Geographical discoveries of the 14th-17th centuries. The most important geographical discoveries in world history

From time to time in the history of mankind there are events that radically change its course. The taming of fire, the domestication of wild animals, the invention of the wheel and writing, cinema, nuclear energy, flight into space... One of these turning points was the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, which literally opened the Earth for man.

In fact, people made geographical discoveries all the time, from primitive times to the present day. For example, just a few years ago a new island was discovered in the Laptev Sea.

But only the historical period from the 15th to the 17th centuries is attributed to the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, when European travelers (mainly the Portuguese and Spaniards), who were looking for trade routes to India, discovered new, uncharted lands and laid routes by sea to Africa, America, Asia and Oceania .

“A person who has never made mistakes has never tried anything new” (A. Einstein)

Time for a change

Until the middle of the 15th century, people knew at most a quarter of the Earth. But the next two are only two! - Centuries literally changed the face of the planet for man and turned the course of history.

Astrolabe - one of the oldest astronomical instruments, a geodetic instrument for measuring angles, in particular for determining latitude

Usually, The Age of Discovery is divided into two periods. The first is from the middle of the 15th to the middle of the 16th century: the discoveries of the Spaniards and the Portuguese in Africa, America and Asia, including the travels of Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Magellan. The second - from the middle of the 16th to the middle of the 17th century: the discoveries of Russian travelers in Asia, the British and French - in North America and the Dutch - in Australia and Oceania.

“Each outstanding researcher makes his name in the history of science not only with his own discoveries, but also with those discoveries to which he encourages others” (M. Planck)

For various reasons, Spain and Portugal were truly powerful maritime powers by the middle of the 15th century. Trade routes from these states to India with its gold, silver, and most importantly, spices, which were valued extremely highly, through the Mediterranean, Africa, Arabia and Asia were long and full of dangers. That is why the Spaniards and the Portuguese were the first to search for the sea, and therefore a shorter and cheaper route to Indian wealth.

Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) - Spanish navigator of Italian origin, discovered the American continent in 1492

Born in Genoa (Italy) in the family of a weaver, Christopher Columbus began to go on ships as a teenager. In 1476, he ended up in Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, where at that time information about all the latest geographical discoveries flocked. Year after year, the young Italian went to sea on various ships, visited England, Ireland, the Azores ... From books, his own impressions, conversations with experienced sailors, Columbus collected information and became more and more imbued with the idea that eventually became his true passion : to reach India by going not to the east, but to the west.

By the middle of the 15th century, Europeans already possessed not only knowledge, but also tools, without which ocean travel would not have been possible: they used an astrolabe, a compass, a caravel. Columbus's dream was feasible, and the matter remained small - money was required for long-distance voyage.

Columbus tried to find a patron and patron of the Portuguese court, but was refused. In 1485, the navigator left Portugal and went to the court of the "competitive" maritime power - Spain.

These two kingdoms truly reigned over the seas of that era. Their caravans plied the waters in search of new lands, in pursuit of gold, silver and spices, which were valued above precious metals. The shortest sea route to India was needed by both the Portuguese and the Spaniards. And Columbus, though not immediately, was received at the court of Their Catholic Majesties, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella.

The anticipation and eloquence of Christopher Columbus were rewarded. Under an agreement signed between him and the royal couple of Spain, he received three ships and funding for their equipment. If successful, Columbus was to become an admiral, viceroy and ruler of all open lands.

In early August 1492, the Santa Maria, Pinta and Nina caravels put to sea.

Columbus himself did not even suspect how successful the coincidence of circumstances of his first trip was. On his side were the right latitude - the shortest route across the Atlantic, fair winds, and even a change in course towards the end of the voyage, as demanded by the crew, who was on the verge of rebellion.

Caravel is a sea three-to-four-masted sailing vessel with one deck and high sides and superstructures. It was common in the Mediterranean countries in the XIII-XVII centuries.

On October 13, 1492, Columbus set foot on the first land he discovered.- one of the Bahamas, he named San Salvador. Confident that he had reached the approaches to India, China and Japan, the navigator went further, reaching the islands of Cuba, Hispaniola and Tortuga (the latter was destined to later become a haven for pirates of the entire Caribbean Sea).

There will be many more ups and downs in the life of the great Italian, but it was then, in the autumn of 1492, that he accomplished his greatest deed - he discovered the New World.

“A false step more than once led to the opening of new roads” (L. Cumor)

Henry the Navigator

The name of Christopher Columbus is the first thing that comes to mind when talking about the Great Geographical Discoveries. But it would be fairer to assume that the first to unfurl the sails to the winds of change was the son of the Portuguese king João I - Infante Henry, later nicknamed the Navigator.

Throughout his life, Henry did not take part in any of the expeditions, but equipped them with a great many. The Infante wanted to find a way along the coast of Africa to India. Until the fulfillment of this dream, Henry the Navigator did not live, but thanks to him, Portugal opened the most sinister, shameful and at the same time the most profitable page in its history - the slave trade.

Vasco da Gama and his journey to India

Vasco da Gama (1460/1469 - 1524) - Portuguese navigator of the Age of Discovery. He commanded the first expedition to sail from Europe to India

Dozens of ships and voyages, hundreds of sailors, three rulers who succeeded each other on the throne are associated with the opening of the route to India - and the name of a harsh and cruel navigator, the first European to reach India by sea, went down in history - Vasco da Gama.

In July 1497, his armada of three ships - the San Gabriel, the San Rafael and the Berriu - set off. Severe trials awaited the flotilla: headwinds and currents, the heat of Equatorial Africa, scurvy that struck the crew halfway to the Cape of Good Hope ... But four and a half months later, Vasco da Gama rounded the southern tip of the African continent and turned to the northeast.

Unlike Columbus, the Portuguese really opened the way to India. Yes, there were numerous clashes ahead with the Arabs, who had long and firmly mastered this part of the world, it was still necessary to equip trading posts and establish trade relations with local rulers, but the main thing was done. Portugal became one of the richest and most powerful maritime powers in the world. From May 1498 until the opening of the Suez Canal to shipping in 1869, the main trade routes from Europe to Asia went by sea.

“He who makes a discovery sees what everyone sees, and thinks what no one comes to mind” (A. Szent-Györgyi)

Spain-Portugal rivalry

In the 15th century, Spain and Portugal shared the palm among maritime powers. So that the two powerful crowns would not be at enmity, opening up new territories, in 1452-1456 the Roman popes Nicholas V and Calixtus III assigned Portugal the right to own lands south and east of Cape Bojador, and Spain recognized this right.

Ancient map of Europe ("Big Atlas", or "Blau's Cosmography", 1667)

However, the discoveries of Columbus in 1492 dramatically changed the situation. Since the admiral believed that he had discovered the western route to India, and Portugal laid claim to the Indian lands, to which it went by the eastern route, the two kingdoms now disputed the ownership of each other.

Fortunately, the dangerous dispute was resolved by Pope Alexander VI Borgia, who in May 1493 established a demarcation line separating the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. Castile now belonged to the lands to the west of the "papal meridian", Portugal - to the east, about which the Treaty of Tordesillas was signed on June 7, 1494. This document not only demarcated the spheres of influence of the two powers, but actually secured their possession of the World Ocean, excluding other European countries from this.

Fernand Magellan's round-the-world trip

Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521) - Portuguese and Spanish navigator, made the first voyage around the world, discovering the strait leading from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific

For the next twenty years, Spanish and Portuguese ships tirelessly plied the oceans. It became quite obvious that America was not India, but a new continent. But so far there was almost no income from it, and it seemed to be an annoying hindrance on the western path to the spices and gold of India. Sailors were looking for an opportunity to get around this obstacle.

Therefore, there was nothing surprising in the fact that in 1518 a Portuguese naval sailor turned to the Spanish council for the affairs of the two Indies - he offered to consider a plan for a western route to the Moluccas, where expensive spices were produced. It's funny that a stranger again turned to the Spanish crown, and again because his project was rejected by the Portuguese monarch. And again, as in the case of Columbus, Spain did not lose by agreeing to finance the expedition.

An experienced sailor undertook to find a strait that would allow sailing to Asia without going around the huge American continent either from the north or from the south.

“Everyone knows from childhood that this and that is impossible. But there is always an ignoramus who does not know this. It is he who makes the discovery ”(A. Einstein)

Magellan's journey was one of the most difficult in the history of that time. It lasted over three years. Of the five ships that went on the expedition, only one returned to the Spanish port, out of two hundred and sixty-five people only eighteen returned. Ferdinand Magellan himself died in a skirmish with the natives on one of the Philippine Islands, having already found the famous strait, which would later be named after him, and being on his way back to Europe.

It is impossible to overestimate the importance of the first circumnavigation of the world. Long-standing disputes about the shape of the planet, the unity of the World Ocean and the predominance of water over land were finally resolved, which had been disputed as far back as the Middle Ages.

Discovery of Australia

France, England, Holland and other countries, which also had serious maritime traditions, could do little to oppose the dominance of the Spaniards and the Portuguese in the Atlantic, India, Central and South America. The British and French began to explore the North American continent, where New England and Canada would later be founded, which would go to the French.

The study of the Pacific began long before the advent of writing. However, for the first time it was opened to the eyes of the European Vasco Nunez de Balboa in 1513. The Spanish conquistador saw him from the mountain range of the Isthmus of Panama

But the most interesting discovery was to be made by the Dutch. Since the time of Aristotle, there has been an idea in the geographical world that in the Southern Hemisphere there must certainly be a large continent that would balance the vast land of the Northern Hemisphere. But for a very long time, ships entered this part of the Pacific more by chance: the “roaring” forties, the “whistling” fifties and the “furious” sixties were avoided by everyone. But over and over again, sailors brought information about various parts of the land, which eventually became known as Terra Australis Incognita - the Unknown Southern Land, although they were mainly islands of various archipelagos of the Pacific Ocean.

And only in 1605 the Dutchman Willem Janszon who led the fleet of the East India Company, first reached the coast of Australia. Almost forty years later, another Dutchman, Abel Tasman, reached New Zealand, Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) and marked the island of Fiji on the map. The search for the mysterious Southern Land is over.

“Sometimes it’s more useful not to know what has been done before you, so as not to go astray on the beaten path leading to a dead end” (B. Gersh)

Development of Russian lands

While world powers were mastering the ocean, Russian pioneers were mastering one sixth of the land - the vast expanses of the Russian state.

After the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, the way to the Volga region and the Urals was opened. The colossal sparsely populated expanses could become a source of wealth, but they could also ruin travelers who dared to invade the unknown.

The privileges and vast territories granted by Ivan the Terrible to the merchants Stroganov marked the beginning of the settlement of the Urals and the development there, first of trade, and then of industry - mining of ores, furs and salt.

In 1577, the Cossack detachments of the ataman moved to the east. Yermak, called by the Stroganovs to protect against the Siberian Khan. In 1582, the Siberian Khanate was conquered and annexed to the Russian state.

V. I. Surikov "Conquest of Siberia by Ermak Timofeevich" (1891-1895)

The 17th century was marked by many geographical discoveries: the mouth of the Yenisei was reached, the highlands of Taimyr were mastered, the great Siberian rivers Lena, Yana, Olenyok were mapped.

And now the names known to everyone follow: Ivan Moskvitin, Semyon Dezhnev, Erofey Khabarov, Vladimir Atlasov. Step by step they they discover and develop for their descendants Kolyma and Chukotka, Anadyr and Amur, Kamchatka and the Kuriles ...

Great geographical discoveries of European travelers of the late 15th century. - the middle of the 17th century. were the result of the rapid development of productive forces in Europe, the growth of trade with the countries of the East, the shortage of precious metals in connection with the development of trade and money circulation.

It is known that even in ancient times, Europeans visited the coast of America, traveled along the coast of Africa, etc. However, a geographical discovery is considered not only a visit by representatives of any civilized people to a previously unknown part of the Earth. This concept includes the establishment of a direct connection between the newly discovered lands and the centers of culture of the Old World. Only the discovery of America by H. Columbus laid the foundation for extensive ties between the open lands and Europe, the same goal was served by the travels of Vasco da Gama to the shores of India, the round-the-world trip of F. Magellan.

The great geographical discoveries became possible as a result of significant advances in the development of science and technology in Europe. At the end of the 15th century the doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth became widespread, knowledge in the field of astronomy and geography expanded. Navigational instruments were improved (compass, astrolabe), a new type of sailing vessel appeared - a caravel.

The Portuguese navigators were the first to start looking for new sea routes to Asia. In the early 60s. 15th c. they captured the first strongholds on the coast of Africa, and then, moving south along its western coast, discovered the Cape Verde Islands, the Azores. At that time, Prince Henry (Enrique), nicknamed the Navigator, became an indefatigable organizer of long-distance voyages, although he himself rarely set foot on a ship. In 1488 Bartolomeu Dias reached the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa. The knowledge gained by the Portuguese as a result of their travels gave navigators of other countries valuable information about the ebb and flow, the direction of winds and currents, and made it possible to create more accurate maps on which latitudes, lines of the tropics and the equator were plotted. These maps contained information about previously unknown countries. Previously widespread ideas about the impossibility of sailing in equatorial waters were refuted, and the fear of the unknown, characteristic of people of the Middle Ages, gradually began to recede.

At the same time, the Spaniards rushed in search of new trade routes. In 1492, after the capture of Granada and the completion of the reconquista, the Spanish king Ferdinand and Queen Isabella accepted the project of the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) to reach the shores of India, sailing to the west. The Columbus project had many opponents, but it received the support of scientists from the University of Salaman, the most famous in Spain, and, no less significant, among the business people of Seville. On August 3, 1492, Columbus' flotilla sailed from Palosa, one of the best ports on the Atlantic coast of Spain, consisting of 3 ships - Santa Maria, Pinta and Nina, the crews of which numbered 120 people. From the Canary Islands, Columbus headed west. On October 12, 1492, after a month-long voyage in the open ocean, the fleet approached a small island from the group of the Bahamas, then named San Salvador. Although the newly discovered lands bore little resemblance to the fabulously rich islands of India and China, Columbus was convinced to the end of his days that he had discovered islands off the east coast of Asia. During the first trip, the islands of Cuba, Haiti and a number of smaller ones were discovered. In 1492, Columbus returned to Spain, where he was appointed admiral of all open lands and received the right to 1/10 of all income. Subsequently, Columbus made three more trips to America - in 1493-1496, 1498-1500, 1502-1504, during which part of the Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and others were discovered; part of the Atlantic coast of Central and South America was surveyed. Although the open lands were very fertile and favorable for life, the Spaniards did not find gold there. Doubts arose that the newly discovered lands were India. The number of enemies of Columbus among the nobles grew, dissatisfied with the fact that he severely punished the expedition members for disobedience. In 1500, Columbus was removed from his post and sent in chains to Spain. He managed to restore his good name and make another trip to America. However, after returning from his last journey, he was deprived of all income and privileges and died in poverty.

The discoveries of Columbus forced the Portuguese to hurry. In 1497, the flotilla of Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) sailed from Lisbon to explore routes around Africa. Rounding the Cape of Good Hope, he entered the Indian Ocean. Moving north along the coast, the Portuguese reached the Arab trading cities of Mozambique, Mombasa and Malindi. With the help of an Arab pilot, on May 20, 1498, Vasco da Gama's squadron entered the Indian port of Calicut. In August 1499, his ships returned to Portugal. The sea route to the country of fabulous riches was opened. From now on, the Portuguese began to annually equip up to 20 ships for trade with India. Thanks to superiority in weapons and technology, they managed to oust the Arabs from there. The Portuguese attacked their ships, destroyed the crews, devastated the cities on the southern coast of Arabia. In India, they captured strongholds, among which the city of Goa became the main one. The spice trade was declared a royal monopoly, it gave up to 800% profit. At the beginning of the 16th century The Portuguese captured Malacca and the Moluccas. In 1499-1500. Spaniards and in 1500-1502. The Portuguese discovered the coast of Brazil.

In the 16th century Portuguese navigators mastered the sea routes in the Indian Ocean, reached the shores of China, and were the first Europeans to set foot on the land of Japan. Among them was Fernand Pinto, the author of travel diaries, which gave a detailed description of the newly discovered country. Prior to this, Europe had only fragmentary and confusing information about Japan from the Book of Marco Polo, the famous Venetian traveler of the 14th century, who, however, never reached the Japanese Islands. In 1550, their image with the modern name first appeared on the Portuguese navigation chart.

In Spain, after the death of Columbus, sending expeditions to new lands continued. At the beginning of the 16th century traveled to the western hemisphere Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512) - a Florentine merchant who was in the service first of the Spanish and then of the Portuguese king, a famous navigator and geographer. Thanks to his letters, the idea that Columbus discovered not the coast of India, but a new mainland, gained popularity. In honor of Vespucci, this continent was named America. In 1515, the first globe with this name appeared, and then atlases and maps. Vespucci's hypothesis was finally confirmed as a result of Magellan's trip around the world (1519-1522). The name of Columbus remained immortalized in the name of one of the Latin American countries - Colombia.

The proposal to reach the Moluccas by rounding the American mainland from the south, expressed by Vespucci, interested the Spanish government. In 1513, the Spanish conquistador V. Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and went to the Pacific Ocean, which gave hope to Spain, which did not receive much benefit from the discoveries of Columbus, to find a western route to the shores of India. This task was destined to be fulfilled by the Portuguese nobleman Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480-1521), who had previously been in the Portuguese possessions in Asia. He believed that the coast of India lay much closer to the newly discovered continent than it really was. On September 20, 1519, a squadron of five ships with 253 crew members, led by Magellan, who entered the service of the Spanish king, left the Spanish harbor of San Lucar. After And months of sailing across the Atlantic Ocean, Magellan reached the southern tip of America and passed through the strait (later called Magellanic), which separated the mainland from Tierra del Fuego. After three weeks of sailing through the strait, the squadron entered the Pacific Ocean, passing off the coast of Chile. On December 1, 1520, land was seen for the last time from ships. Magellan headed north and then northwest. For three months and twenty days, while the ships sailed across the ocean, he was calm, and therefore Magellan called him the Pacific. On March 6, 1521, the expedition approached the small inhabited islands (Marian Islands), after another 10 days it ended up near the Philippine Islands. As a result of the voyage of Magellan, the idea of the sphericity of the Earth was confirmed, it was proved that between Asia and America there is a huge body of water - the Pacific Ocean, that most of the globe is occupied by water, and not by land, that there is a single World Ocean.

April 27, 1521 Magellan died in a skirmish with the natives on one of the Philippine Islands. His companions continued sailing under the command of Juan Sebastian El Cano and reached the Moluccas and Indonesia. Almost a year later, the last of Magellan's ships set off for his native shores, taking on board a large cargo of spices. September 6, 1522 the ship "Victoria" returned to Spain; Of the entire crew, only 18 survived. "Victoria" brought so many spices that their sale made it possible not only to cover all the expenses of the expedition, but also to make a significant profit. For a long time no one followed the example of Magellan, and only in 1578-1580. The second-ever circumnavigation of the world was made by the English pirate Francis Drake, who robbed the Spanish colonies on the Pacific coast of America along the way.

In the 16th century - 1st half of the 17th century. the Spaniards explored the northern and western coasts of South America, penetrated into the interior regions and, in a bloody struggle, conquered the states (Maya, Aztecs, Incas) that existed in the Yucatan, present-day Mexico and Peru (see America's ancient and ancient civilizations). Here the Spanish conquerors, primarily Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizarro, seized the huge treasures accumulated by the rulers and priests of these states. In search of the fabulous land of El Dorado, the Spaniards explored the basin of the Orinoco and Magdalena rivers, where rich deposits of gold, silver and platinum were also discovered. The Spanish conquistador Ximénez de Quesada conquered what is now Colombia.

In the 2nd half of the 16th century. - the beginning of the 17th century. the Spaniards made a number of Pacific expeditions from the territory of Peru, during which the Solomon Islands (1568), South Polynesia (1595), Melanesia (1605) were discovered.

Long before the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, the idea of the existence of a “South Continent” arose, and in the course of the discoveries, the idea of the existence of a “South Continent”, of which the islands of Southeast Asia were considered a part, became especially popular. She expressed herself in geographical writings, and the mythical mainland was even mapped under the name "Terra australis incognita" - "Unknown southern land". In 1605, a Spanish squadron of 3 ships sailed from Peru under the command of P. Quiroz, who discovered a number of islands, one of which he mistook for the coast of the mainland. Leaving two ships to the mercy of fate, Quiros returned to Peru, and then sailed to Spain to secure the rights to rule new lands. But it soon turned out that he was wrong. The captain of one of the two abandoned ships, the Portuguese L. V. de Torres, continued sailing and found out that Kyros had discovered not the mainland, but a group of islands (New Hebrides). Sailing west, Torres passed along the southern coast of New Guinea through the strait, later named after him, and discovered Australia lying to the south. There is evidence that on the coast of the new mainland as early as the 16th century. the Portuguese landed and, shortly before Torres, the Dutch, but this was not known in Europe. Having reached the Philippine Islands, Torres reported the discovery to the Spanish government. However, fearing competitors and not having the strength and means to develop new land, the Spanish administration withheld information about this discovery.

In the 1st half of the 17th century. the search for the "Southern Continent" was conducted by the Dutch, who explored a significant part of the coast. In 1642, Abel Janszon Tasman (1603-1659), sailing from the coast of Indonesia to the west, bypassed Australia from the south, discovering an island called Tasmania. Only 150 years later, during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), the British captured Manila, the center of Spanish possessions in the Philippines, and found news of the discovery of Torres in the Spanish archive. In 1768, the English navigator D. Cook explored the shores of Oceania and Australia and again passed through the Torres Strait. He subsequently acknowledged Torres' priority in opening up Australia.

In 1497-1498, English navigators reached the northeast coast of North America and discovered Newfoundland and Labrador. In the 16-17 centuries. the British and French continued to send expedition after expedition here; many of them sought to find a northwestern passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific. At the same time, searches were underway for a northeastern route to India - through the Arctic Ocean.

In the 16-17 centuries. Russian explorers explored the northern coast of the Ob, Yenisei and Lena and mapped the contours of the northern coast of Asia. In 1642, Yakutsk was founded, which became the base for expeditions to the Arctic Ocean. In 1648, Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev (c. 1605-1673), together with Fedot Popov, left the Kolyma on 6 ships and bypassed the Chukotka peninsula, proving that the Asian continent was separated from America by a strait. The outlines of the northeastern coast of Asia were refined and mapped (1667, "Drawing of the Siberian Land"). But Dezhnev's report on the opening of the strait lay in the Yakut archive for 80 years and was published only in 1758. In the 18th century. the strait discovered by Dezhnev was named after the Danish navigator in the Russian service, Vitus Bering, who in 1728 rediscovered the strait. In 1898, in memory of Dezhnev, a cape in the northeastern tip of Asia was named after him.

In the 15th-17th centuries. as a result of bold sea and land expeditions, a significant part of the Earth was discovered and explored. Paths were laid that connected distant countries and continents. The great geographical discoveries marked the beginning of the creation of the colonial system (see Colonialism), contributed to the formation of the world market and played an important role in the formation of the capitalist economic system in Europe. For the newly discovered and conquered countries, they brought mass extermination of the population, the planting of the most cruel forms of exploitation, the forcible introduction of Christianity. The rapid decline in the indigenous population of America led to the importation of African slaves and the widespread plantation slavery (see Slavery, Slave Trade).

America's gold and silver poured into Europe, causing there a frenzied rise in the prices of all commodities, the so-called price revolution. This primarily benefited the owners of manufactures, capitalists and merchants, since prices rose faster than wages. The “price revolution” contributed to the rapid ruin of artisans and handicraftsmen; in the countryside, nobles and wealthy peasants who sold food on the market benefited the most from it. All this contributed to the accumulation of capital.

As a result of the Great geographical discoveries, Europe's ties with Africa and Asia expanded, and relations with America were established. The center of world trade and economic life has moved from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean.

Travel has always attracted people, but before they were not only interesting, but also extremely difficult. The territories were not explored, and, setting off on a journey, everyone became an explorer. Which travelers are the most famous and what exactly did each of them discover?

James Cook

The famous Englishman was one of the best cartographers of the eighteenth century. He was born in the north of England and by the age of thirteen he began to work with his father. But the boy was unable to trade, so he decided to take up navigation. In those days, all the famous travelers of the world went to distant countries on ships. James became interested in maritime affairs and moved up the career ladder so quickly that he was offered to become a captain. He refused and went to the Royal Navy. Already in 1757, the talented Cook began to manage the ship himself. His first achievement was the drawing up of the fairway of the St. Lawrence River. He discovered in himself the talent of a navigator and cartographer. In the 1760s he explored Newfoundland, which attracted the attention of the Royal Society and the Admiralty. He was assigned to travel across the Pacific Ocean, where he reached the shores of New Zealand. In 1770, he did something that other famous travelers had not achieved before - he discovered a new continent. In 1771, Cook returned to England as the famous pioneer of Australia. His last journey was an expedition in search of a passage connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Today, even schoolchildren know the sad fate of Cook, who was killed by cannibal natives.

Christopher Columbus

Famous travelers and their discoveries have always had a significant impact on the course of history, but few have been as famous as this man. Columbus became a national hero of Spain, decisively expanding the map of the country. Christopher was born in 1451. The boy quickly achieved success because he was diligent and studied well. Already at the age of 14 he went to sea. In 1479, he met his love and began life in Portugal, but after the tragic death of his wife, he went with his son to Spain. Having received the support of the Spanish king, he went on an expedition, the purpose of which was to find a way to Asia. Three ships sailed from the coast of Spain to the west. In October 1492 they reached the Bahamas. This is how America was discovered. Christopher mistakenly decided to call the locals Indians, believing that he had reached India. His report changed history: two new continents and many islands, discovered by Columbus, became the main travel destination of the colonialists in the next few centuries.

Vasco da Gama

Portugal's most famous traveler was born in Sines on September 29, 1460. From a young age, he worked in the Navy and became famous as a confident and fearless captain. In 1495, King Manuel came to power in Portugal, who dreamed of developing trade with India. For this, a sea route was needed, in search of which Vasco da Gama had to go. There were also more famous sailors and travelers in the country, but for some reason the king chose him. In 1497, four ships sailed south, rounded and sailed to Mozambique. I had to stay there for a month - half of the team had scurvy by that time. After a break, Vasco da Gama reached Calcutta. In India, he established trade relations for three months, and a year later he returned to Portugal, where he became a national hero. The opening of the sea route, which made it possible to get to Calcutta past the east coast of Africa, was his main achievement.

Nikolay Miklukho-Maclay

Famous Russian travelers also made many important discoveries. For example, the same Nikolai Mikhlukho-Maclay, who was born in 1864 in the Novgorod province. He could not graduate from St. Petersburg University, as he was expelled for participating in student demonstrations. To continue his education, Nikolai went to Germany, where he met Haeckel, a naturalist who invited Miklouho-Maclay to his scientific expedition. So the world of wanderings opened up for him. His whole life was devoted to travel and scientific work. Nikolai lived in Sicily, in Australia, studied New Guinea, implementing the project of the Russian Geographical Society, visited Indonesia, the Philippines, the Malay Peninsula and Oceania. In 1886, the naturalist returned to Russia and proposed to the emperor to establish a Russian colony across the ocean. But the project with New Guinea did not receive royal support, and Miklouho-Maclay fell seriously ill and soon died, without completing his work on a travel book.

Ferdinand Magellan

Many famous navigators and travelers lived in the era of the Great Magellan is no exception. In 1480 he was born in Portugal, in the city of Sabrosa. Having gone to serve at court (at that time he was only 12 years old), he learned about the confrontation between his native country and Spain, about traveling to the East Indies and trade routes. So he first became interested in the sea. In 1505, Fernand got on a ship. Seven years after that, he plied the sea, participated in expeditions to India and Africa. In 1513, Magellan went to Morocco, where he was wounded in battle. But this did not curb the craving for travel - he planned an expedition for spices. The king rejected his request, and Magellan went to Spain, where he received all the necessary support. Thus began his world tour. Fernand thought that from the west the route to India might be shorter. He crossed the Atlantic Ocean, reached South America and discovered the strait, which would later be named after him. became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean. On it, he reached the Philippines and almost reached the goal - the Moluccas, but died in battle with local tribes, wounded by a poisonous arrow. However, his journey opened up a new ocean for Europe and the realization that the planet is much larger than scientists had previously thought.

Roald Amundsen

The Norwegian was born at the very end of an era in which many famous travelers became famous. Amundsen was the last of the navigators who tried to find undiscovered lands. From childhood, he was distinguished by perseverance and self-confidence, which allowed him to conquer the South Geographic Pole. The beginning of the journey is connected with 1893, when the boy left the university and got a job as a sailor. In 1896 he became a navigator, and the following year he went on his first expedition to Antarctica. The ship was lost in the ice, the crew suffered from scurvy, but Amundsen did not give up. He took command, cured the people, remembering his medical background, and brought the ship back to Europe. After becoming a captain, in 1903 he went in search of the Northwest Passage off Canada. Famous travelers before him had never done anything like this - in two years the team covered the path from the east of the American mainland to its west. Amundsen became known to the whole world. The next expedition was a two-month trip to the South Plus, and the last venture was the search for Nobile, during which he went missing.

David Livingston

Many famous travelers are connected with seafaring. he became a land explorer, namely the African continent. The famous Scot was born in March 1813. At the age of 20, he decided to become a missionary, met Robert Moffett and wished to go to African villages. In 1841, he came to Kuruman, where he taught local people how to farm, served as a doctor, and taught literacy. There he learned the Bechuan language, which helped him in his travels in Africa. Livingston studied in detail the life and customs of the locals, wrote several books about them and went on an expedition in search of the sources of the Nile, in which he fell ill and died of a fever.

Amerigo Vespucci

The most famous travelers in the world were most often from Spain or Portugal. Amerigo Vespucci was born in Italy and became one of the famous Florentines. He received a good education and trained as a financier. From 1490 he worked in Seville, in the Medici trade mission. His life was connected with sea travel, for example, he sponsored the second expedition of Columbus. Christopher inspired him with the idea of trying himself as a traveler, and already in 1499 Vespucci went to Suriname. The purpose of the voyage was to study the coastline. There he opened a settlement called Venezuela - little Venice. In 1500 he returned home with 200 slaves. In 1501 and 1503 Amerigo repeated his travels, acting not only as a navigator, but also as a cartographer. He discovered the bay of Rio de Janeiro, the name of which he gave himself. Since 1505, he served the king of Castile and did not participate in campaigns, only equipped other people's expeditions.

Francis Drake

Many famous travelers and their discoveries have benefited humanity. But among them there are those who left behind a bad memory, since their names were associated with rather cruel events. An English Protestant, who had sailed on a ship from the age of twelve, was no exception. He captured local residents in the Caribbean, selling them into slavery to the Spaniards, attacked ships and fought with Catholics. Perhaps no one could equal Drake in terms of the number of captured foreign ships. His campaigns were sponsored by the Queen of England. In 1577 he went to South America to defeat the Spanish settlements. During the journey, he found Tierra del Fuego and the strait, which was later named after him. Rounding Argentina, Drake plundered the port of Valparaiso and two Spanish ships. When he reached California, he met the natives, who presented the British with gifts of tobacco and bird feathers. Drake crossed the Indian Ocean and returned to Plymouth, becoming the first British citizen to circumnavigate the world. He was admitted to the House of Commons and awarded the title of Sir. In 1595 he died in the last campaign in the Caribbean.

Afanasy Nikitin

Few famous travelers in Russia have achieved the same heights as this native of Tver. Afanasy Nikitin became the first European to visit India. He made a trip to the Portuguese colonizers and wrote "Journey Beyond the Three Seas" - the most valuable literary and historical monument. The success of the expedition was ensured by the merchant's career: Athanasius knew several languages and knew how to negotiate with people. On his journey, he visited Baku, lived in Persia for about two years and reached India by ship. After visiting several cities in an exotic country, he went to Parvat, where he stayed for a year and a half. After the province of Raichur, he headed to Russia, paving the route through the Arabian and Somali Peninsulas. However, Afanasy Nikitin never made it home, because he fell ill and died near Smolensk, but his notes survived and provided the merchant with world fame.

The era of the great geographical discoveries is the most important stage in the history of mankind. This is a time when the outlines of continents, seas and oceans are becoming more accurate, technical devices are being improved, and the leading countries of that time are sending sailors in search of new rich lands. In this lesson, you will learn about the sea expeditions of Vasco da Gama, Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan, as well as the discovery of new lands by them.

background

Among the reasons for the Great geographical discoveries are:

Economic

After the era of the Crusades, Europeans developed strong trade ties with the East. In the East, Europeans bought spices, fabrics, jewelry. In the XV century. overland caravan routes, along which Europeans traded with eastern countries, were captured by the Turks. The task of finding a sea route to India appeared.

Technological

The compass and the astrolabe (an instrument for measuring latitude and longitude) were improved.

New types of ships appeared - caravel, carakka and galleon. They were distinguished by their spaciousness and powerful sailing equipment.

Navigation charts were invented - portolans.

Now Europeans could make not only traditional coastal voyages (i.e., mainly along the coast), but also go far into the open sea.

Events

1445- the expedition organized by Henry the Navigator reached the Green Cape (the western point of Africa). The island of Madeira, the Canary Islands, part of the Azores were discovered.

1453- Constantinople is captured by the Turks.

1471 The Portuguese reached the equator for the first time.

1488- Expedition Bartolomeu Dias reached the southernmost point of Africa - the Cape of Good Hope.

1492- Christopher Columbus discovered the islands of San Salvador, Haiti, Cuba in the Caribbean.

1497-1499- Vasco da Gama reached the Indian port of Calicut, rounding Africa. For the first time, a route was opened to the East across the Indian Ocean.

1519- Ferdinand Magellan goes on an expedition in which he discovers the Pacific Ocean. And in 1521 it reaches the Mariana and Philippine Islands.

Members

Rice. 2. Astrolabe ()

Rice. 3. Caravel ()

Successes have also been made in cartography. European cartographers began to draw maps with more accurate outlines of the coasts of Europe, Asia and North America. The Portuguese invented navigational charts. On them, in addition to the outlines of the coast, settlements were depicted, obstacles encountered on the way, as well as the location of ports. These navigation charts were called portolans.

The pioneers were Spaniards and Portuguese. The idea of conquering Africa was born in Portugal. However, the knightly cavalry was helpless in the sands. Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator(Fig. 4) decided to try the sea route along the west coast of Africa. The expeditions he organized discovered the island of Madeira, part of the Azores, the Canary Islands. In 1445, the Portuguese reached the western point of Africa - Cape Verde. Somewhat later, the coast of the Gulf of Guinea was discovered. A large amount of gold and ivory was found there. Hence the name - Gold Coast, Ivory Coast. At the same time, African slaves were discovered, which were traded by local leaders. Portugal became the first European country to sell live goods.

Rice. 4. Henry the Navigator ()

Already after the death of Henry the Navigator, the Portuguese reached the equator in 1471. In 1488 the expedition Bartolomeu Dias reached the southern end of Africa - Cape of Good Hope. Rounding Africa, this expedition entered the Indian Ocean. However, due to the rebellion of the sailors, Bartolomeu Dias was forced to return. His path continued Vasco da Gama (Fig. 5), which in 1497-1499. rounded Africa and after an 8-month voyage arrived in the Indian port of Calicut (Fig. 6).

Rice. 5. Vasco da Gama ()

Rice. 6. The opening of the sea route to India, the route of Vasco da Gama ()

Simultaneously with Portugal, the search for a new sea route to India began Spain, which at that time was ruled Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. Christopher Columbus(Fig. 7) proposed a new plan - to reach India, moving west, across the Atlantic Ocean. Christopher Columbus shared the view that the earth is spherical. On August 3, 1492, Columbus on three caravels "Santa Maria", "Nina" and "Pinta" set off from Spain in search of India (Fig. 8). On October 12, 1492, a shot rang out on the Pinta caravel. This was the signal: the sailors had reached the island they named San Salvador, which in translation means "holy savior." Having explored the island, they went south and discovered two more islands: Haiti (then Hispaniola) and the island of Cuba.

Rice. 7. Christopher Columbus ()

Rice. 8. Route of Christopher Columbus ()

The first expedition of Columbus lasted 225 days and discovered caribbean sea. During the next three expeditions, Columbus discovered the coast of Central America and the northern coast of South America. However, the Spanish crown was not satisfied with the amount of gold that entered the country. Soon Columbus was turned away. He died in 1506 in poverty, confident that he had discovered a new sea route to India. The continent discovered by Columbus was originally called West Indies(Western India). Only later the mainland was given the name America.

The rivalry between Spain and Portugal led to the first division of the world in history. IN 1494 was concluded Treaty of Tordesillas, according to which a conditional meridian was drawn along the Atlantic Ocean somewhat west of the Azores. All newly discovered lands and seas to the west of it were to belong to Spain, and to the east to Portugal. However Ferdinand Magellan's first circumnavigation of the world corrected this document.

Back in 1513, the Spaniard Vasco de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean. He called it then the South Sea. In the autumn of 1519, on five caravels with a team of 253 sailors, Fernand Magellan (Fig. 9) set off on his journey (Fig. 10). His goal was to find a way across the Atlantic Ocean to the Moluccas (Spice Islands). After a year of travel, Magellan's team entered a narrow strait, which was later named Strait of Magellan. After passing through it, Magellan's team managed to enter the previously unknown ocean. This ocean is called Quiet.

Rice. 9. Ferdinand Magellan ()

Rice. 10. The first round-the-world trip of Ferdinand Magellan ()

In March 1521, Magellan's team reached the Mariana Islands and then landed in the Philippines, where Magellan himself died in a skirmish with the locals. His team managed to reach the Moluccas. Three years later, only one ship with 17 sailors returned home. Magellan's first circumnavigation of the world proved that the Earth is spherical.

European exploration of the New World took the form conquests - conquests. Together with the conquest, the resettlement of colonists from Europe to the New World begins.

The great geographical discoveries changed the picture of the world. First, it has been proven that the Earth is spherical. A new continent, America, was also discovered, as well as a new ocean, the Pacific. The outlines of many continents, seas and oceans have been refined. The great geographical discoveries were the first step towards the creation of a world market. They shifted the trade routes. So, trading cities Venice and Genoa lost their key role in European trade. Their place was taken by ocean ports: Lisbon, London, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Seville. Due to the influx of precious metals into Europe from the New World, a price revolution took place. Prices for precious metals fell, while prices for products and raw materials for production rose.

The great geographical discoveries marked the beginning of the colonial redistribution of the world and the dominance of Europeans in Asia, Africa and America. The exploitation of slave labor and trade with the colonies allowed European trading circles to enrich themselves, which became one of the prerequisites for the formation of capitalism. Also, the colonization of America led to the destruction of the oldest American cultures. The great geographical discoveries were one of the causes of the food revolution in Europe. Previously unknown crops were introduced: corn, tomatoes, cocoa beans, potatoes and tobacco.

Bibliography

Boytsov, M.A. Magellan's Way: Early Modern Times. History reading book. - M., 2006.
Vedyushkin V.A., Burin S.N. Textbook on the history of modern times, grade 7. - M., 2013.
Verlinden C., Mathis G. “Conquerors of America. Columbus, Cortes. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1997.
Lange P.V. Like the sun ... The life of Ferdinand Magellan and the first circumnavigation of the world. - M.: Progress, 1988.
What discovery is Ferdinand Magellan famous for, and what continent was discovered by Christopher Columbus?
Do you know any other famous navigators and the territories they discovered?

One of the first long-distance travelers was Afanasy Nikitin, who committed in the 60s of the XV century. travel from Russia (Tver) to India. His path at that time was unusually difficult. He had to endure a number of adventures and dangers. He lived in India for about three years.

On the way back, Afanasy Nikitin went through Persia, crossed the Black Sea and died on the way in Smolensk. Several notebooks were found in his travel bag, in which he kept travel notes. Subsequently, his recordings were published under the title "Journey Beyond the Three Seas". They contain interesting descriptions of his travels and the life of the people of India. Residents of the city of Kalinin (former Tver) erected a monument in memory of their compatriot (Fig. 3).

Finding a sea route to India

Western European merchants sold goods from India with great profit. Under India, people who knew little of geography understood the entire east of Asia, right up to China. For spices, pearls, ivory, fabrics brought from there, they paid in gold. There was little gold in Europe, and goods were very expensive. To the shores of the Mediterranean Sea from India they were delivered by intermediaries - Arab merchants. In the XV century, the Turks seized the lands in the east of the Mediterranean Sea - a huge Turkish Ottoman Empire arose. The Turks did not let trade caravans pass, often robbed them. We needed a convenient sea route from Europe to India, to the countries of the East. The Europeans took up the search for it - primarily the inhabitants of Portugal and Spain.

Portugal And Spain located in the south of Europe, Iberian peninsula. This peninsula is washed by both the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. For a long time it was under the rule of the Arabs. In the 15th century, the Arabs were expelled, and the Portuguese, pursuing them in Africa, began to sail off the coast of this continent.

Henry, Prince of Portugal, was nicknamed the Navigator. However, he did not swim anywhere. Heinrich organized sea expeditions, collected information about distant countries, looked for old maps, encouraged the creation of new ones, and founded a nautical school. The Portuguese learned how to build new ships - three-masted caravels. They were light, fast-moving, they could move under sail and with a side, and even with a headwind.

Expedition Bartolomeu Dias

Portuguese expeditions moved along the coast of Africa further and further south. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias sailed to the southern end of Africa. Two of his ships fell into a cruel storm- a storm at sea. A strong wind drove the ships to the rocks. Despite the high waves, Diash turned from the shore into the open sea. For several days he sailed east, but the African coast was not visible. Dias realized that he had circled Africa and entered the Indian Ocean! The rock on which his ships almost crashed was the southern tip of Africa. Dias named her Cape Storms. When the sailors returned to Portugal, the king ordered that the Cape of Storms be renamed Cape of Good Hope, hopes to reach India by sea.

Voyage of Columbus

In the XV century. many sea expeditions were made. The most prominent of these is the Spanish expedition of Christopher Columbus. In 1492, members of the expedition on three ships sailed from the Iberian Peninsula to look for a sea route to India rich in gold and spices. Convinced of the sphericity of the Earth, Columbus believed that by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean, one could reach the shores of Asia. After a two-month voyage, the ships approached the islands of Central America. Travelers discovered many new lands.

Columbus made three more trips to America, but until the end of his life he was sure that he had visited India, and the islands he discovered are known as the West Indies (West Indian); The indigenous people are called Indians.

In the 19th century one of the republics of South America became known as Colombia.

Journey of John Cabot

The news of the discoveries of new lands by Columbus quickly spread throughout Europe, reached England. This country lies on the British Isles, separated from Europe the English Channel. In 1497, British merchants equipped and sent to the west an expedition of John Cabot, an Italian who had settled in England. The small ship sailed across the Atlantic far north of Columbus' ships. On the way, the sailors encountered huge shoals of cod and herring. Until now, the North Atlantic is the most important area in the world for catching these types of fish. John Cabot discovered the island Newfoundland at North America. Portuguese navigators discovered the cold harsh peninsula labrador. So the Europeans, five hundred years after the Vikings, again saw the North American lands. They were inhabited - American Indians came ashore dressed in animal skins.

Journey of Amerigo Vespucci

All new expeditions went from Spain to the New World. In the hope of getting rich, finding gold, and becoming owners of new lands, Spanish nobles and soldiers went west. Together with them, priests and monks sailed - to convert the Indians to the Christian faith, to increase the wealth of the church. The Italian Amerigo Vespucci was a member of several Spanish and Portuguese expeditions. He compiled a description of the coast of South America. This area was covered with dense tropical forests, in which the brazil tree grew with valuable red wood. Later, they began to call all the Portuguese lands in South America and the huge country that arose on them - Brazil.

The Portuguese opened a convenient bay, where, as it seemed to them incorrectly, the mouth of a large river was located. It was in January, and the place was called Rio de Janeiro - "January River". Now here is the largest city in Brazil.

Amerigo Vespucci wrote to Europe that the newly discovered lands most likely have nothing to do with Asia and represent New World. On European maps compiled during the first voyages across the Atlantic, they are called the land of Amerigo. This name was gradually assigned to the two huge mothers of the New World - North America and South America.

John Cabot's expedition was funded by patron Richard America. There is a widespread belief that the metric was named after him, while Vespucci had already taken his name from the name of the continent.

Expeditions of Vasco da Gama

First expedition (1497-1499)

In 1497, a Portuguese expedition of four ships led by Vasco da Gama went to look for a way to India. The ships rounded the Cape of Good Hope, turned north and sailed along the unknown eastern berets of Africa. Unknown to the Europeans, but not to the Arabs, who had commercial and military settlements on the shores. Taking on board an Arab pilot - a sea guide, Vasco da Gama sailed with him across the Indian Ocean, and then across the Arabian Sea to India. The Portuguese reached its western shores and safely returned to their homeland in 1499 with a cargo of spices and jewelry. The sea route from Europe to India was opened. It was found that the Atlantic and Indian oceans are connected to each other, the coasts of Africa, the island of Madagascar, were mapped.

Discovery of the Pacific Ocean (Vasco Balboa)

First trip around the world (Magellan)

From 1519 to 1522 expedition Fernando Magellan made the first circumnavigation of the world. The crew of 265 people on 5 ships set off from Spain to South America. Having rounded it, the ships entered the ocean, which Magellan called the Pacific. Swimming continued in incredibly difficult conditions.

On the islands off the coast of Southeast Azin, Magellan intervened in the feuds of the local authorities and died in one of the clashes with the locals. Only in 1522, 18 people on one ship returned to their homeland.

Journey of Magellan - the greatest event of the XVI century. The expedition, having gone west, returned back from the east. This journey established the existence of a single World Ocean; it was of great importance for the further development of knowledge about the Earth.

Second trip around the world (Drake)

The second circumnavigation of the world was made by an English pirate Francis Drake in 1577-1580. Drake was proud that, unlike Magellan, he managed not only to start, but also to complete the voyage himself. In the XVI-XVII centuries, pirates, among whom there were many English and French, robbed Spanish ships, hurrying from America to Europe with expensive cargo. Pirates sometimes shared part of the stolen wealth with the English kings, in exchange for rewards and patronage.

Drake's small ship, the Golden Hind, was blown south of the Strait of Magellan by a storm. The open sea lay before him. Drake realized that South America was over. Subsequently, the widest and deepest strait in the world between South America and Antarctica was named Drake Passage.

Having plundered the Spanish colonies on the Pacific coast of South and Central America, Drake was afraid to go back the old way, through the Strait of Magellan, where armed and angry Spaniards could wait for him. He decided to bypass North America from the north, and when this failed, he returned to England through the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic oceans, completely circumnavigating the globe.

The search for the southern mainland

Discovery of Oceania

The Portuguese sailed to India and to the spice islands around the African mainland. Spanish ships were looking for ways to Asia, sailing from the western coast of America. The sailors crossed the Pacific Ocean, discovering the islands along the way, which received the name of the islands Oceania. Navigators often kept their discoveries secret. Captain Torres discovered the strait between the island of New Guinea and south of Australia. Geographic discovery Torres Strait classified from the sailors of other countries by the Spanish authorities.

Discovery of Australia (Janszon)

Portuguese and Dutch sailors in the late 16th and early 17th centuries landed on the shores of northern and western Australia, replenishing their water and food supplies. At the same time, they did not think that they were setting foot on the coast of a new mainland. So, the Dutchman Janszon discovered the northern coast of Australia, but, knowing nothing about the Torres Strait, he believed that this was part of the island of New Guinea. In the 17th century, the small European country of Holland ( Netherlands), lying in Europe on the coast North Sea, became a strong maritime power. Dutch ships sailed across the Indian Ocean to sunda islands. Big Java island became the center of the Dutch colonies.

Discovering New Zealand (Abel Tasman)

Europeans persistently searched for the southern mainland, shown on the ancient map of Ptolemy. In 1642, the Dutch captain Abel Tasman was sent by the Governor of Java to search for the South Land. The sailor dared to woo the daughter of the governor, and he considered it best to send him on a dangerous voyage. Tasman sailed far south, discovered a large island south of Australia, which was later named Tasmania. He described the entire northern coast of Australia, the smallest continent of the Earth, first named New Holland. Tasman sailed along for the first time New Zealand, considering its shores to be the shores of the unknown southern mainland. The Dutch tried to keep these discoveries secret so that other countries would not seize the newly discovered lands.

Conquest of Siberia

The Dutch scientist Bernhardus Varenius in the 17th century in his work “General Geography” for the first time singled out geography from the system of knowledge about the Earth, dividing it into general and regional. Varenius summed up the scientific results of the Great geographical discoveries of the 15th-16th centuries, which laid the foundation for the modern view of the placement of continents and oceans on our planet. For the first time, he proposed to distinguish between five oceans: the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic and South Arctic.