient organization, ensuring uniformity and order in the transportation of more than 1.6 billion passengers and 30 million tons of cargo annually by air.
Unlike ICAO, another international air transport association - IATA (International Air Transport Organization), founded in 1919, is engaged in the financial management of air travel. The clearing system, for example, allows airlines to manage financial flows centrally. During the year, 34 billion US dollars transferred by more than 300 airlines pass through the IATA financial chamber. The settlement system for the sale of passenger transportation simplifies the process of issuing tickets and reduces the costs associated with their sale. In addition, IATA is the legislative and advisory body on all matters related to the tariffs for international air transportation, and also makes forecasts for passenger traffic, the development of the route network, plans for the reconstruction and development of airports, and also sets standards for servicing passengers and their luggage in airports.
Depending on the nature of operation, civil aviation aircraft can be classified into:
- 1) general aviation aircraft (GA);
- 2) commercial aviation aircraft.
Aircraft that are in regular operation, that is, in the field of activity of commercial airlines that carry passengers and cargo on a schedule, are classified as commercial aviation. The use of an aircraft for personal or business purposes classifies it as a general aviation aircraft.
In recent years, there has been an increase in the popularity of general purpose aircraft, as they are able to perform tasks that are unusual for commercial aviation - transportation of small cargoes, agricultural work, patrolling, pilot training, aviation sports, tourism, etc., and also significantly save time for users . The latter is achieved due to the ability to fly outside the schedule, the ability to use small airfields for takeoff and landing, and the user does not waste time on issuing and registering air tickets and has the ability to choose a direct route to the destination. As a rule, GA aircraft are aircraft with a takeoff weight of up to 8.6 tons. However, it is also possible to use a larger aircraft.
Depending on the purpose, two main groups of aircraft can be distinguished, regardless of the operating conditions - multi-purpose and specialized aircraft.
Multi-purpose aircraft are designed to solve a wide range of tasks. This is achieved by refitting and refitting the aircraft for a specific mission with little or no design changes. Depending on the ability to take off and land not only on airfields with artificial surface, but also to use the water surface for these purposes, multi-purpose aircraft can be ground-based and amphibious.
Specialized aircraft, focused on the performance of any one task.
Of particular importance for civil aviation is the classification of aircraft depending on their flight range:
- - short-haul (main airlines) aircraft, with a flight range of 1000-2500 km;
- - medium main aircraft, with a flight range of 2500-6000 km;
- - a long-range main aircraft, with a flight range of over 6000 km. aircraft crew flight air carrier
Airspace implies the division into echelons or air corridors along which aircraft move. The movement is carried out in such a way that the distance between aircraft at the time of approach is at least 10 km - this is lateral separation. In the area of airports, one echelons are provided, and on long-distance routes - others.
Air traffic control is no easy task. The flight crew includes navigators and pilots, as well as cadets of flight schools who are fit for this work according to the conclusion of the medical commission and can perform their functional duties. Each crew member during the flight must unquestioningly comply with all instructions given by the flight control authority. It is possible to deviate from the route only in case of a threat to the safety and life of people who are on board the aircraft.
There are certain norms for the rest and flight time of the aircraft crew. So, you can stay in the air for no more than twelve hours a day. Such a norm is established for the flight crew of air airliners.
Currently, the safest mode of transport is the plane, followed by water and rail transport. The data are calculated based on the number of victims when using a particular mode of transport.
According to the ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization - the UN agency that sets international standards for civil aviation), there is one accident per million departures, which cannot be said about car and other accidents.
But any plane crash, even the smallest aircraft, immediately attracts media attention. This contributes to the formation of a negative opinion about aviation as a very dangerous form of transportation.
The probability that a passenger boarding a plane will die in a plane crash is approximately 1/8,000,000. If a passenger boards a random flight every day, it will take him 21,000 years to die.
It is also erroneous to think that in the event of a plane crash, the chances of surviving are minimal. According to an analysis of 568 aircraft accidents that occurred in the United States from 1983 to 2000, only 5% of the total number of passengers on board died. According to these statistics, out of 53,487 people involved in air crashes, 51,207 survived. As a result of a more detailed study of 26 serious accidents, accompanied by strong impacts of the liners on the ground, their breaking into pieces and fires, it turned out that approximately 50% of the people on board were saved in these disasters.
The probability of survival of the crew of passengers and pilots is increased if the aircraft makes an emergency splashdown, even if it was not designed for such measures. Experts say that splashdown increases the chances of people surviving by 50%.
Flight safety is in the first place for major air carriers. Pre-flight screening of passengers, baggage and cargo, as well as a thorough technical inspection of the aircraft before departure are an integral part of the work of ground transportation services.
In Russian aviation, the leading place in terms of safety and regularity of flights is occupied by the largest airline in Russia, the national carrier - Aeroflot - Russian Airlines.
The company's fleet is one of the youngest in the world. Aeroflot has 163 airliners on its balance sheet, mostly aircraft of the Airbus A320, A330, Boeing 737, Boeing 777 and Sukhoi SuperJet-100 families.
Aeroflot has the largest Flight Control Center in Eastern Europe.
The route network includes its own regular flights to 123 points in 52 countries, as well as the company's customers have the opportunity to fly to 1052 points in 177 countries of the world through an extensive joint route network of the largest SkyTeam alliance.
In 2015, for the third year in a row and for the fourth time in its history, Aeroflot was awarded the international World Airline Awards in the Best Airline of Eastern Europe nomination.
Flight safety, a thorough check of the aircraft, saving time, as well as first-class service on board the aircraft will not leave anyone indifferent and will force them to resort to air transport services again and again.
Bibliography
1. Shishkina L.N. Transport system of Russia.-M.: Zheldorizdat, 2005
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Vehicles. Air Transport
The purpose of the lecture: to consider the technical characteristics of air transport
Keywords: aircraft, takeoff weight, flight range, layout, airfield, traffic corridor
1. Characteristics of fixed assets, technical means of the air fleet
performance helicopter air transportation
Air transport is the fastest and most expensive. The world network of air routes is constantly growing, and by the beginning of the 21st century it exceeded 8 million km. The main purpose of air transport is the transportation of passengers. Its share in the transport passenger turnover exceeds 10%, and in the freight turnover - 1%. Its importance increases for the delivery of passengers and cargo to hard-to-reach areas (for example, remote northern regions of Siberia and the Far East).
Air communication covers all continents, but the most intensive lines exist between North America and Europe. The geography of air transport is also characterized by a network of airports, there are more than 1000 international ones alone.
In terms of cargo transportation, the US airports (New York, Los Angeles, Chicago), the largest metropolitan airports of Western Europe (London, Paris, Amsterdam), Japan (Tokyo) are in the lead. More than 70% of the planet's aircraft fleet is concentrated in the United States.
The structure of the aircraft fleet is dominated by American Boeing, Douglas, Lockheed aircraft, and the bulk of flights in European countries are made by aircraft of the same brands.
In Kazakhstan, air transport accounts for 9.6% of all intercity passenger traffic (in the US - 17%).
Among the trends in the development of air transport, the following can be noted: an increase in the speed and range of flights, an increase in the share of intercontinental transportation, and an increase in aircraft capacity. Air transport is characterized by a high degree of concentration of capital. The US controls most of the world's air travel.
The technical basis of air transport is: aircraft, airports and air lines (routes).
An aircraft is an aircraft supported in the atmosphere by interaction with air. Aircraft include aircraft heavier than air (airplanes, helicopters, gliders, rotorcraft) and lighter than air (blimps, balloons, both powered and free).
Aircraft do not include aircraft that move only due to jet thrust or inertia (rockets, spacecraft, as well as hovercraft, meteorological balloons).
The rolling stock of aircraft consists mainly of airplanes and helicopters and is the leading link in air transport. The classification of the rolling stock of air transport is shown in Figure 1.
As can be seen from the figure, aircraft (airplanes and helicopters) are heavier than air and their flight becomes possible due to the interaction of the thrust force of the engines and the wing, on which an aerodynamic lift force is created when moving in the air. When the aircraft moves in the air, the upper surface of the wing, being more convex than the lower one, flows around the air flow at a higher speed than the lower one, a pressure difference arises, directed upwards, perpendicular to the flight speed. This pressure difference creates aerodynamic lift. If the lift force is equal to the flight weight, then the aircraft flies horizontally. If it is less than the flight weight, then the aircraft flies with a decrease. If the lift force exceeds the flight weight, then a climb occurs.
Each aircraft consists of an airframe, traction engines, landing gear and a set of units and instruments to ensure the functioning of all systems and control them.
A helicopter, unlike an airplane, has a propeller with blades mounted on a vertical shaft, thanks to which this aircraft is kept in weight.
Aircraft and helicopters are also divided by purpose and scope and carry out passenger, cargo and cargo-passenger transportation on local and international lines.
The main types of civil aviation aircraft fly at a speed of 900-1100 km/h at long distances and up to 500-700 km/h at medium distances.
Aircraft with supersonic speeds (TUs, Boeings, Concordes, etc.) are used for ultra-long distances.
Figure 1 - Air transport rolling stock classification
The main characteristics of aircraft:
takeoff weight;
Range of flight;
Layout scheme.
Take-off weight is the weight of a fully equipped, fueled and loaded aircraft. According to the takeoff weight, aircraft are divided into four classes: the first class includes aircraft with a takeoff weight of more than 76 tons, the second - from 30 to 75 tons, the third - from 10 to 30 tons, the fourth - with a weight of less than 10 tons.
Flight range - the distance measured on the surface of the earth that an aircraft can fly with the consumption of the entire fuel reserve, with the exception of the air navigation emergency reserve.
According to the flight range, aircraft are divided into main and local airlines. Trunk, in turn, are divided into:
Long-haul (flight range over 6000 km);
Medium-haul (flight range from 2500 to 6000 km);
Short-haul (flight range up to 2500 km).
The flight range of aircraft of local airlines does not exceed 1000 km.
The layout scheme of the aircraft is determined by the relative position of the fuselage, wing, plumage and engines. There are three types of aircraft layout:
Low-wing - the wing is located under the fuselage;
Sredneplan - the wing passes through the fuselage in its middle part;
Vysokoplan - the wing is located above the fuselage. Aircraft engines are installed in the wings, under the wings, on pylons and in the rear fuselage.
The speed of modern transport aircraft with turbojet engines is 750-950 km/h, with turboprop engines 500-750 km/h.
Depending on the flight speed, aircraft are divided into:
Subsonic;
supersonic;
Hypersonic.
Subsonic - aircraft, the speed of which does not exceed the speed of sound, supersonic - the speed of which exceeds the speed of sound, hypersonic - the speed of which exceeds the speed of sound by 4-5 times.
According to their purpose, aircraft are divided into:
Transport (passenger and freight);
Educational and training;
sports;
Military;
Special.
Airport or aerodrome - is a complex of engineering structures that ensure the departure to the line and the reception from the lines of passengers and cargo, as well as the preparation and equipment of aircraft to perform transport functions. The airfield is the most important element of the airport. This is an airfield on which one or more airstrips, taxiways, aircraft parking areas, and runways are located. The number of runways depends on the capacity of the airport. One runway may have one or more runways.
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According to the volume of annual passenger service, airports are divided into five classes. The value and class of the airport depends on the size and level of its technical development and equipment.
Airports serving more than 7 million passengers a year (for example, Heathrow Airport in London and J. Kennedy in New York serve 25 million passengers; O "Hara in Chicago - 40 million; Vnukovo - 27 million, etc. .) are out of class, and less than 25 thousand people are not classified.
According to the time of use, airfields are divided into:
Permanent;
temporary,
Daytime and 24/7 operation.
By type of coverage:
With artificial turf runways;
Ground;
Hydroaerodromes;
Ice.
By nature of use:
Basic;
intermediate;
Basic;
Spare.
The cargo complex includes a cargo platform, cargo warehouses, post offices and other facilities. At airports with a large volume of cargo traffic, cargo terminals are provided, which differ from warehouses in their space-planning solution and work technology.
The main element of the passenger complex is the terminal, which sells tickets, checks in passengers, checks in and handles luggage, provides information and other types of passenger services.
The forecourt of the airport is intended for the movement, stopping and maneuvering of public transport.
The airport hotel is designed to accommodate passengers who stay overnight at the airport due to waiting for departure or flight delays.
Passenger apron - a place for short-term parking of aircraft during landing and disembarking of passengers.
Airport services solve the problems of integrated transportation services, for which they have various divisions:
Passenger and cargo transportation services;
Service for the reception, preparation and release of aircraft;
fuel service;
production and dispatching service;
Security Service, etc.
Airways are volumes of airspace in width and height that connect the airspaces of airfield areas and are intended for flights of civil aviation and other departments. Airways are served by means of air navigation and air traffic control.
The airway altitude is divided into lower airspace (up to 6100m) and upper airspace (above 6100m).
In order to make the most efficient use of airspace for flights by aviation of all departments, an air traffic control system is being created to control arriving, departing and transit aircraft with unconditional compliance with safety and flight regularity requirements.
The air traffic control system includes airport controllers (airfield control tower controller, taxi controller, start controller, circle controller and approach controller) and controllers of regional and zonal centers.
The movement corridor (track) is the estimated flight altitude and coordinate system in the horizontal and vertical flight planes.
The corridor system makes it possible to disperse aircraft in the air to exclude the possibility of their collision.
Aircraft are equipped with appropriate systems for measuring and maintaining flight altitude.
The technology of air transport operation - movement must be carried out strictly according to the schedule, which is associated with the complexity of organizing take-off and landing at the airfield, as well as the system for allocating each unit of the rolling stock with its own traffic corridor, depending on the carrying capacity and flight speed. In the general complex of diverse and diverse technological processes, the order and terms of maintenance of aircraft and airports are of particular importance.
2. International air transportation
International air transportation occupies a special place among foreign trade transportation. Yielding to other modes of transport in the volume of traffic, international air transport compares favorably with them in other indicators. International air transport is a type of international flight, which is defined as the operation of aircraft in the airspace of more than one state. The very same international air transportation is formulated in the Convention to unify some of the rules relating to international air transportation. International air transportation - transportation, in which the place of departure and the place of destination are located on the territory of two states or on the territory of one state, if a stopover (landing) is provided on the territory of another state. In order to coordinate the actions of international air carriers and provide them with the necessary organizational and legal framework, two large international air transport organizations were created in the mid-1940s: the International Civil Aviation Organization ICAO (ICAO) and the International Air Transport Association IATA (IATA).
The International Civil Aviation Organization - this organization, headquartered in Montreal, is still the main forum for aviators around the world. Now it brings together 188 countries, officially referred to as the Contracting States. The activity of ICAO is determined by the Chicago Convention on Civil Aviation - a legal act and a fundamental source of international air law.
All ICAO regulations are aimed at ensuring flight safety, aviation security (protection against terrorism) and the maximum simplification of the process of air transportation between states. Of the many specialized agencies operating under the auspices of the UN, ICAO is not only the largest, but also the most efficient organization, ensuring uniformity and order in the transportation of more than 1.6 billion passengers and 30 million tons of cargo annually by air. Unlike ICAO, another international air transport association - IATA (International Air Transport Organization), founded in 1919, is engaged in the financial management of air travel. The clearing system, for example, allows airlines to manage financial flows centrally. During the year, 34 billion US dollars transferred by more than 300 airlines pass through the IATA financial chamber. The settlement system for the sale of passenger transportation simplifies the process of issuing tickets and reduces the costs associated with their sale.
There are seven standing committees within IATA:
Advisory for transportation;
Technical;
Combating aircraft hijacking and theft of cargo and luggage;
Legal;
Financial;
Conjuncture of world commodity and transport markets;
Medical.
One of the activities of IATA is to develop and adopt recommendations on the organization and conditions of transportation, as well as on the principles for constructing tariffs and determining their level. This activity is carried out at regional transportation conferences, for which the whole world is divided into three zones. The first is Western, which includes all the countries of the Western Hemisphere. The second is the Euro-African-Asian zone, which includes countries to the west of Iran. The third is the Asia-Pacific zone, which also includes Australia and Oceania.
Flights on international airlines according to the form of their performance can be classified:
On regular (carried out in accordance with the terms of agreements on air communication between states);
For non-scheduled (performed on the basis of special permits for single flights):
a. additional,
b. special,
c. charter.
International air fares can be subdivided into:
Passenger;
luggage;
Freight.
3. Air transport performance
In air transport, in addition to those common to all modes of transport, the following performance indicators are calculated.
Aircraft passenger seat occupancy rate? kps characterizes the use of aircraft seats. It is determined by dividing the passenger-kilometres performed?Plpas by the limit passenger-kilometres (seat-kilometres) ?Pmaxps:
The actual speed of delivery of passengers from the point of departure to the point of destination v is determined by dividing the length of the air line between these points L by the time spent by passengers on the trip by air? T:
The time spent on the trip is the sum of the time of transportation from the settlement to the airport tt1; waiting at the airport of departure t01 ; flight, including stops at intermediate airports tn; waiting at the destination airport t02 ; transportation from the airport to the locality tt2:
T= tt1 + t01 + tn + t02 + tt2 (3)
From the above formula it can be seen that the total time spent on a trip by air is the sum of flight and ground. Ground time on average is about 3-3.5 hours.
The technical flight range LTECHN is the maximum distance that an aircraft (helicopter) can fly in calm relative to the ground, having completely used up the fuel filled in its tanks by the time of landing.
The practical flight range Lact is the distance that an aircraft (helicopter) can fly relative to the ground with the remainder of the fuel provided for the navigational reserve in the tanks by the time of landing of the aircraft.
Cruise speed VKP is the distance traveled per unit of time with uniform, rectilinear horizontal flight of the aircraft and the operation of the engines in cruise mode and the calculated flight altitude and aircraft weight.
Flight speed Vp -- the average distance traveled by the aircraft per unit time (excluding landing time en route) in calm. It is calculated taking into account the cost of flight time at all stages of flight from takeoff to landing.
Commercial speed VKOM is the distance traveled per unit of time from the takeoff run at the initial airport to landing at the final airport, taking into account stops at intermediate airports.
The productivity of the aircraft and helicopter P is the volume of transport products performed by the aircraft (helicopter) in 1 hour.
This indicator can be determined for the entire fleet of aircraft and for each type.
Transportation of passengers and cargo by air transport is carried out by regular and non-scheduled carriers. Scheduled carriers are airlines that carry passengers, cargo, mail, both on a regular and contract basis. Scheduled services include flights scheduled and operated in accordance with the published schedule for a fee, as well as additional flights caused by the overload of scheduled flights.
Non-scheduled carriers are enterprises that carry out commercial transportation of goods and passengers for the needs of enterprises and the population on an irregular basis (charter flights, special flights, tourist routes).
Accounting for completed shipments is kept separately for these groups of carriers. Within groups, transportation is divided into local, domestic and international.
Local transportation - both points of the flight, i.e., the initial and final ones, which are located on the territory of the republic, territory, region.
Domestic transportation - between the points of the flight, located within the territorial boundaries of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
International transportation includes transportation, in which one of the points of the flight is outside the state border of the Republic of Kazakhstan; they include transportation to non-CIS countries and CIS countries.
When accounting for transportation, the unit of observation is the aircraft departure. The primary document is a consolidated loading sheet, which certifies the boarding of passengers and the delivery of cargo to the aircraft at the airports of departure, the acceptance from the aircraft of its entire load at the airports of destination and the carriage by the aircraft. Completion of the consolidated load sheet is made in triplicate on the basis of the passenger and baggage check-in sheet, as well as the postal and cargo sheet. The first copy of the consolidated load sheet is handed over to the crew and serves to record their work, the second copy is transferred to the transportation department of the nearest landing airport (where a new sheet will be issued for the next flight segment), the third copy remains at the initial airport to record the completed flights.
The summary loading sheet indicates the airports of departure and destination, type, number, aircraft affiliation, flight number, date of departure, airport of first landing, for each airport of destination data on the number of initial and transit passengers, weight of baggage, mail, cargo are entered.
Initial shipments are those that depart from this airport. Transit includes such shipments that were originally sent from another airport, and from this airport, which is intermediate, are sent in the direction of further travel.
The loadsheet data is used to compile the “flight report” and calculate the performance of airlines.
Literature
Volgin, VV Logistics of acceptance and shipment of goods: a practical guide / VV Volgin. - Moscow: Dashkov i K?, 2009. - 457 p.
Gadzhinsky, A. M. Logistics: a textbook for higher educational institutions in the direction of preparation "Economics" / A. M. Gadzhinsky. - Moscow: Dashkov i K?, 2011. - 481 p.
Golubchik, A. M. Freight Forwarding Business: Creation, Formation, Management / A. M. Golubchik. - Moscow: TransLit, 2011. - 317 p.
Ivanov, D. A. Supply chain management / D. A. Ivanov. - St. Petersburg: Polytechnic University Publishing House, 2010. - 659 p.
Integrated logistics systems for resource delivery: (theory, methodology, organization) / I. A. Elovoy, I. A. Lebedeva. - Minsk: Law and Economics, 2011. - 460 p.
Kurganov, V. M. Logistics. Transport and warehouse in the supply chain of goods: educational and practical guide: for students of higher educational institutions / V. M. Kurganov. - Moscow: Book World, 2009. - 512 p.
Kurochkin, D.V. Logistics: a course of lectures / D.V. Kurochkin. - Minsk: FUAinform, 2012. - 268 p.
Logistics: a textbook for students of the specialties "Commercial activity", "Marketing" of institutions providing higher education / I.M. Basko et al. - Minsk: Belarusian State Economic University, 2007. - 431 p.
Logistics: a textbook for students of higher education institutions in economic specialties / V. I. Margunova et al. - Minsk: Higher School, 2011. - 507 p.
Logistics: textbook / B. A. Anikin et al. - Moscow: Prospekt, 2011. - 405 p.
Logistics. Advanced course: for students of economic specialties of higher educational institutions / M. N. Grigoriev, A. P. Dolgov, S. A. Uvarov. - Moscow: Yurayt, 2011. - 734 p.
Logistics: integration and optimization of logistics business processes in supply chains / V. V. Dybskaya - Moscow: Eksmo, 2008. - 939 p.
Warehousing logistics: textbook: specialty 080506 “Logistics and supply chain management” / VV Dybskaya. - Moscow: Infra-M, 2012. - 557 p.
Moiseeva, N. K. Economic fundamentals of logistics: a textbook on specialty 080506 “Logistics and supply chain management” / N. K. Moiseeva. - Moscow: Infra-M, 2010. - 527 p.
Nerush, Yu. M. Logistics: textbook / Yu. M. Nerush. - Moscow: Prospect: Velby, 2008. - 517 p.
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AIR TRANSPORT, transportation of passengers, mail and cargo on aircraft - airplanes and controlled balloons. Scheduled air transport is carried out between certain points according to a set schedule, while occasional flights are made without a schedule.
Currently, in countries that own an air fleet, passenger air transport predominates, which also serves for postal transportation. Cargo air transport still does not exist at all, and it is only partly carried out on mail-passenger aircraft. The main advantage of air transport is speed, the main disadvantage is high cost. When comparing air transport with land and sea transport, the following points should be noted: 1) the ability to move in a direct direction (at long distances - along a great circle arc), 2) the ability to cross land and water areas without changing vehicles, and 3) flexibility in changing routes.
Average air transport speed: on airplanes 130-160 km / h, 1200-1600 km per day without night flights, 2500-3000 km per day with night flights; on controlled balloons 80-110 km / h, 1800-2500 km per day (according to projects). The maximum speed of transport aircraft reaches 215 km/h, and special racing aircraft - 512 km/h. Walkable distance without descent: on airplanes on average 500-700 km, on controlled balloons (according to projects of transoceanic lines) - up to 3-5 thousand km. However, air transport gains time only at distances over a certain length: on short lines, the gain is completely absorbed by the delivery of passengers from the city to the airfield and back. For overhead lines competing with the railway, the minimum length is about 300-400 km. On lines exceeding 1500 km, time savings compared to railways can only be obtained by night flights; otherwise, a flight break for the night can reduce the winnings to zero. The problem of night flights is of great importance for air transport, especially in the countries of Western Europe and North America with a dense railway network. In recent years, a number of lines have been equipped for night flights. Tab. 1 shows the comparative gain in time on different air transport lines.
The regularity of air transport suffers greatly from meteorological causes (fog, blizzard, poor visibility) and from mechanical defects (damage to the motor and equipment). In the summer season, disruption of regularity due to meteorological reasons is only 1-2% of all flights, in the autumn and winter months it greatly increases, and for the winter a significant part of the air lines are completely closed. Violation of the regularity for mechanical reasons gives from 1 to 5%, on average - 2.5% of the number of flights started, i.e. for every 20-100 (average 40) flights, depending on the nature of the line, its length and qualities material part, there is one flight interruption or forced landing. The use of multi-engine aircraft increases the regularity of air transport, although in this case the possibility of forced landings on the way is not excluded, and it is still necessary to have a certain number of alternate landing sites along the air route.
Air network development. The first regular air lines appeared in 1918 in the USA (an experimental New York-Washington postal line) and Germany (military postal lines in the occupied territory of Ukraine). In 1919, a number of lines of postal and passenger communication arose in France, Germany and England. So far, all lines are operating on aircraft. A pilot line operated in Germany in 1919 on controlled balloons of the Zeppelin type. In the USSR, after several experiments of air communication on aircraft of old military types in 1918-1921, from May 1, 1922, the mail-passenger and cargo communication Moscow- Koenigsberg (1200 km) of the mixed Russian-German Air Communications Society, abbreviated as Deruluft. In August and September of the same year, the Moscow-Nizhny-Novgorod line of the Aviaculture society worked during the All-Union Fair. At the beginning of 1923, the joint-stock companies Dobrolet (All-Union Society of the Voluntary Air Fleet) and Ukrvozdukhput (Ukrainian Society of Air Communications) were formed. Both societies developed a significant network of overhead lines. The third company "Zakavia" (Transcaucasian Society of Civil Aviation), which arose in the same year, was liquidated in 1925. At present (beginning of 1928), the network of overhead lines in the USSR is 7400 km and is operated by three companies: Dobrolet, Deruluft and Ukrvozdukhput .
World network of air lines in 1927 it reached a length of about 65,000 km; of these, about 40,000 km are in Europe (Fig. 1).
Germany has the most extensive network, united by the German Air Hansa (Deutsche Luft-Hansa), about 20,000 km, France (1927) has about 11,000 km of air lines; the most important of them are: Paris-London (Air-Union society), Paris-Berlin (Farman society, in parallel with the German Air Hansa), Paris-Vienna-Constantinople with a branch Prague-Warsaw ("International Air Communications Company ”, with the participation of Romanian and Hungarian capital) and colonial lines: Toulouse-Casablanca-Dakkar with a branch to Algeria and Tunisia and a planned continuation to South America (Latekoer society), England has only about 1500 km of air lines in Europe connecting London with the main capitals of the continent. In the colonies, England is doing a lot of work to prepare a network of "imperial" air routes, both on airplanes and on controlled balloons. Of the projected London-India-Australia air route, only the Cairo-Baghdad-Basra section (Imperial Airways Society) is currently operating regularly. The remaining countries of Europe have partly national, partly mixed air communication companies, usually subsidized by the state and operating relatively small local lines. In the USA, since 1920, the air mail line New York-San Francisco (4300 km) began to work, crossing the whole country (see Fig. 2).
Since 1924, it has been operating day and night and has been electrified for over 2,200 km. In addition to the one named, 17 more air lines operate here under a contract with the postal department. The length of the entire US network by the end of 1927 reached 15,600 km. Most American lines operate all year round. Among other non-European lines, Belgian lines in the Congo, German seaplane lines in Colombia (South America) and Australian lines, which reached over 4000 km in 1927, should be noted.
Air lines of the USSR. 1) Dobrolet, after experiments with air communication on the Moscow-Nizhny-Kazan and Sevastopol-Yalta lines, from 1925 concentrated his efforts on outlying lines, which give a very large gain in time, in areas deprived of normal mechanical transport. In 1927, Dobrolet maintained lines in Central Asia: Tashkent-Samarkand-Termez-Dushambe, 930 km, and Chardzhuy-Khiva-Tashauz-Chimbay, 480 km (Fig. 3).
At the end of 1927, regular flights were opened along the lines Frunze-Alma-Ata, 240 km, and Tashkent-Termez-Kabul, 1140 km. In Transbaikalia, a line of the same company operates: Verkhneudinsk-Urga (in Mongolia), 600 km away, with a planned extension to Beijing. About the enormous savings of time given by these lines, the concept of Table. 1. 2) Ukrvozdukhput in 1927 operated the daily line Moscow-Baku, 2510 km, through Kharkov-Rostov-Mineralnye Vody-Grozny. An extension of this line to Pahlavi (Anzeli, Northern Persia) was opened to connect with the Persian-German Junkers Pahlavi-Tehran line. 3) Deruluft in 1927 worked on the Moscow-Kenigsberg-Berlin line, 1800 km long. The listed lines, except for the Asian ones, operate only in the summer, while the Asian lines operate almost the entire year, with short breaks in the winter months.
Current state. Air transport means. In addition to a small number of adapted military aircraft, three categories of postal and passenger aircraft operate on modern air lines: a) exclusively postal, small in size, with engines of 150-400 hp. s., without a passenger cabin (main arr. on American lines); b) passenger aircraft and seaplanes of medium power, single-engine, 200-500 hp. With.; c) large passenger aircraft and seaplanes with 2, 3 and 4 engines, with a total power of 600 to 1300 hp. S.: The most used types are given in Table. 2.
Aircraft of low power, below 70 hp. s., are not used in regular air transport and so far serve only for sports. Aircraft from 70 to 150 hp. With. in some cases, they are used on short lines (access roads), as well as on individual flights for hire (taxi). Controlled balloons (airships) for overhead lines are under construction in England and Germany and belong to the rigid type (Zeppelin system). Their volume is from 100 to 150 thousand m 3; number of motors 5-7; their total power is up to 3000 liters. With.; speed 110-120 km/h; seats for passengers 100, full commercial load 20-30 tons.
Air transport statistics. The work of overhead lines in the main countries of Western Europe is characterized by the data in Table. 3 and 4.
The volume of work of the overhead lines of the USSR, although still inferior to the scale of Western Europe, has shown rapid and regular growth in recent years (see Table 5).
Air transport security . As can be seen from Table. 6, the number of accidents in air transport is still high compared to railways, and the degree of safety is insufficient. However, a strictly objective comparison based on statistics cannot be given, since air transport has not yet reached such a scale and is not of a mass character. According to the statistics of Russian railways for 1913, 1 passenger was killed per 1,300,000 passengers transported, or per 825,000 train-kilometers travelled. That. in relation to the number of kilometers traveled, air transport for passengers can already now be equal in safety to railways, but in relation to the number of passengers transported, the number of accidents in air transport is many times greater than in land transport.
Overhead line design. The organization of overhead lines is preceded by the preparation of a technical project, organizational and operational estimates. The technical project includes: 1) establishing a route, determining stages and drawing up a traffic schedule; 2) calculation of the number of aircraft and engines; 3) establishment of types of technical equipment; 4) calculation of flight personnel (pilots, on-board mechanics and on-board radio telegraph operators); 5) location and equipment of airfields and landing sites; 6) projects of buildings at airfields and sites; 7) design of lighting equipment for night flights; 8) organization of the meteorological service; 9) organization of radio-telephone and other types of communication along the line; 10) organizing the supply of materials and spare parts. The route is chosen, if possible, allowing a safe landing en route. The length of stages passed without descent is determined in relation to the qualities of the selected aircraft, taking into account adverse winds and the length of the day at different times of the year. At the same time, a reserve of about 100 km per stage is necessarily provided; the length of stages rarely exceeds 800 km. Landing sites in case of a forced descent are planned every 50-70 km and are provided with distinctive signs visible from above. The flight schedule is based on the average cruising speed of a given aircraft, which is verified by experience (usually 15-20% below the maximum speed). The number of aircraft on the line is determined by the allowable flight load and is equal to the number of kilometers flown on the line per month divided by the allowable flight load per month per aircraft, plus the number of spare aircraft. The latter are usually available 1 at the end points plus 1 for every 1000-1500 km of travel. The flight load on the aircraft is normally 8000-12000 km per month. The pilot is usually attached to a specific aircraft and has the same flight load as him, i.e. 60-90 hours of flight per month.
Example: line length - 2000 km, number of flights - 6 per week in each direction, a total of 52 flights per month; speed, on average, 150 km / h, the number of pilots and working aircraft 2000x52 / (90x150) ≈ 7or 8,spareaircraft 3;Totalaircraft 10-11. NumbermotorsVreserveacceptedusuallyin 100%fromnumbersestablishedonairplanes.Termdepreciationmotors 700-1000 hourswork;Foraircraft 2000-3000 hoursflight, or an average of 3-4 years.
The cost of air transportation by aircraft is higher than all other modes of transport (see Table 7).
On a single-engine aircraft, with a capacity of 200-400 hp. With. (4-6 passengers), 1 km of flight costs 1 r.-1 r. 70 k. With daily flights all year round, the cost is closer to the lowest limit, with rare flights, it increases greatly. Large aircraft provide relatively cheaper transport, but only if they are provided with a sufficiently large load, which is still rare. For controlled balloons, there are still no cost figures tested in practice, and for large controlled balloons of 100,000-150,000 m 3 under construction, a cost of 5-10 k. per passenger-kilometer and 50 k.-1 r. with tkm. The reasons for the high cost of transport on existing aircraft: a) relatively low carrying capacity (2-3 passes, for every 100 hp); b) the high cost of aircraft and engines, which are still produced in small numbers; c) short depreciation periods for aircraft and engines; d) high cost of fuel; e) high insurance; f) a large percentage of overhead costs due to the poor use of the material part in time (partial year and a small part of the day). Comparison of the cost of air transport with the size of the accepted tariffs shows that air transport is still unprofitable everywhere. The unprofitability is still increasing due to the underload that occurs on many lines. The deficit in all states is covered by government subsidies. Their sizes for 1926: in France - about 5 million rubles, in Germany - about 9 million rubles, in England - about 2.3 million rubles; in addition, the states provide ground equipment for air transport free of charge (airfields, lighting, etc.). The most cost-effective cargo is mail, paid for 4-7 rubles. for 1 T km, but its quantity is still not enough to load overhead lines. The development of air mail is now the surest way to break even air transport. Passengers and freight can only recover costs on lines that run in roadless areas, such as the Central Asian Dobrolet lines and some colonial lines, where in fact now most of the operating costs are covered by revenues; in the near future, such lines will become profitable. The technical progress of aircraft and airship construction promises in the coming decades a significant reduction in the cost of air transport, the achievement of its full profitability and a reduction in tariffs for passengers and mail approximately to the level of the railway. In parallel with this, an increase in the regularity, speed and comfort of air transport is foreseen and, as a result, a huge expansion of its scope.
