Nautilus Jules is correct. What submarine was inspired by Julieverne's Nautilus? Inaccuracies and errors in the description of the submarine

"Nautilus" - the first nuclear submarine in the world

The first nuclear submarine in the world

The first operational model of a submarine was created in 1620 for King James of England by the Dutch engineer Cornelius van Drebbel - a rowing submarine was built in London and successfully tested in the Thames. In Russia, attempts to build a submarine were made under Peter the Great.

During the First World War, submarines appeared with a diesel engine for movement on the surface, and an electric engine for movement under water. A generator was connected to the diesel engine, which produced electricity to recharge the batteries. The accelerated development of the submarine fleet during the First World War led to the fact that submarines became a formidable weapon. In total, during the war, 600 submarines of the warring states sank 55 large warships (battleships and cruisers), 105 destroyers, and 33 submarines.

The idea of using a nuclear reactor as a power plant for submarines originated in the Third Reich. Professor Heisenberg’s oxygen-free “uranium machines” (as nuclear reactors were called then) were intended primarily for the “submarine wolves” of the Kriegsmarine. However, German physicists failed to bring the work to its logical conclusion, and the initiative passed to the United States, which, after the end of the war, was for some time the only country in the world that had nuclear reactors and bombs.

In the early years of the Cold War between the USSR and the USA, American strategists envisioned long-range bombers as carriers of the atomic bomb. The United States had extensive experience in the combat use of this type of weapon, American strategic aviation had a reputation as the most powerful in the world, and finally, US territory was considered largely invulnerable to an enemy retaliatory strike. However, the use of aircraft required their basing in close proximity to the borders of the USSR. As a result of diplomatic efforts, already in July 1948 the Labor government agreed to the deployment in Great Britain of 60 B-29 bombers with atomic bombs on board. After the signing of the North Atlantic Pact in April 1949, all of Western Europe was drawn into the US nuclear strategy, and the number of American bases abroad reached 3,400 by the end of the 1960s!

However, over time, the American military and politicians came to understand that the presence of strategic aviation in foreign territories was associated with the risk of changing the political situation in a particular country, so the fleet was increasingly seen as the carrier of atomic weapons in a future war. This trend was finally strengthened after the convincing tests of atomic bombs at Bikini Atoll.

In 1948, American designers completed the development of a nuclear power plant project and began designing and building an experimental reactor.
Thus, there were all the prerequisites for creating a fleet of nuclear submarines, which not only had to carry nuclear weapons, but also have a nuclear reactor as a power plant.

Construction of the first such boat, named after the fantastic submarine invented by Jules Verne, the Nautilus and designated SSN-571, began on June 14, 1952 in the presence of US President Harry Truman at the shipyard in Groton.

On January 21, 1954, in the presence of US President Eisenhower, the world's first nuclear submarine was launched from the Groton shipyard in Connecticut. The influence of the novel 20 Thousand Leagues Under the Sea was so strong that the first nuclear submarine was named after Jules Verne's Nautilus. Eight months later - September 30, 1954 - the Nautilus was adopted by the US Navy.

On January 17, 1955, the Nautilus began sea trials in the open ocean, and its first commander, Eugene Wilkinson, broadcast in clear text: “We are going under atomic propulsion.”

Apart from the completely new Mark-2 power plant, the boat had a conventional design. With a Nautilus displacement of about 4,000 tons, the two-shaft nuclear power plant with a total power of 9,860 kilowatts provided a speed of more than 20 knots. The submerged cruising range was 25 thousand miles with a consumption of 450 grams of U235 per month. Thus, the duration of the voyage depended only on the proper operation of air regeneration means, supplies of waste products of the crew and the endurance of the personnel.

At the same time, however, the specific gravity of the nuclear installation turned out to be very large, because of this it was not possible to install some of the weapons and equipment provided for by the project on Nautilus. The main reason for the weight was biological protection, which includes lead, steel and other materials (about 740 tons). As a result, the entire Nautilus armament consisted of 6 bow torpedo tubes with an ammunition load of 24 torpedoes.

As with any new business, it was not without problems.

Even during the construction of the Nautilus, and specifically during testing of the power plant, a rupture occurred in the secondary circuit pipeline, through which saturated steam with a temperature of about 220 ° C and under a pressure of 18 atmospheres came from the steam generator to the turbine. Fortunately, it was not the main, but an auxiliary steam line.

Elimination of the consequences of the accident and the replacement of already installed welded pipes with seamless ones delayed the completion of the construction of the Nautilus for several months.

On May 4, 1958, on the Nautilus, traveling submerged from Panama to San Francisco, a fire occurred in the turbine compartment. The fire of oil-soaked port turbine insulation was determined to have started several days before the fire, but its signs were ignored. The slight smell of smoke was mistaken for the smell of fresh paint. The fire was discovered only when it became impossible for personnel to remain in the compartment due to smoke. There was so much smoke in the compartment that the submariners wearing smoke masks could not find its source.

Without finding out the reasons for the appearance of smoke, the ship's commander gave the order to stop the turbine, float to periscope depth and try to ventilate the compartment through a snorkel. However, these measures did not help, and the boat was forced to surface. Increased ventilation of the compartment through an open hatch with the help of an auxiliary diesel generator finally brought results. The amount of smoke in the compartment decreased, and the crew managed to find the location of the fire. Two sailors in smoke masks (there were only four such masks on the boat) using knives and pliers began to tear off the smoldering insulation from the turbine body. A column of flame about a meter high emerged from under a torn piece of insulation. Foam fire extinguishers were used. The flames were extinguished and work to remove the insulation continued. People had to be changed every 10-15 minutes, as the acrid smoke penetrated even into the masks. Only four hours later, all the insulation from the turbine was removed and the fire was extinguished.

After the boat arrived in San Francisco, its commander implemented a number of measures aimed at improving the fire safety of the ship. In particular, the old insulation was removed from the second turbine. All submarine personnel were provided with self-contained breathing apparatus.

Half of this liquid (about 80 liters) was poured into the condenser, after which the problem of condenser salinization did not arise either in Seattle or later during the trip. Probably the leak was in the space between the double tube plates of the condenser and stopped after filling this space with a self-hardening mixture.

On November 10, 1966, during NATO naval exercises in the North Atlantic, the Nautilus, which was launching a periscope attack on the American aircraft carrier Essex (displacement 33 thousand tons), collided with it. As a result of the collision, the aircraft carrier received an underwater hole, and the fencing of the retractable devices on the boat was destroyed. Accompanied by the destroyer, the Nautilus traveled under its own power at a speed of about 10 knots to the naval base in New London, America, covering a distance of about 360 miles.

On July 22, 1958, the Nautilus, under the command of William Andersen, left Pearl Harbor with the goal of reaching the North Pole.

It all started when, at the end of 1956, the Chief of Naval Staff, Admiral Burke, received a letter from Senator Jackson. The senator was interested in the possibility of nuclear submarines operating under the pack ice of the Arctic. This letter was the first sign that forced the command of the American fleet to seriously think about organizing a trip to the North Pole. True, some American admirals considered the idea reckless and were categorically against it. Despite this, the commander of the submarine forces of the Atlantic Fleet considered the polar campaign a decided matter.

Anderson began to prepare for the upcoming campaign with triple zeal. The Nautilus was equipped with special equipment that made it possible to determine the state of the ice, and a new compass MK-19, which, unlike conventional magnetic compasses, operated at high latitudes. Just before the trip, Anderson obtained the latest maps and directions to the depths of the Arctic and even made an air flight, the route of which coincided with the planned route of the Nautilus.

The submarine's first test run under the pack ice was unsuccessful. When the echo gauge recorded zero ice thickness, the boat tried to surface. Instead of the expected ice hole, the Nautilus encountered a drifting ice floe. The boat's collision with it severely damaged its only periscope, and the commander of the Nautilus decided to return back to the edge of the packs.

The mangled periscope was repaired on the field. Anderson was quite skeptical about how stainless steel welders worked - even in ideal factory conditions, such welding required a lot of experience. However, the crack that had formed in the periscope was repaired, and the device began to operate again.

The second attempt to reach the pole also did not bring results. A couple of hours after the Nautilus crossed the 86th parallel, both gyrocompasses failed. Anderson decided not to tempt fate and gave the order to turn - in high latitudes, even a slight deviation from the correct course could be fatal and lead the ship to a foreign shore.

At the end of October 1957, Anderson gave a short report at the White House, which he dedicated to his recent trip under the Arctic ice. The report was listened to with indifference, and William was disappointed. The stronger the desire of the Nautilus commander to go to the Pole again.

While contemplating this voyage, Anderson prepared a letter to the White House in which he convincingly argued that crossing the pole would become a reality as early as next year. The presidential administration made it clear that the Nautilus commander could count on support. The Pentagon also became interested in the idea. Soon after this, Admiral Burke reported the impending campaign to the president himself, who reacted to Anderson's plans with great enthusiasm.

The operation had to be carried out in an atmosphere of strict secrecy - the command feared another failure. Only a small group of people in the government knew about the details of the campaign. To hide the true reason for installing additional navigation equipment on the Nautilus, it was announced that the ship would participate in joint training maneuvers along with the Skate and Halfbeak boats.

On June 9, 1958, the Nautilus set off on its second polar voyage. When Seattle was far behind, Anderson ordered the submarine's number to be painted over the wheelhouse fence to maintain incognito. On the fourth day of the journey, the Nautilus approached the Aleutian Islands. Knowing that they would have to go further in shallow water, the ship’s commander ordered the ascent. The Nautilus maneuvered in this area for a long time - looking for a convenient gap in the chain of islands to get to the north. Finally, navigator Jenkins discovered a sufficiently deep passage between the islands. Having overcome the first obstacle, the submarine entered the Bering Sea.

Now the Nautilus had to slip through the narrow and ice-covered Bering Strait. The route west of St. Lawrence Island was completely covered by pack ice. The draft of some icebergs exceeded ten meters. They could easily crush the Nautilus, pinning the submarine to the bottom. Despite the fact that a significant part of the path had been covered, Anderson gave the order to follow the opposite course.

The Nautilus commander did not despair - perhaps the eastern passage through the strait would be more welcoming to rare guests. The boat emerged from the Siberian ice and headed south from St. Lawrence Island, intending to sail into deep waters past Alaska. The next few days of the voyage passed without incident, and on the morning of June 17, the submarine reached the Chukchi Sea.

And then Anderson’s rosy expectations collapsed. The first alarming signal was the appearance of an ice floe nineteen meters thick, which went straight towards the submarine ship. A collision with it was avoided, but the instrument recorders warned: there was an even more serious obstacle on the boat’s path. Pressed close to the very bottom, the Nautilus slipped under a huge ice floe at a distance of only one and a half meters from it. It was possible to avoid death only by a miracle. When the recorder pen finally went up, indicating that the boat missed the ice floe, Anderson realized: the operation was a complete failure...

The captain sent his ship to Pearl Harbor. There was still hope that at the end of summer the ice boundary would move to deeper areas, and it would be possible to make another attempt to get closer to the pole. But who will give permission for it after so many failures?

The reaction of the highest US military department was immediate - Anderson was summoned to Washington for an explanation. The commander of the Nautilus carried on well, showing perseverance. His report to senior Pentagon officers expressed his firm confidence that the next, July, campaign would undoubtedly be crowned with success. And he was given another chance.

Anderson immediately took action. To monitor the ice conditions, he sent his navigator Jenks to Alaska. A legend was created for Jenks, according to which he was a Pentagon officer with special powers. Arriving in Alaska, Jenks took into the air almost the entire patrol aircraft, which carried out daily observations in the area of the future route of the Nautilus. In mid-July, Anderson, still in Pearl Harbor, received the long-awaited news from his navigator: ice conditions had become favorable for the transpolar crossing, the main thing was not to miss the moment.

On July 22, a nuclear submarine with obliterated numbers left Pearl Harbor. The Nautilus was moving at top speed. On the night of July 27, Anderson took the ship into the Bering Sea. Two days later, having traveled a 2,900-mile journey from Pearl Harbor, the Nautilus was already cutting through the waters of the Chukchi Sea.

The ship's crew was excited about the upcoming event, which they wanted to celebrate properly. Some, for example, proposed to describe twenty-five small circles around the pole. Then the Nautilus could enter the Guinness Book of Records as the ship that was the first in the history of navigation to make 25 trips around the world in one voyage. Anderson rightly believed that such maneuvers were out of the question - the likelihood of going off course was too great. The commander of the Nautilus was worried about completely different problems. To cross the pole as accurately as possible, Anderson did not take his eyes off the indicators of the electronic navigation devices. On August 3, at twenty-three hours and fifteen minutes, the goal of the campaign - the North Geographic Pole of the Earth - was achieved.

Without staying in the area of the pole longer than required to collect statistical information on the state of ice and sea water, Anderson sent the submarine into the Greenland Sea. The Nautilus was to arrive in the Reykjavik area, where a secret meeting was to take place. The helicopter, which was waiting for the submarine at the rendezvous point, removed only one person from the submarine - Commander Anderson. Fifteen minutes later, the helicopter landed in Keflavik next to a transport plane ready to depart. When the plane's wheels touched the landing path of the airfield in Washington, a car sent from the White House was already waiting for Anderson - the president wanted to see the commander of the Nautilus. After the report on the operation, Anderson was again returned aboard the boat, which by this time managed to reach Portland.

Six days later, the Nautilus and its commander entered New York with honor. A military parade was organized in their honor...

Among modern myths there is one like this.
They say that experiments on establishing telepathic communication were carried out on the Nautilus submarine.

This information was voiced in the late 1950s by two French conspiracy theorists - Louis Pauvel and Jacques Bergier. Their article did not pass the attention of Soviet authorities protecting the country from a potential aggressor. On March 26, 1960, the Minister of Defense, Marshal of the USSR Malinovsky, received a report from engineer-colonel, candidate of sciences Poletaev:
“The American Armed Forces have adopted telepathy (transfer of thoughts over a distance without the help of technical means) as a means of communication with submarines at sea... Scientific research on telepathy has been going on for a long time, but since the end of 1957, large research organizations have become involved in the work USA: Rend Corporation, Westinghouse, Bell Telephone Company and others. At the end of the work, an experiment was carried out - transferring information using telepathic communication from the base to the Nautilus submarine, which was submerged under the polar ice at a distance up to 2000 kilometers from the base. The experiment was successful."

The minister, as expected, was keenly interested in such an amazing success of a potential enemy. Several secret meetings were held with the participation of Soviet parapsychology specialists. The possibility of opening works to study the phenomenon of telepathy in military and military medical aspects was discussed, but at that time they ended in nothing.

In the mid-1990s, correspondents from the Chicago magazine Zis Week conducted a series of interviews with the captain of the Nautilus Anderson. His answer was categorical: “There were definitely no experiments in telepathy. The article by Povel and Bergier is completely false. On July 25, 1960, the day when, according to the authors, the Nautilus went to sea to conduct a telepathic communication session, the boat was in dry dock in Portsmouth.

These statements were verified by journalists through their channels and turned out to be true.
According to the author of the book “Parapsychological Warfare: Threat or Illusion” Martin Ebon, behind the articles about “Nautilus” there was... the USSR State Security Committee! The purpose of the “duck,” according to the author, is quite original: to convince the Central Committee of the CPSU to give the go-ahead to begin similar work in the Union. They say that party leaders, brought up in the spirit of dogmatic materialism, were prejudiced against idealistic parapsychology. The only thing that could push them to launch relevant research was information about successful developments abroad...

On March 3, 1980, Nautilus was removed from the fleet after 25 years of service and declared a National Historic Landmark. Plans were drawn up to convert the submarine into a museum for public display. After decontamination was completed and more preparatory work had been completed, on July 6, 1985, the Nautilus was towed to Groton, Connecticut, where the world's first nuclear submarine is open to the public at the US Submarine Museum.

GBOU Gymnasium No. 000

"Moscow City Pedagogical Gymnasium-Laboratory"

Essay

Technology of the future. Discoveries and mistakes of Jules Verne (based on the works of Jules Verne)

Egorov Andrey

Supervisor:

· Introduction 3 pages.

· Chapter 1 “Information about the writer, objects of research” 5 pages.

· Chapter 2 “Nautilus” 6 pages.

· Chapter 3 “Albatross” 11 pages.

· Chapter 4 Conclusion 14 pages.

· References 15 pages.

Introduction

Nowadays, many people are interested in the works of science fiction writers, and there are also a large number of films based on these works. In such films and books we can read and see machines with incredible capabilities, weapons of colossal destructive power and other technical innovations. But are they as fantastic as they seem at first glance? There is an opinion that everything dreamed up by science fiction writers will one day become reality; history knows many such examples. One of the most striking is the Nautilus submarine, invented by the French writer Jules Verne. My work is dedicated to his works and the devices described in his novels.

Relevance of the study: In the modern world, there are a large number of energy sources and methods for its production, but chemical batteries still play a significant role, so attempts to create the sources described by the writer in the novel “20,000 Leagues Under the Sea” remain relevant. And the science fiction writer’s idea of creating a huge heavier-than-air flying vehicle is becoming more and more popular; in modern society, the possibility of creating flying aircraft carriers is actively discussed, the versatility and destructive power of which will surpass any other military equipment many times over. In many countries around the world, similar developments have been underway since the 90s of the last century.

The purpose of the study is to: Identify significant differences between the devices described by the writer compared to existing analogues. Description of key errors and assumptions about the possibility of creating such devices in the future, based on descriptions from the novels “20,000 Leagues Under the Sea”, “The Mysterious Island” and “Robourg the Conqueror”. To achieve these goals, the following tasks must be completed:

Study the devices described in the works “20,000 Leagues Under the Sea”, “Robur the Conqueror”. Describe the key mistakes of the science fiction writer. Make an assumption about the possibility of creating such devices in the future. The work is based on the works of a French writer, from which information about devices is taken, and data from Internet resources about modern machines and devices.

Chapter 1
Information about Jules Verne. Objects of research.

Jules Gabriel Verne(French Jules Gabriel Verne; February 8, 1828, Feydeau, Nantes, France - March 24, 1905, Amiens) - French writer, classic of adventure literature; his works contributed significantly to the development of science fiction. But many of his ideas no longer seem incredible, and many have even come true.

The objects of my research were fantastic technologies and devices described in the selected novels of the writer. I will try to describe in detail the principles of operation and design of these devices.
The first novel I chose was 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, published in 1869. Jules Verne dedicated it to a submersible called the Nautilus and its captain. The submarine described in the work was not solely the writer’s invention; the first operational model of a submarine was created in 1620 for King James of England by the Dutch engineer Cornelius van Drebbel. But it was significantly different from that described in the novel, mainly due to the level of development of science. The main difference between the described model and current submarines and submarines is the power supply. After analyzing the work, it will be possible to draw a conclusion about how realistic the idea of using chemical current sources on submarines is and about the possibility of modifying existing current sources according to the descriptions of the science fiction writer. Also, information about the Nautilus was taken from the novel The Mysterious Island, published in 1874, which was a continuation of the story begun in 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea.

The last novel I chose was Robur the Conqueror. The work was published in 1886. The novel contains a description of an aircraft similar in description to modern helicopters. The idea was taken by the writers from the experiences of a French aircraft manufacturer, who, at one of the meetings, in front of scientists, first launched a balloon, and then, with the help of a flying propeller, tore it apart. The first models of a helicopter or helicopter were designed by Leonardo da Vinci in 1480, however, there is no information about whether this device took off. Jules Verne in his work showed the significant advantage of this type of device over airplanes and hot air balloons, but the world's first helicopter appeared only in 1907 by the Breguet brothers in France. As a result of the work, it will be possible to compare various existing models and prototypes with the descriptions of the French writer, and to say whether its creation was possible or whether there were key errors in Jules Verne’s description.

"Nautilus"

Idea

The French writer, starting to work on the novel 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, decided to separate the main character from humanity, moving him to the depths of the ocean. “It is necessary that my unknown person should not have the slightest contact with the rest of humanity, from which he is completely separated. He does not live on the earth, he does without the earth. The sea is enough for him, but the sea needs to give him everything, including clothes and food. He never sets foot on any continent...” - Jules Verne.
Having chosen an underwater ship as a haven for Captain Nemo, Jules Verne, who was well acquainted with submarines, began work on the image of the future ship. It is difficult to determine exactly which submarine served as the final prototype of the Nautilus. So, in appearance it is very similar to the American submarine “Alligator”, launched in 1862. However, in terms of internal equipment, the Nautilus is closest to the French Plongeur: a compressed air tank in the bow, a mechanical propeller drive, purging of ballast tanks using compressed air, and also huge dimensions compared to other submarines.

Design

Captain Nemo and Professor Aronnax on the Nautilus plan.

The ship has a spindle-shaped shape, its length is 70 m, and its width is up to 8 m. The underwater displacement of the ship is 1500.2 tons, the surface displacement is 1356.48 tons (9/10 of the underwater one). The Nautilus has two hulls, one external, the other internal; they are connected to each other by iron beams with an I-section, which give the vessel extreme strength; riveted joints are replaced by welding. The double skin of the ship is made of sheet steel, the specific gravity of which is 7.8 t/m³. The thickness of the outer skin is at least 5 cm, the keel is 50 cm high and 25 cm wide. Also, when describing the design, Nemo talks about horizontal rudders located in the middle of the hull on the sides and used to control the depth of immersion and, in particular, when it is necessary to dive to maximum depth (their use is demonstrated in the episode when the Nautilus dives 16 kilometers in the Atlantic Ocean ). At the bow, the main weapon of the ship is a ram, which has the shape of an isosceles triangle in diameter. In the stern there is a propeller with a diameter of 6 meters, its maximum rotation speed is 120 rpm. In the upper part there are 2 superstructures - a wheelhouse and, slightly behind it, a cabin for a spotlight with a reflector; before the Nautilus attacks, they are recessed into the hull. In the middle there is a boat, which is attached to the ship’s hull with several bolts, and on top it is covered by an easily disassembled canopy. There is also a fence installed along the “deck”, which is retracted into the hull before an attack. On both sides there are large oval portholes, for the glazing of which (as well as the wheelhouse and the searchlight cabin) 21 cm thick crystal is used. For diving and ascent, ballast tanks with a volume of 150.72 m³ are used, their filling and purging is carried out through 2 taps located in the stern parts of the ship, and the pumps for purging the tanks are so powerful that they provide ascent from a depth of up to 2 km. Thus, the novel describes an episode when pumps threw the remaining water from ballast tanks to a height of about 40 meters. All engines on the ship are electric, the source of electricity is heavy-duty sodium batteries. The maximum speed is 50 knots, the maximum diving depth is at least 16 kilometers. To obtain fresh water from seawater, the Nautilus uses a distillation installation. The absence of an air regeneration system (Nemo considered it unnecessary) and the need for regular ventilation deprive the ship of complete autonomy (the maximum duration of the Nautilus dive is about 5 days).

Internal layout

If you go from the stem to the midships, the first 7.5 meters are occupied by an air storage tank. Behind it is a 2.5 meter long cabin in which Professor Aronnax lived. Next comes the captain's cabin, 5 meters long. The captain's cabin is described as a harsh room, with only an iron bed, a work desk, a few chairs and a washbasin as furniture.

The salon is separated from them by a waterproof bulkhead. This is a spacious hall, 10 meters long, 6 wide and 5 high. Behind the patterned ceiling, designed in the spirit of Moorish vaulted roofs, powerful lighting lamps are hidden. Captain Nemo has set up a real museum of art and gifts of nature here. The walls are covered with woven wallpaper of a strict pattern. About 30 paintings in identical frames, separated from one another by shields with knightly armor, decorate the walls. In the middle of the salon, a fountain gushes from a giant tridacna, illuminated from below by electricity.

Library

Next to the salon and the second waterproof partition there is a library room (also known as a smoking room) about five meters long. Solid wide sofas are installed slightly away from the cabinets. There is a large table in the middle of the library. There are 4 frosted glass lamps on the ceiling, and the ceiling itself is decorated with stucco. The Nautilus library has 20 thousand volumes.

Next is a dining room 5 meters long, with a table in the middle. Behind the third watertight bulkhead there is a small room in which a ladder leading to the boat is installed. Next comes another cabin 2 meters long (the professor’s friends lived in it - his servant Conseil and harpooner Ned Land), followed by a galley 3 meters long, located between two spacious pantries. Near the galley there is a comfortable bathroom with taps for hot and cold water. Afterwards there is a sailor's cabin 5 meters long.

The fourth waterproof bulkhead separates the cockpit from the engine room, which is about twenty meters long and brightly lit. The room consists of two halves: the first contains batteries that generate electrical energy, the second contains machines that rotate the ship's propeller.

If we consider only the cost of the hull and equipment, then the Nautilus at the time of its creation cost about two million francs, and taking into account the collections and works of art stored in it, at least four or five million francs.

How Nautilus works

Captain Nemo's submarine, capable of developing colossal speeds and diving to unprecedented depths, drew energy directly from the ocean. The most powerful chemical current sources installed on the submarine (Bunsen element) set it in motion and provided light and heat.

Bunsen element

Nitrogen" href="/text/category/azot/" rel="bookmark">nitric acid (see figure). Both solutions are separated from each other by a clay diaphragm, similar to the one used for the Daniel element. The electrochemical process consists of dissolution of zinc and release of hydrogen. Nitric acid is a depolarizer that oxidizes hydrogen. In order to avoid spontaneous corrosion of zinc, it is amalgamated, that is, covered with a layer of mercury, forming an alloy (amalgam) with it already in the cold. The Bunsen element gives E, equal to 1.96 volts if you use fuming nitric acid, characterized by a very low resistance (about 0.2 ohms).Even with its good qualities, the element has the disadvantage that as a result of the oxidizing action of nitric acid, gaseous nitrogen oxides are formed, which are harmful to health.

Specific energy intensity: up to 75-90 W/hour/kg

Specific energy density: up to 135-152 W/hour/dm/liter

EMF: 1.8-1.9 Volts.

Operating temperature: -40 +50 °C.

Inaccuracies and errors in the description of the submarine

1) The power plant of the Nautilus still remains a fantasy - even now there are no batteries or accumulators of acceptable size, weight and sufficient capacity to allow the Nautilus to complete the long flights described in the book without refueling and recharging. The sodium batteries described by the author are in principle not capable of this. This is not the only example of excessively powerful electrical appliances in the novels of Jules Verne.
To obtain the required amount of energy on a submarine, a huge number of elements of this type are needed (since the voltage that can be obtained using a Bunsen element is extremely small - approximately 2 volts).

2) The author overestimated the strength of the Nautilus hull. The descent to a depth of several kilometers described in “20,000 Leagues Under the Sea” would inevitably lead to the destruction of the Nautilus - the hull could not withstand such water pressure, no matter how durable it was, not to mention the searchlight, portholes in the wheelhouse and huge observation windows in the cabin of the ship.

When diving two kilometers (two thousand meters), the pressure of the water column will be equal to ρgh, where:
ρ – liquid density,
g – free fall acceleration,
h is the height of the liquid column.
The pressure at such a depth will be equal to 4200 * 9.8 * 2000 = Pa.

Modern submarines have a maximum diving depth of 600 meters. At this depth, the water pressure will be 2469600 Pa. Such boats have much thicker side walls than the Nautilus, but cannot afford to dive to great depths.

3) An obvious inaccuracy lies in the lack of description of the method of replenishing or creating consumables on the submarine; the production of food is quite accurately described in the work; the method of obtaining threads for the production of fabrics is described, the creation of which requires equipment and specialists that are not available on the Nautilus.

4) Without an air regeneration system, even with periodic ventilation, life on the Nautilus would very soon become unbearable - people smoke on board, food supplies and used equipment are stored right there, including algae, fish and fishing nets. The kitchen and crew quarters are also located here, while the only hygienic devices mentioned are a washbasin and a single bathtub. In addition, the batteries themselves emit an unpleasant odor.

5) For a certain period of time, Captain Nemo alone controlled his ship, but he also told the professor that if the crew was reduced, control of the submarine would become impossible.

Result:

In many ways, the writer foresaw the development of underwater shipbuilding, but Jules Verne’s Nautilus still has no existing analogues; it is quite possible that current sources with characteristics like those described in the novel will be a discovery, but the strength of the hull can withstand water pressure at a depth of 2 km , it will not be possible to achieve, this is what makes this submarine a fantasy.

"Albatross"

Idea:

The idea came to the writer after an experiment with a balloon and a propeller of an aircraft manufacturer, presented at a meeting of the aeronaut club.

Design:

The airship has an elongated shape, resembling a spindle. Medium-diameter propellers are located at the bow and at the end. They are used for movement in a horizontal plane. 74 small-diameter screws with a small pitch are used to lift, lower and hold engineer Robur’s ship in the air. Fifteen axes - along the sides, on each side, and seven higher ones - in the middle, on each axis there are two screws rotating independently of one another, in addition, all of them, in pairs, rotate in the opposite direction. Such a device is necessary to prevent the aircraft from starting to rotate around its own axis. Moreover, the three blades of each propeller are connected at the edges by a metal rim, which serves as a flywheel and thereby facilitates engine operation. So

The body is made of a lightweight but durable material - non-glued paper, the sheets of which are impregnated with dextrin (dextrin is a polysaccharide obtained by heat treatment of potato or corn starch) and starch, and then passed through a hydraulic press. The deck, deckhouses and cabins were also made from this material. Another property of such paper is non-flammability, a property that is especially important for an airship rising to great heights. Individual parts of the lifting apparatus were made of gelatin fiber (a durable and flexible material that is insoluble in most gases and acids). It was also used in the engine room of the Albatross. The ship's crew consisted of eight people. On board to determine the location and navigation were compassos and sextants, a thermometer, and barometers to determine altitude and to monitor changes in atmospheric pressure. A distinctive feature of the aircraft was that the propeller axes rotated independently of each other; stopping one did not interfere with the work of the others. To hold the ship at the same height, only half of the available propellers were enough. The average speed of this machine was 25 leagues per hour (139.125 km/h), the maximum number of revolutions of the propellers accelerated the device to 200 km/h.
To develop such a speed required a large amount of energy, the engineer takes it from the batteries on board the Albatross. The batteries had

extraordinary power, acids almost did not evaporate and did not freeze,

batteries were significantly superior in their advantages to batteries

Faure-Sellon-Volkmar, and the current was measured by an unheard-of number of amperes.

Appearance:

Frame. - Devices are installed in a rounded, firmly built body,

generating mechanical energy, and various warehouses are located - for

implements, tools and equipment, as well as the main storeroom for provisions

all types; It also accommodates onboard water tanks. Above

there is a platform thirty meters long and four meters wide, with

flooring, like the deck of a real ship, the bow of which ends

breakwater. Along the edges of the deck there are small racks connected by gratings made of

iron wire and wooden railings. On the deck there are three

deckhouses, the compartments of which are intended either for the crew or for

placement of machines. In the central cabin there is a machine that drives

action of all lifting devices, in the bow wheelhouse - rotating the front

propeller, in the stern - rotating the rear propeller; all these cars

act independently of each other. On the bow, in the forward wheelhouse, there are

several cabins, including an engineer's cabin and a dining room; and above all this

there is a glazed booth: in it the helmsman uses a powerful steering wheel

directs the course of the airship. Light penetrates into the wheelhouses

portholes into which tempered glass is inserted in a special way, once every

ten are stronger than ordinary ones. Under the hull of the airship is located

a system of flexible springs, the purpose of which is to soften the shock at the moment

landing, although the landing of the aircraft occurs very smoothly.

At the bow and stern of the Albatross, two four-bladed propellers with a large pitch are mounted on horizontal axes; these propellers can rotate in opposite directions, moving the aircraft forward or backward in a horizontal plane. Their diameter is larger than that of the lifting screws, and they can also rotate with extraordinary speed - Jules Verne. Robur - Conqueror. - Minsk: BSU Publishing House. , 1985; P. 199.

Pros and cons:

The obvious advantages of this design are the high efficiency of the rotors of different axes, due to the lack of mutual influence, but two screws located on the same axis influence each other and thereby reduce the efficiency.

It is assumed that by 2020 a similar device will be created in China called the Sun Tzu project, it will be used for military purposes, but it will be distinguished from Jules Verne's description by a smaller number of screws (6 in total), body material and atomic source energy.

Conclusion

So, based on the second and third chapters, we can conclude that Jules Verne was not completely accurate in describing his ideas; he made inaccuracies and mistakes. The likelihood that one day a submarine identical to the Nautilus will be created is extremely small; there are simply no materials of the required strength in the world, but the chemical current sources described by the Frenchman in his works dedicated to Captain Nemo and his underwater ship may well become real. If the creation of such elements is mastered by mankind, then there is a possibility that the airship of engineer Robur will cease to be a fantasy, because the advantageous aspects of the design are obvious. The development of ships with similar design principles is already underway. We can safely say that the science fiction writer, if not accurately predicted the appearance of some devices, then accurately predicted the direction of development of technological progress.

Bibliography:

1. Internet portal Jules Verne. Access mode: http://www. *****/ free. Data corresponds to 04/01/2013

2. Internet portal http://*****. Nautilus_(Jules_Verne) Access mode: free. Data corresponds to 04/01/2013

3. Internet portal Chemfiles. Access mode: http://www. chemfiles. *****/hit/Bunzen. htmhttp://www. *****/ free. Data corresponds to 04/01/2013

4. Internet portal Wikipedia. Aircraft carrier. Access mode: free. Data corresponds to 04/01/2013

5. Jules Verne. 20,000 leagues under the sea. – Vneshiberik Publishing House, 1922;

6. Jules Verne. Robur - Conqueror. - Minsk: BSU Publishing House. , 1985;

7. Internet portal scilib-avia. people Section "Aviation". Helicopter piloting. Access mode: free. Data corresponds to 04/01/2013

1. Captain Nobody's Ship

“The year 1866 was marked by an amazing incident, which is probably still remembered by many. Not to mention the fact that rumors circulating in connection with the inexplicable phenomenon in question worried residents of coastal cities and continents, they also sowed anxiety among sailors. Merchants, shipowners, ship captains, skippers, both in Europe and America, sailors of the navies of all countries, even the governments of various states of the Old and New Worlds were preoccupied with an event that defied explanation.

The fact is that for some time, many ships began to encounter some long, phosphorescent, spindle-shaped object in the sea, far superior to a whale, both in size and speed of movement.

The entries made in the logbooks of different ships are surprisingly similar in describing the appearance of the mysterious creature or object, the unheard-of speed and strength of its movements, as well as the peculiarities of its behavior. If it was a cetacean, then, judging by the descriptions, it was larger in size than all representatives of this order hitherto known to science. Neither Cuvier, nor Lacepede, nor Dumeril, nor Quatrefage would have believed in the existence of such a phenomenon without seeing it with their own eyes, or rather, with the eyes of scientists...”

Thus begins a book that was destined to immediately become a classic of literature and the emerging genre of science fiction. In 1869, Jules Verne's novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea was published. Since perhaps not all readers remember well the plot twists and turns of this novel, I will allow myself to briefly recall them. The US is equipping the frigate Abraham Lincoln to hunt the mysterious sea animal. The largest specialist in marine biology, Pierre Aronnax, a professor at the Paris Museum, is taking part in this expedition. After a long chase, the Abraham Lincoln is overtaken by a mysterious monster, which turns out to be an amazing underwater vessel.The imaginary beast emerges victorious from the fight. Finding themselves overboard, Aronnax, his servant Conseil and the Canadian harpooner Ned Land end up on an underwater vessel called the Nautilus (“Ship” in Latin) and become prisoners of its captain, named “Nemo” (“Nobody”, again , in Latin). Thus begins the fascinating journey of the heroes through the depths of the World Ocean. Professor Aronnax, through whose mouth the author speaks, introduces readers to the inhabitants of the depths of the sea, talks about treasures that ended up on the ocean floor, discusses the future development of the water space of our planet - in a word, he acts as a guide, mandatory for science fiction of that period. All this information, of course, could be gleaned by an inquisitive reader from contemporary scientific literature, but learning about the world and at the same time, holding your breath, following the twists and turns of an adventure plot is much more interesting!And, moreover, it would not be so easy for an enthusiastic reader to find out about the design features of an underwater vessel - after all, in reality such ships did not yet exist. Although Nautilus had predecessors. We will not consider man's long-standing attempts to conquer the depths of the sea, ideas that are not viable; Let us mention only a few completely viable and sound projects, which the author of “Twenty Thousand Leagues” knew very well. This is the "Turtle", built in 1775 by the American David Bushnell. It was intended for combat operations, but did not have time to fight seriously. Soon after this, in 1806, the American inventor R. Fulton (creator of one of the first steamships) developed a project for a military submarine vessel. However, one should not think that such attempts took place only in the New World. Nothing happened! The Nautilus's immediate predecessors, metal-hulled attack submarines, were designed, built and tested in Europe. A contemporary of Jules Verne, the French inventor O. Rioux, installed a steam engine on one of his boats in 1861; On the second I tried to use an electric one. Did not work out.

In 1863, Jules Verne witnessed the launching of the French submarine “Diver” (designed by Charles Brun), the largest of those existing at that time - its displacement was already 426 tons, and its crew was 12 people!

From here, the French novelist was already very close to dreaming of building a boat with a displacement of only three times greater than that of the “Diver” (1500 tons, by the way, almost a hundred times more than Schilder’s submarine). And equip the boat with an electric motor. Thanks to this, the Nautilus has an almost unlimited power reserve - because it does not require fuel. And in general, electricity on board an underwater vessel, invented by a French science fiction writer, works wonders.

It should, however, be noted that both the design of the Nautilus and the description of the underwater world seen by its passengers make today’s experts smile skeptically. However, some of his learned contemporaries were skeptical of Jules Verne’s fantasies. One can count many mistakes both in the story about the inhabitants of the depths of the sea and in the story about the fantastic abilities of the ship. Suffice it to say that Jules Verne’s Nautilus is capable of easily diving to any depth - despite the fact that already at a depth exceeding several hundred meters, the pressure would simply crush the boat. But what an amazing thing! We all know about the mistakes Jules Verne made while working on this novel. Nevertheless, “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea” continues to be read and republished and filmed until today, that is, 140 years! We can say with confidence that this will continue to be the case, and our grandchildren’s grandchildren will also read this magical book. Why?

Because the novel “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea”, after all, is not about a submarine or about whales and octopuses. This is a novel about an amazing man who called himself Captain Nemo - Captain Nobody.

2. Nobody, Captain of the Ship

“...The Stranger deserves a more detailed description. I did not hesitate to recognize the main character traits of this man: self-confidence, as evidenced by the noble carriage of his head, the look of black eyes filled with cold determination, calmness, for the pallor of his skin spoke of composure, inflexibility of will, which was indicated by the rapid contraction of the brow muscles , - finally, courage, for his deep breathing revealed a large reserve of vitality.

I will add that he was a proud man, his gaze, firm and calm, seemed to express the sublimity of his thoughts; and in his entire appearance, in his posture, movements, in the expression of his face, according to the observations of physiognomists, the directness of his nature was evident.

...How old was this man? He could have been given thirty-five or fifty! He was tall; a sharply defined mouth, magnificent teeth, a hand, thin in the hand, with elongated fingers, highly “psychic”, borrowing a definition from the dictionary of palmists, that is, characteristic of an exalted and passionate nature, everything about him was filled with nobility. In a word, this man was a perfect example of male beauty, the likes of which I have never met...” This is how the main character of the novel first appears before Professor Aronnax (and the reader) - a brilliant inventor and captain of a perfect underwater vessel, a brave traveler, a tireless fighter against injustice and a defender of the oppressed. At first, Professor Aronnax can only guess who his hospitable host was before, what kind of tragedy left a stamp of sadness on his brow. Gradually we become aware of a lot - but not everything. At times we perceive him as a science-obsessed scientist, completely absorbed in exploring the deep sea. At times - as a formidable and even cruel avenger (although it is not known to whom and for what). At times he seems like a misanthrope who has gone to sea to forget about humanity. The novel ends with a successful escape returning Aronnax, Conseil and Land to their former lives - but the mystery of Captain Nemo remains unsolved. The novel ends with the following words:

“However, what happened to the Nautilus? Could he resist the mighty embrace of the Maelstrom? Is Captain Nemo alive? Does he continue to swim in the depths of the ocean and carry out his terrible retribution, or is his path cut short at the last hecatomb? Will the waves ever bring to us the manuscript that describes the story of his life? Will I finally know his real name? Will the missing ship reveal its nationality to the nationality of Captain Nemo himself?

Hope. I also hope that his mighty structure defeated the sea even in its most terrible abyss and that the Nautilus survived where so many ships perished. If this is so, and if Captain Nemo still lives in the vastness of the ocean, as in his chosen fatherland, let the hatred subside in this hardened heart! Let the contemplation of so many natural wonders extinguish the fire of revenge! Let the formidable judge in it give way to a peaceful scientist who will continue his research into the depths of the sea.

If his fate is bizarre, it is also sublime. Didn't I understand him? Didn’t I live his supernatural life for ten months? Already six thousand years ago, Ecclesiastes asked this question: “Who could ever measure the depths of the abyss?” But of all people, only two have the right to give him an answer: Captain Nemo and I.”

About who the captain of the “Ship” really was, what made him become a sea tramp; finally, what goal he set for himself and who was his enemy - we learned about all this from the second novel about the adventures of Captain Nemo (and the final one - the entire trilogy, which includes, in addition to those mentioned, also the wonderful novel "The Children of Captain Grant") - from the novel The Mysterious Island, published in 1874, five years after the first public appearance of Captain Nobody:

“Captain Nemo was a Hindu, Prince of Dakkar, son of the Raja, ruler of Bundelkhand - at that time a territory independent from the British - and nephew of the Indian hero Tippo Sahib. When the boy was ten years old, his father sent him to Europe, wanting to give him a complete education. At the same time, the Raja secretly hoped that his son would have the opportunity to fight with equal weapons against those whooppresses his homeland...

This Hindu concentrated in himself all the hatred of the vanquished for the winner. The oppressor did not find forgiveness from the oppressed. The son of one of the three princes whom the United Kingdom managed to subjugate only legally, a nobleman from the Tippo-Sahib family, overwhelmed from childhood by a thirst for revenge, protest and love for his poetic homeland, bound by the chains of the English, did not want to set foot on the land cursed by him, the owners which condemned India to slavery...

In 1857 the great Sepoy Mutiny broke out. His soul was Prince Dakkar. He organized this gigantic protest. He gave all his talents and all his fortune to this business. He did not spare himself: fighting in the front ranks of the fighters, he risked his life, like any of the unsung heroes who rose to free his homeland. In twenty battles, he received a dozen wounds, but did not die even when the last fighters for independence fell, struck by British bullets...

The warrior turned into a scientist. He built his workshops on a deserted island in the Pacific Ocean. There, according to his drawings, an underwater ship was created. By means that will one day become known to everyone, Prince Dakkar was able to harness the enormous mechanical power of electricity. Extracting it from inexhaustible sources, the scientist used electricity for all the needs of his floating projectile - it moved, warmed and illuminated the underwater ship. The sea with its huge treasures, myriads of fish, endless fields of algae, huge sea mammals - not only everything that nature buried in the sea, but also what people lost in its depths, went to satisfy the needs of the prince and his crew. Thus, the dearest wish of Prince Dakkar was fulfilled - after all, he did not want to have any connection with the earth. He named his ship "Nautilus", himself - Captain Nemo and disappeared into the depths of the sea..."

So, here it is, the secret of an amazing hero. He dedicated his life to exploring the oceans, helping fighters against oppression in all corners of the globe - and, of course, revenge. Revenge on those whom he considered responsible for the death of his family, on those who oppressed and humiliated his homeland. That is, the British. This went on for many years. During this time, his comrades died, and he himself grew old and decrepit. Nemo-Dakkar spent the last six years completely alone, in his brainchild “Nautilus”, in the bay of a desert island. Until a group of “Robinsons” appeared here unwillingly - participants in the American Civil War, soldiers of the northern army, captured by the southerners and escaped with the help of a balloon. Captain Nemo saves them and reveals to them the secret of his life. The novel “The Mysterious Island” ends with a pathetic scene: a volcanic eruption destroys the island, which became the last refuge of the Nautilus, destroying the submarine ship and its old captain.

It would seem that the i's are dotted. Captain Nemo's secret is revealed. The reader can calmly take a breath and sympathize with his beloved hero, who, in full accordance with the romantic canon, is deeply unhappy, persecuted by soulless enemies (in this case, the English colonialists).

It is clear that Prince Dakkar is a fictitious person. But we can assume that Jules Verne had in mind a real person who became the prototype of the brave captain and explorer. Moreover, in the story about the former life of his hero, the writer mentions Raja Tippo-Sahib, who actually lived in India at the beginning of the 19th century (today the spelling “Tippo-Sahib” is accepted). Tippo Sahib was an implacable fighter against the British colonialists. It’s difficult to talk about nephews - in the East family ties are very extensive. Surely Tippo Sahib had nephews. And it is unlikely that the French writer made any specific relative of the Mysore Rajah the hero of the novel. In fact, Tippo Sahib himself could in some ways resemble Captain Nemo. He was very competent in technical types of weapons. The famous Congreve missiles of their time should, in fact, be called Tippo Sahib missiles. It was he who successfully used this type of weapon against the British. And Congreve improved samples of Indian missiles captured from the defeated Indians.

Among the possible prototypes of the Jules Verne hero, one of the leaders of the sepoy uprising, Nana Sahib, is often named. Moreover, his life's ending is not defined. His army was defeated by the British, but he himself did not die in battle and was not captured - he disappeared. He could, probably, after some time float up on the captain's bridge of the Nautilus.

For a long time, the version that it was the biography of Nana Sahib that inspired Jules Verne to create a biography of his hero was extremely popular. Suffice it to recall the Soviet three-part film “Captain Nemo”. Its creators were apparently absolutely sure of the identity of the real Nana Sahib and the fictional Captain Nemo. So much so that the script was based on two novels, but the second one was not “The Mysterious Island”, but… “The Steam House”! Meanwhile, it is a careful reading of this work by Jules Verne that convinces us that Nana Sahib and Prince Dakkar (aka Captain Nemo) were different people in the eyes of the writer himself.

3. Through the jungle, by rail

“On the evening of March 6, 1867, the residents of Aurangabad could read the following announcement:

“Two thousand pounds as a reward to the one who brings alive or dead one of the former leaders of the sepoy uprising, information has been received about whose presence in the Bombay district. The criminal's name is Nabob Dandu-Pan, but is better known by the name..."

The last lines with the name of the nabob, hated, always cursed by some and secretly revered by others, were missing from that advertisement that had just been pasted on the wall of a dilapidated building on the banks of the Dudma. The lower corner of the poster, where the name was printed in large letters, was torn off by one fakir.

The shore was completely deserted, and no one noticed his trick. Along with this name, the name of the Governor-General of the Bombay District, which bore the signature of the Viceroy of India, also disappeared.”.

This is how the novel “The Steam House” begins. Literally after a few pages the reader learns the real name of the wanted man, which appeared in the torn piece of the advertisement:

“— Misfortune to those who fall into the hands of Dandu-Pan! Englishmen, you are not finished with Nana Sahib yet.

The name of Nana Sahib inspired the greatest horror of all with which the revolution of 1857 created its bloody fame ... "

The plot of The Steam House revolves around the deadly feud between Nana Sahib and the English Colonel Munro. The reason for this enmity is known from the very first pages:

“On the fifteenth of July, the second massacre in Kanpur. And this time the massacre extended to several hundred children and women - and Lady Munro was among the latter; the victims were deprived of their lives after terrible torture carried out on the personal orders of Nana Sahib, who called in the butchers of Muslim slaughterhouses as his assistants. At the end of this bloody fun, the bodies of the tortured victims were thrown into a well, which became notorious in India.”

Of course, Jules Verne would not be Jules Verne if he had not paid tribute to the other side - the English colonialist. Having listed the cruelties of the rebels, he presents exactly the same account to the British.

The uprising was suppressed, Nana Sahib disappeared - and reappeared in India:

“Nana Sahib’s hatred for the conquerors of India was one of those that fades in a person along with life. He was the heir of Bayi Rao, but after the death of the Peshwa in 1851, the East India Company refused to pay the pension of eight thousand rupees to which he was entitled. This was one of the reasons for the hostility that gave rise to such terrible consequences.”

Well, he came here, risking his life, in order to take revenge on his mortal enemy:

“Colonel Munro is alive, who killed my friend with his own hands, wound!”

However, not only this:

“Dandu-Pan,” answered Sahib, “will not only be a Peshwa crowned in the fortified castle of Bilgur, he will be sovereign over the entire sacred territory of India.

Having said this, Nana Sahib fell silent, crossed his arms, and his gaze took on that motionless and indefinite expression, which is characteristic of the eyes of people who are not looking at the past or present, but looking into the future.

So, Colonel Munro, who lost his wife during the sepoy uprising, retired. To amuse him, his friends persuade him to travel around India using an exotic means of transportation: an artificial elephant with a steam engine, built by the engineer Banks for the Rajah of Bhutan. The Raja died, the heirs did not want to pay. Munro sets out on a journey with a deadly enemy at his heels.

As usually happens in the novels of the French writer, the intrigue is interspersed with lengthy descriptions of the flora and fauna of India, historical information - and, of course, technical information about the wonders of technology, in this case - a steam house, which is dragged along the rails by a giant machine in the shape of an elephant. It all ends with the miraculous salvation of Munro, the appearance of his wife (the unfortunate woman, it turns out, did not die, but went crazy from the misfortunes she suffered) and retribution against the villain - Nana Sahib. He is killed when a giant elephant explodes.

In a word, it is unlikely that Nana Sahib could become the prototype of Prince Dakkar. The wild Indian Rajah, as Jules Verne imagined him, does not fit too well with the noble intellectual exploring the depths of the sea. Nana Sahib in “The Steam House,” by the way, is also an ardent opponent of technological progress, which he sees as a product of the hated West. No, he was not the prototype of Nemo - and could not be.

It is clear that the one person whose life was taken as a basis by the writer did not exist in nature. At the same time, Captain Nemo has individual traits of many real people whom the French science fiction writer met: scientists, sailors, writers, revolutionaries...

Among the latter, we mention Giuseppe Garibaldi, not only a revolutionary, but also a sailor who dreamed of a “maritime republic of revolutionaries.” This floating republic could float freely on the waves and bring freedom to those who need it. Agree, his dream is very close to the actions of Captain Nemo.

And yet, still...

There are several oddities in the character's biography. And it’s difficult to say whether they are the result of the author’s negligence or are there other reasons?

For example: in the novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, Captain Nemo is thirty-five years old - although at times he looks a little older. This age is also confirmed by the fact that in “The Mysterious Island” it is specified: he took part in the uprising at the age of thirty, several years before meeting Professor Aronnax. But in the same “Mysterious Island” he appears before us as a decrepit old man (at that time), well over sixty. His story also shows that about three decades passed between the first and second novels. Since the heroes of “The Mysterious Island” escape from captivity in 1865 (as already mentioned, during the war between North and South), Professor Aronnax had to get on the “Nautilus” in 1836. And the sepoy uprising occurred in 1857! And it ended in 1858! What the hell is this?! Suppose the author forgot about the time of action of “Twenty Thousand Leagues” (Jules Verne designated it as 1866), and, tying the action of “The Mysterious Island” to the events of the American Civil War, gave up on the confusion in dates. Happens. It's rare, but it happens.

But the fact that he mixed up historical events and forced Captain Nemo to participate in events in which he could not participate in any way is somehow hard to believe.

4. A Tale of Two Mutinies

In 1997, in the American scientific journal Scientific American for the month of April, an article by philologists Arthur B. Evans and Ron Miller appeared, dedicated to the long-unpublished and even considered lost novel by J. Verne, “Paris in the 21st Century.” The authors have long been engaged in the work of the great French science fiction writer. One of them, Arthur Evans, is co-editor of the journal Science Fiction Studies, and also the author of a new translation into English of the novel “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea.”

The article in question is devoted mainly to the relationship between Jules Verne and his regular publisher Pierre-Jules Hetzel. In addition to Etzel’s role in the non-publication of “Paris...” (the publisher considered the new book too pessimistic; indeed, the novel today would be called a dystopia - a case uncharacteristic of the work of the French writer), Evans and Miller touch on the publisher’s interference in Verne’s work on other books. In particular, over “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea”:

“It should be noted that the process of creating the novel turned out to be quite stormy. Verne and Etzel disagreed about the biography of the main character, Captain Nemo. Etzel saw him as an uncompromising fighter against slavery. This would explain and ideologically justify the ruthless attacks on sea vessels. However, Verne wanted to make the main character a Pole who fought against Tsarist Russia (with an allusion to the bloody suppression of the Polish uprising five years earlier). But Etzel feared that diplomatic complications would arise in this case. In addition, the Russian book market, which is very promising, would probably be closed to Verne’s book.

Then the author and publisher came to a compromise. They agreed not to reveal the true motives of Captain Nemo's actions and to make him an abstract fighter for freedom and against oppression. To make the original concept more concrete, the creators of the 1954 film “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea” had Captain Nemo attack arms dealers.”.

I think that for Etzel, of course, the possible loss of large profits was more important than diplomatic complications: after all, the publisher is not the president or the minister. The appearance at one time of A. Dumas’s novel “Notes of a Fencing Teacher,” which sympathetically depicted the Decembrists, caused a ban on the sale of the book in Russia, but did not cause any political or diplomatic complications. As for the compromise that Evans and Miller write about, it was given to Jules Verne with great difficulty. This is what he wrote to his publisher in the midst of their dispute:

“Since I cannot explain his hatred, I will remain silent about the reasons for it, as well as about the past of my hero, about his nationality and, if necessary, I will change the denouement of the novel. I do not wish to give this book any political overtones. But to admit even for a moment that Nemo leads such an existence out of hatred of slavery and clears the seas of slave-trading ships, which are now nowhere to be found, means, in my opinion, to go the wrong way. You say: but he is committing something heinous! I answer: no! Don't forget what the original concept of the book was: a Polish aristocrat whose daughters were raped, his wife hacked to death with an ax, his father killed by a whip, a Pole whose friends are dying in Siberia, sees that the existence of the Polish nation is threatened by Russian tyranny! If such a person does not have the right to sink Russian frigates wherever he encounters them, then retribution is just an empty word. I would drown in such a situation without any remorse..."

As a matter of fact, all this is quite well known. And the point of view expressed in the quoted article is quite popular: initially Nemo was supposed to be a Pole, a Polish rebel, an implacable enemy of Russia. Participant in the Polish uprising of 1863, suppressed by Russian troops several years earlier. As a result of a compromise between publisher and writer, the captain of the Nautilus became an abstract rebel, a rebel. Only in The Mysterious Island did Jules Verne turn him into an Indian and one of the leaders of the sepoy uprising. Accordingly, his revenge (in “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea”) faded into the background, turning the mysterious character into an inquisitive researcher and a brilliant inventor - and only then into a defender of the oppressed and a champion of some kind of justice. And to say that - he speaks European languages perfectly, loves to insert a Latin saying into his speech (he even gave his ship and himself Latin names, and even took the Latin motto) - all this, of course, is much more characteristic of a Polish aristocrat than of an Indian rajah. But what does this “pre-biography” of a literary hero have to do with the mystery of the missing thirty years of his life? If in 1865 thirty years could not have passed since the Sepoy uprising of 1857, then certainly no thirty years had passed since the even closer events of 1863!

For many researchers and lovers of the work of the great French science fiction writer, including those who considered the “Polish line” in the origin of “Captain Nobody,” this discrepancy remained a monument to blatant authorial negligence, in no way connected with the controversy over nationality Captain Nemo.

Meanwhile, it seems to me that there is no discrepancy. Well, almost not. And it is precisely this period - three decades (or so) - that once again indicates the Polish “origin” of Captain Nemo and his “participation” in the Polish uprising. "How so? - the reader will ask. - After all, the Polish uprising took place in 1863, two years, and not thirty before the events described in “The Mysterious Island”! Is not it?"

Both so and not so. Because nowhere in the correspondence between Jules Verne and Pierre-Jules Hetzel is it said that the writer is referring to the Polish uprising of 1863. This is what current literary scholars think, “by default.” But if an opinion becomes the opinion of the majority, this does not mean that it is correct. Of course, the events in Poland in 1863-1864 were still fresh in memory. But this is the only argument. And it is by no means unconditional when it comes to literary creativity. Because, again, there is that same missing thirty years.

In the illustrations for the first edition of the novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, Captain Nemo is given the features of Colonel Charras, a participant in the 1830 revolution who died in exile. I draw your attention to the fact that the “graphic prototype” of Captain Nemo turns out to be a participant in the revolution THIRTY YEARS ago, and not at all a contemporary of the author. So, did Nemo take part in the July Revolution (as the revolution of 1830 is called in France)? Of course not. There is already quoted correspondence. Consequently, Captain Nemo was a Pole (and remained so - at least in the novel “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea” he is clearly not an Indian, but a European).

Back to square one? Nothing happened!

Let's just remember that there were TWO Polish uprisings against Russia in the 19th century. One, as we have already said, in 1863-1864, that is, practically at the same time as the events of the novel.

The second (or rather, the first) - in 1830-1831. Thirty years before Cyrus Smith and his comrades escaped from Southern captivity in a hot air balloon and ended up on a mysterious island, which he named Abraham Lincoln Island!

Here it is - the missing thirty years, over which critics, readers and admirers of Jules Verne puzzled. Yes, Nemo could have participated in the Polish uprising - and this does not contradict the internal chronology of the novels (not counting the actual date set at the beginning of the first of them - 1866). By the way, they knew very well about that uprising in France; in some ways, perhaps even better than about some other historical events. Because at least all (I emphasize - all) commanders of the Polish rebels - generals Chlopicki, Radziwill, Skrzynetsky, Dembinsky, Malakhovsky - were in the past generals or officers of Napoleon's army and, as luck would have it, holders of the Order of the Legion of Honor! He was supported by the European-famous poet Adam Mickiewicz and composer Frederic Chopin (the latter, by the way, then lived in Paris). Among the leaders - political, military, ideological - of the 1863 uprising there were no such personalities anymore.

That is, I do not at all want to say that the uprising of 1863 had a lesser response in the hearts of the French than the previous one. But the uprising of 1830... it looked MORE LITERARY in the second half of the 60s. And it was led by generals who in France were considered FRENCH heroes.

So, I believe, Jules Verne had the idea to make his hero a participant in that already legendary rebellion. And the action of “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea”, apparently, should have unfolded not in 1866, but in 1836. And then, I repeat, the entire internal chronology of the novel comes together. And there is no bewilderment about Nemo’s rapid aging in “The Mysterious Island,” and even in the reverse flow of time (from 1866 to 1865).

“But what,” you ask, “what about a submarine ship? The appearance of such a ship thirty years earlier was simply impossible!”

To this we can answer: was it possible for a projectile to fly to the Moon? Or the aircraft of Robur the Conqueror? Or the balloon invented thirty years earlier (though not by Jules Verne, but by Edgar Allan Poe) for flying to the moon?

In a fantasy novel (even a science fiction novel), the Nautilus could well have been built in 1834.

Yes, by the way, it was built. It was in 1834 that Schilder's submarine was tested in St. Petersburg. The first submarine with an all-metal hull! And it could carry mines to blow up enemy ships. Of course, she was far from the brainchild of Captain Nemo - Schilder's ship had a displacement of 16 tons - exactly 100 times less than the Nautilus. And there was no engine on it - the boat was driven by rowing devices controlled by sailors.

But, I repeat, we are dealing with a science fiction novel...

Jules Verne. "Twenty thousand leagues under the sea." Per. N.G. Yakovleva and E.F. Korsha. “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea” and “The Mysterious Island” cited by: Jules Verne. Collected works in 12 volumes. 1956 T. 4th.Here and further approx. author.

Jules Verne. Steam house. Per. V. Torpakova. Hereinafter, the novel is quoted from the publication: “Jules Verne. Memories of childhood and youth. Uncle Robinson. Steam house." 2001.

Arthur B. Evans and Ron Miller. "Jules Verne, Misunerstood Visionary", Scientific American, No. 4, 1997.

The writer’s card index contains a card with the intriguing inscription “White Raja, son of the Englishman Mr. N. One of the creators of the Monitor.” Researchers managed to decipher the mysterious recording. The “Mr. Y” mentioned in this card turned out to be a military topographer from England. During the years of his service, he traveled through half of the Indian lands, and even threw in his lot with the adopted daughter of the Raja of the Principality of Bundelkhand. The family had two children - a boy and a girl. The topographer sent his son to study in England. Having received an engineering education, the young man returned to his homeland. At that time, his father had already resigned, because he knew that popular uprisings were brewing, and he did not want to speak out against the Indian people.
Not wanting to participate in popular unrest, “Mr. Y” decided to leave with his family to his homeland, England. But the family opposed the move and he left alone. When the sepoy uprising broke out in India, the son of a retired military surveyor took a direct part in the unrest in one of the regions of the country. He was known under the pseudonym White Raja. Realizing that the popular uprising would be suppressed, the young man returned to his hometown of Bundelkhand, took his wife and mother, and they finally left for England.
But the English authorities began searching for the White Raja. Trying to escape arrest, he left for America, where the Civil War had broken out at that time. The young man took the side of the northerners in this fight.
Residents of the southern United States at that time were working on the construction of the warship Merrimack, which had a pair of engines and an armored steel hull. How could the wooden sailing ships of the northerners fight such a “monster”?
After analyzing the situation, White Raja decided to turn to the Swedish shipbuilder D. Erikson for help. He invited the scientist to use his own funds to build a ship that would combine an armadillo and a submarine. According to the White Raja's design, the deck of this ship should have only had a pipe and two gun turrets.
After considering this proposal, Erickson made the necessary changes to the project and submitted it to US President Lincoln for consideration. The project was approved. Construction of the vessel began immediately.
Meanwhile, the Southern battleship was doing its dirty work. They had already sunk three sailing ships of the northerners. But the construction of the new ship, designed by the White Raja, was coming to an end. The ship was named "Monitor". As soon as he entered the battle, the Merrimack, having encountered unexpected resistance from an equally strong enemy, took to flight.
This is how the man who invented the ancestor of modern submarines left his place in history. It is a pity that his real name is not known, just as his future life is not known. Jules Verne, when creating a novel about Captain Nemo, used only those few facts from the biography of the White Rajah that he managed to collect. However, Nana Sahib was not forgotten by him.
Jules Verne underestimated technological progress
It is not known whether Jules Verne’s novel influenced progress in the field of shipbuilding, but the writer’s assumptions on this matter, put into the mouth of Captain Nemo, were erroneous. As the legendary captain said in the novel, “...in the field of shipbuilding, our contemporaries are not far from the ancients. It took several centuries to discover the mechanical power of steam! Who knows whether even in 100 years a second Nautilus will appear!
But technological progress outstripped Jules Verne's expectations. Less than 16 years after the publication of the novel “20,000 Leagues Under the Sea” (1870), a submarine with an electric engine was launched in England. She was named after the Julierne submarine - Nautilus. Since that time, shipbuilding has accelerated, and in the early 30s of the twentieth century, submarines were created that were not inferior in size to their forefather, the Nautilus, and in many respects superior to it in technical parameters. And in 1954, American shipbuilders built the world's first submarine with a nuclear reactor - SSN-571. The engine, which uses powerful atomic energy, allows submarines to be completely autonomous. The year 1966 was marked by the launch of the first Soviet nuclear submarines, which circumnavigated the world without surfacing.

The idea of the combat use of an underwater vessel, first expressed by Leonardo da Vinci, was popularized in Jules Verne’s novel “20 Thousand Leagues Under the Sea,” written in 1870. The novel describes the Nautilus submarine, which rams and destroys surface ships using a metal "tusk" located on the bow of the boat. There was no talk of any prototypes of torpedoes or other weapons in the novel...
The first operational model of a submarine was created in 1620 for King James of England by the Dutch engineer Cornelius van Drebbel - a rowing submarine was built in London and successfully tested in the Thames. In Russia, attempts to build a submarine were made under Peter the Great.
During the First World War, submarines appeared with a diesel engine for movement on the surface, and an electric engine for movement under water. A generator was connected to the diesel engine, which produced electricity to recharge the batteries.
The accelerated development of the submarine fleet during the First World War led to the fact that submarines became a formidable weapon. In total, during the war, 600 submarines of the warring states sank 55 large warships (battleships and cruisers), 105 destroyers, and 33 submarines.

On January 21, 1954, the world's first nuclear submarine left the Groton Shipyard in Connecticut. The influence of the novel 20 Thousand Leagues Under the Sea on people's minds was so strong that the first nuclear submarine was named after Jules Verne's Nautilus.
The idea of using a nuclear reactor as a power plant for submarines originated in the Third Reich. Professor Heisenberg’s oxygen-free “uranium machines” (as nuclear reactors were called then) were intended primarily for the “submarine wolves” of the Kriegsmarine. However, German physicists failed to bring the work to its logical conclusion, and the initiative passed to the United States, which for some time was the only country in the world that had nuclear reactors and bombs.
In the early years of the Cold War between the USSR and the USA, American strategists envisioned long-range bombers as carriers of the atomic bomb. The United States had extensive experience in the combat use of this type of weapon, American strategic aviation had a reputation as the most powerful in the world, and finally, US territory was considered largely invulnerable to an enemy retaliatory strike.

However, the use of aircraft required their basing in close proximity to the borders of the USSR. As a result of diplomatic efforts, already in July 1948 the Labor government agreed to the deployment in Great Britain of 60 B-29 bombers with atomic bombs on board. After the signing of the North Atlantic Pact in April 1949, all of Western Europe was drawn into the US nuclear strategy, and the number of American bases abroad reached 3,400 by the end of the 1960s!
But over time, the American military and politicians came to understand that the presence of strategic aviation in foreign territories was associated with the risk of changing the political situation in a particular country, so the fleet was increasingly seen as the carrier of atomic weapons in a future war. This trend was finally strengthened after the convincing tests of atomic bombs at Bikini Atoll.
In 1948, American designers completed the development of a nuclear power plant project and began designing and building an experimental reactor.
Thus, there were all the prerequisites for creating a fleet of nuclear submarines, which not only had to carry nuclear weapons, but also have a nuclear reactor as a power plant.
Construction of the first such boat, named after the fantastic submarine invented by Jules Verne, the Nautilus and designated SSN-571, began on June 14, 1952 in the presence of US President Harry Truman at the shipyard in Groton.
On January 21, 1954, in the presence of US President Eisenhower, the Nautilus was launched, and eight months later, on September 30, 1954, it was accepted into service with the US Navy.

On January 17, 1955, the Nautilus began sea trials in the open ocean, and its first commander, Eugene Wilkinson, broadcast in clear text: “We are going under atomic propulsion.”
Apart from the completely new Mark-2 power plant, the boat had a conventional design. With a Nautilus displacement of about 4,000 tons, the two-shaft nuclear power plant with a total power of 9,860 kilowatts provided a speed of more than 20 knots. The submerged cruising range was 25 thousand miles with a consumption of 450 grams of U235 per month. Thus, the duration of the voyage depended only on the proper operation of air regeneration means, supplies of waste products of the crew and the endurance of the personnel.
At the same time, however, the specific gravity of the nuclear installation turned out to be very large, because of this, it was not possible to install some of the weapons and equipment provided for by the project on Nautilus. The main reason for the weight was biological protection, which includes lead, steel and other materials (about 740 tons). As a result, the entire Nautilus armament consisted of 6 bow torpedo tubes with an ammunition load of 24 torpedoes.
As with any new business, it was not without problems.
Even during the construction of the Nautilus, and specifically during testing of the power plant, a rupture occurred in the secondary circuit pipeline, through which saturated steam with a temperature of about 220 ° C and under a pressure of 18 atmospheres came from the steam generator to the turbine. Fortunately, it was not the main, but an auxiliary steam line.
The cause of the accident, as established during the investigation, was a manufacturing defect: instead of pipes made of high-quality carbon steel grade A-106, pipes made of the less durable material A-53 were included in the steam pipeline. The accident caused American designers to question the feasibility of using welded pipes in submarine pressure systems.
Elimination of the consequences of the accident and the replacement of already installed welded pipes with seamless ones delayed the completion of the construction of the Nautilus for several months.

After the boat entered service, rumors began to circulate in the media that Nautilus personnel had received serious doses of radiation due to deficiencies in the bioprotection design. It was reported that the naval command had to hastily carry out a partial replacement of the crew and dock the submarine to make the necessary changes to the protection design. How accurate this information is is still unknown.
On May 4, 1958, on the Nautilus, traveling submerged from Panama to San Francisco, a fire occurred in the turbine compartment. The fire of oil-soaked port turbine insulation was determined to have started several days before the fire, but its signs were ignored. The slight smell of smoke was mistaken for the smell of fresh paint. The fire was discovered only when it became impossible for personnel to remain in the compartment due to smoke. There was so much smoke in the compartment that the submariners wearing smoke masks could not find its source.
Without finding out the reasons for the appearance of smoke, the ship's commander gave the order to stop the turbine, float to periscope depth and try to ventilate the compartment through a snorkel. However, these measures did not help, and the boat was forced to surface. Increased ventilation of the compartment through an open hatch with the help of an auxiliary diesel generator finally brought results.
The amount of smoke in the compartment decreased, and the crew managed to find the location of the fire. Two sailors in smoke masks (there were only four such masks on the boat) using knives and pliers began to tear off the smoldering insulation from the turbine body. A column of flame about a meter high emerged from under a torn piece of insulation. Foam fire extinguishers were used. The flames were extinguished and work to remove the insulation continued. People had to be changed every 10-15 minutes, as the acrid smoke penetrated even into the masks. Only four hours later, all the insulation from the turbine was removed and the fire was extinguished.
After the boat arrived in San Francisco, its commander implemented a number of measures aimed at improving the fire safety of the ship. In particular, the old insulation was removed from the second turbine. All submarine personnel were provided with self-contained breathing apparatus.

In May 1958, while preparing the Nautilus for a trip to the North Pole by boat, the main condenser of the steam turbine unit began to leak. Sea water seeping into the condensate-feeding system could cause salinization of the secondary circuit and lead to failure of the entire power system of the ship.
Repeated attempts to find the location of the leak were unsuccessful, and the submarine commander made an original decision. After the Nautilus arrived in Seattle, sailors in civilian clothes—preparations for the voyage were kept strictly secret—bought all the proprietary fluid from automobile stores to be poured into car radiators to stop leaks.
Half of this liquid (about 80 liters) was poured into the condenser, after which the problem of condenser salinization did not arise either in Seattle or later during the trip. Probably the leak was in the space between the double tube plates of the condenser and stopped after filling this space with a self-hardening mixture.
On November 10, 1966, during NATO naval exercises in the North Atlantic, the Nautilus, which was launching a periscope attack on the American aircraft carrier Essex (displacement 33 thousand tons), collided with it. As a result of the collision, the aircraft carrier received an underwater hole, and the fencing of the retractable devices on the boat was destroyed. Accompanied by the destroyer, the Nautilus traveled under its own power at a speed of about 10 knots to the naval base in New London, America, covering a distance of about 360 miles.
On July 22, 1958, the Nautilus, under the command of William Andersen, left Pearl Harbor with the goal of reaching the North Pole...
It all started when, at the end of 1956, the Chief of Naval Staff, Admiral Burke, received a letter from Senator Jackson. The senator was interested in the possibility of nuclear submarines operating under the pack ice of the Arctic.
This letter was the first sign that forced the command of the American fleet to seriously think about organizing a trip to the North Pole. True, some American admirals considered the idea reckless and were categorically against it. Despite this, the commander of the submarine forces of the Atlantic Fleet considered the polar campaign a decided matter.
Anderson began to prepare for the upcoming campaign with triple zeal. The Nautilus was equipped with special equipment that made it possible to determine the state of the ice, and a new compass MK-19, which, unlike conventional magnetic compasses, operated at high latitudes. Just before the trip, Anderson obtained the latest maps and directions to the depths of the Arctic and even made an air flight, the route of which coincided with the planned route of the Nautilus.
On August 19, 1957, the Nautilus headed for the area between Greenland and Spitsbergen.
The submarine's first test run under the pack ice was unsuccessful. When the echo gauge recorded zero ice thickness, the boat tried to surface. Instead of the expected ice hole, the Nautilus encountered a drifting ice floe. The boat's collision with it severely damaged its only periscope, and the commander of the Nautilus decided to return back to the edge of the packs.
The mangled periscope was repaired on the field. Anderson was quite skeptical about how stainless steel welders worked - even in ideal factory conditions, such welding required a lot of experience. Nevertheless, the crack that had formed in the periscope was repaired, and the device began to operate again.
The second attempt to reach the pole also did not bring results. A couple of hours after the Nautilus crossed the 86th parallel, both gyrocompasses failed. Anderson decided not to tempt fate and gave the order to turn - in high latitudes, even a slight deviation from the correct course could be fatal and lead the ship to a foreign shore.
At the end of October 1957, Anderson gave a short report at the White House, which he dedicated to his recent trip under the Arctic ice. The report was listened to with indifference, and William was disappointed. The stronger the desire of the Nautilus commander to go to the Pole again.
While contemplating this voyage, Anderson prepared a letter to the White House in which he convincingly argued that crossing the pole would become a reality as early as next year. The presidential administration made it clear that the Nautilus commander could count on support. The Pentagon also became interested in the idea. Soon after this, Admiral Burke reported the impending campaign to the president himself, who reacted to Anderson's plans with great enthusiasm.
The operation had to be carried out in an atmosphere of strict secrecy - the command was afraid of another failure. Only a small group of people in the government knew about the details of the campaign. To hide the true reason for installing additional navigation equipment on the Nautilus, it was announced that the ship would participate in joint training maneuvers along with the Skate and Halfbeak boats.
On June 9, 1958, the Nautilus set off on its second polar voyage. When Seattle was far behind, Anderson ordered the submarine's number to be painted over the wheelhouse fence to maintain incognito. On the fourth day of the journey, the Nautilus approached the Aleutian Islands.
Knowing that they would have to go further in shallow water, the ship’s commander ordered the ascent. The Nautilus maneuvered in this area for a long time - looking for a convenient gap in the chain of islands to get to the north. Finally, navigator Jenkins discovered a sufficiently deep passage between the islands. Having overcome the first obstacle, the submarine entered the Bering Sea.
Now the Nautilus had to slip through the narrow and ice-covered Bering Strait. The route west of St. Lawrence Island was completely covered by pack ice. The draft of some icebergs exceeded ten meters. They could easily crush the Nautilus, pinning the submarine to the bottom. Despite the fact that a significant part of the path had been covered, Anderson gave the order to follow the opposite course.
The commander of the Nautilus did not despair - perhaps the eastern passage through the strait would be more welcoming to rare guests. The boat emerged from the Siberian ice and headed south from St. Lawrence Island, intending to sail into deep waters past Alaska. The next few days of the voyage passed without incident, and on the morning of June 17, the submarine reached the Chukchi Sea.
And then Anderson’s rosy expectations collapsed. The first alarming signal was the appearance of an ice floe nineteen meters thick, which went straight towards the submarine ship. A collision with it was avoided, but the instrument recorders warned: there was an even more serious obstacle in the boat’s path.
Pressed close to the very bottom, the Nautilus slipped under a huge ice floe at a distance of only one and a half meters from it. It was possible to avoid death only by a miracle. When the recorder pen finally went up, indicating that the boat missed the ice floe, Anderson realized: the operation was a complete failure...
The captain sent his ship to Pearl Harbor. There was still hope that at the end of summer the ice boundary would move to deeper areas, and it would be possible to make another attempt to get closer to the pole. But who will give permission for it after so many failures?
The reaction of the highest US military department was immediate - Anderson was summoned to Washington for an explanation. The commander of the Nautilus carried on well, showing perseverance. His report to senior Pentagon officers expressed his firm confidence that the next, July, campaign would undoubtedly be crowned with success. And he was given another chance.
Anderson immediately took action. To monitor the ice conditions, he sent his navigator Jenks to Alaska. A legend was created for Jenks, according to which he was a Pentagon officer with special powers.
Arriving in Alaska, Jenks took into the air almost the entire patrol aircraft, which carried out daily observations in the area of the future route of the Nautilus. In mid-July, Anderson, still in Pearl Harbor, received the long-awaited news from his navigator: ice conditions had become favorable for the transpolar crossing, the main thing was not to miss the moment.
On July 22, a nuclear submarine with obliterated numbers left Pearl Harbor. The Nautilus was moving at top speed. On the night of July 27, Anderson took the ship into the Bering Sea. Two days later, having traveled a 2,900-mile journey from Pearl Harbor, the Nautilus was already cutting through the waters of the Chukchi Sea.
On August 1, the submarine sank under the Arctic pack ice, which in some places went into the water to a depth of twenty meters. Navigating the Nautilus under them was not easy. Anderson himself was on watch almost all the time.
The ship's crew was excited about the upcoming event, which they wanted to celebrate properly. Some, for example, proposed to describe twenty-five small circles around the pole. Then the Nautilus could enter the Guinness Book of Records as the ship that was the first in the history of navigation to make 25 trips around the world in one voyage.
Anderson rightly believed that such maneuvers were out of the question - the likelihood of going off course was too great. The commander of the Nautilus was worried about completely different problems. To cross the pole as accurately as possible, Anderson did not take his eyes off the indicators of the electronic navigation devices. On August 3, at twenty-three hours and fifteen minutes, the goal of the campaign - the North Geographic Pole of the Earth - was achieved.
Without staying in the area of the pole longer than required to collect statistical information on the state of ice and sea water, Anderson sent the submarine into the Greenland Sea. The Nautilus was to arrive in the Reykjavik area, where a secret meeting was to take place. The helicopter, which was waiting for the submarine at the rendezvous point, removed only one person from the submarine - Commander Anderson.
Fifteen minutes later, the helicopter landed in Keflavik next to a transport plane ready to depart. When the plane's wheels touched the landing path of the airfield in Washington, a car sent from the White House was already waiting for Anderson - the president wanted to see the commander of the Nautilus. After the report on the operation, Anderson was again returned aboard the boat, which by this time managed to reach Portland.
Six days later, the Nautilus and its commander entered New York with honor. A military parade was organized in their honor...

Among modern myths there is one like this.
They say that experiments on establishing telepathic communication were carried out on the Nautilus submarine.
This information was voiced in the late 1950s by two French conspiracy theorists - Louis Pauvel and Jacques Bergier. Their article did not pass the attention of Soviet authorities protecting the country from a potential aggressor. On March 26, 1960, the Minister of Defense, Marshal of the USSR Malinovsky, received a report from engineer-colonel, candidate of sciences Poletaev:
“The American Armed Forces have adopted telepathy (transfer of thoughts over a distance without the help of technical means) as a means of communication with submarines at sea...
Scientific research on telepathy has been going on for a long time, but since the end of 1957, large US research organizations have become involved in the work: Rand Corporation, Westinghouse, Bell Telephone Company and others. At the end of the work, an experiment was carried out - transferring information using telepathic communication from the base to the Nautilus submarine, which was submerged under the polar ice at a distance of up to 2000 kilometers from the base. The experiment was successful."
The minister, as expected, was keenly interested in such an amazing success of a potential enemy. Several secret meetings were held with the participation of Soviet parapsychology specialists. The possibility of opening works to study the phenomenon of telepathy in military and military medical aspects was discussed, but at that time they ended in nothing.
In the mid-1990s, correspondents from the Chicago magazine Zis Week conducted a series of interviews with the captain of the Nautilus Anderson. His answer was categorical: “There were definitely no experiments in telepathy. The article by Povel and Bergier is completely false. On July 25, 1960, the day on which, according to the authors, the Nautilus went to sea to conduct a telepathic communication session, the boat was in dry dock in Portsmouth.
These statements were verified by journalists through their channels and turned out to be true.
* * *
On March 3, 1980, Nautilus was removed from the fleet after 25 years of service and declared a National Historic Landmark. Plans were drawn up to convert the submarine into a museum for public display. Upon completion of decontamination and a large amount of preparatory work, on July 6, 1985, the Nautilus was towed to Groton (Connecticut). Here at the US Submarine Museum, the world's first nuclear submarine is open to the public.

58 years ago, on January 21, 1954, the nuclear submarine Nautilus was launched. It was the first submarine with a nuclear reactor, allowing it to sail autonomously for months without rising to the surface. A new page was opening in the history of the Cold War...

The idea of using a nuclear reactor as a power plant for submarines originated in the Third Reich. Professor Heisenberg’s oxygen-free “uranium machines” (as nuclear reactors were called then) were intended primarily for the “submarine wolves” of the Kriegsmarine. However, German physicists failed to bring the work to its logical conclusion and the initiative passed to the United States, which for some time was the only country in the world that had nuclear reactors and bombs.

However, over time, the American military and politicians came to understand that the presence of strategic aviation in foreign territories is associated with the risk of changing the political situation in a particular country, therefore The fleet was increasingly seen as the carrier of atomic weapons in a future war. This trend was finally strengthened after the convincing tests of atomic bombs at Bikini Atoll.

In 1948, American designers completed the development of a nuclear power plant project and began designing and building an experimental reactor. Thus, there were all the prerequisites for creating a fleet of nuclear submarines, which not only had to carry nuclear weapons, but also have a nuclear reactor as a power plant.

On January 21, 1954, in the presence of US President Eisenhower, the Nautilus was launched, and eight months later, on September 30, 1954, it was accepted into service with the US Navy. On January 17, 1955, the Nautilus began sea trials in the open ocean, and its first commander, Eugene Wilkinson, broadcast in clear text: “We are going under atomic propulsion.”

Apart from the completely new Mark-2 power plant, the boat had a conventional design. With a Nautilus displacement of about 4,000 tons, the two-shaft nuclear power plant with a total power of 9,860 kilowatts provided a speed of more than 20 knots. Submerged cruising range was 25 thousand miles with a consumption of 450 grams of U235 per month. Thus, the duration of the voyage depended only on the proper operation of air regeneration means, food supplies and the endurance of the personnel.

At the same time, however, the specific gravity of the nuclear installation turned out to be very large, because of this, it was not possible to install some of the weapons and equipment provided for by the project on Nautilus. The main reason for the weight was biological protection, which includes lead, steel and other materials (about 740 tons). As a result, all the weapons of the Nautilus were 6 bow torpedo tubes with an ammunition load of 24 torpedoes.

As with any new business, it was not without problems. Even during the construction of the Nautilus, and specifically during testing of the power plant, a rupture occurred in the secondary circuit pipeline, through which saturated steam with a temperature of about 220 ° C and under a pressure of 18 atmospheres came from the steam generator to the turbine. Fortunately, it was not the main, but an auxiliary steam line.

The cause of the accident, as established during the investigation, was a manufacturing defect: instead of pipes made of high-quality carbon steel grade A-106, pipes made of the less durable material A-53 were included in the steam pipeline. The accident caused American designers to question the feasibility of using welded pipes in submarine pressure systems. Elimination of the consequences of the accident and the replacement of already installed welded pipes with seamless ones delayed the completion of the construction of the Nautilus for several months.

On May 4, 1958, a fire occurred in the turbine compartment of the Nautilus, traveling submerged from Panama to San Francisco. The fire of oil-soaked port turbine insulation was determined to have started several days before the fire, but its signs were ignored.

The slight smell of smoke was mistaken for the smell of fresh paint. The fire was discovered only when it became impossible for personnel to remain in the compartment due to smoke. There was so much smoke in the compartment that the submariners wearing smoke masks could not find its source.

Two sailors in smoke masks (there were only four such masks on the boat) using knives and pliers began to tear off the smoldering insulation from the turbine body. A column of flame about a meter high emerged from under a torn piece of insulation. Foam fire extinguishers were used. The flames were extinguished and work to remove the insulation continued. People had to be changed every 10-15 minutes, as the acrid smoke penetrated even into the masks. Only four hours later, all the insulation from the turbine was removed and the fire was extinguished.

In May 1958, while preparing the Nautilus for a trip to the North Pole by boat, a water leak occurred in the main condenser of the steam turbine unit. Sea water seeping into the condensate-feeding system could cause salinization of the secondary circuit and lead to failure of the entire power system of the ship.

Repeated attempts to find the location of the leak were unsuccessful, and the submarine commander made an original decision. After the Nautilus arrived in Seattle, sailors in civilian clothes—preparations for the voyage were kept strictly secret—bought all the proprietary fluid from automobile stores to be poured into car radiators to stop leaks.

On July 22, 1958, the Nautilus, under the command of William Andersen, set sail from Pearl Harbor with the goal of reaching the North Pole. It all started when, at the end of 1956, the Chief of Naval Staff, Admiral Burke, received a letter from Senator Jackson. The senator was interested in the possibility of nuclear submarines operating under the pack ice of the Arctic.

This letter was the first sign that forced the command of the American fleet to seriously think about organizing a trip to the North Pole. True, some American admirals considered the idea reckless and were categorically against it. Despite this, the commander of the submarine forces of the Atlantic Fleet considered the polar campaign a decided matter.

On August 19, 1957, the Nautilus headed for the area between Greenland and Spitsbergen. The first test run of the submarine under the pack ice was unsuccessful. When the echo gauge recorded zero ice thickness, the boat tried to surface. Instead of the expected ice hole, the Nautilus encountered a drifting ice floe. The boat's collision with it severely damaged its only periscope, and the commander of the Nautilus decided to return back to the edge of the packs.

The second attempt to reach the pole did not bring results either.. A couple of hours after the Nautilus crossed the 86th parallel, both gyrocompasses failed. Anderson decided not to tempt fate and gave the order to turn - in high latitudes, even a slight deviation from the correct course could be fatal and lead the ship to a foreign shore.

The operation had to be carried out in an atmosphere of strict secrecy - the command was afraid of another failure. Only a small group of people in the government knew about the details of the campaign. To hide the true reason for installing additional navigation equipment on the Nautilus, it was announced that the ship would participate in joint training maneuvers along with the Skate and Halfbeak boats.

On June 9, 1958, the Nautilus set off on its second polar voyage.. When Seattle was far behind, Anderson ordered the submarine's number to be painted over the wheelhouse fence to maintain incognito. On the fourth day of the journey, the Nautilus approached the Aleutian Islands.

Knowing that they would have to go further in shallow water, the ship’s commander ordered the ascent. The Nautilus maneuvered in this area for a long time - looking for a convenient gap in the chain of islands to get to the north. Finally, navigator Jenkins discovered a sufficiently deep passage between the islands. Having overcome the first obstacle, the submarine entered the Bering Sea.

The commander of the Nautilus did not despair - perhaps the eastern passage through the strait would be more welcoming to rare guests. The boat emerged from the Siberian ice and headed south from St. Lawrence Island, intending to sail into deep waters past Alaska. The next few days of the voyage passed without incident, and on the morning of June 17, the submarine reached the Chukchi Sea.

Pressed close to the very bottom, the Nautilus slipped under a huge ice floe at a distance of only one and a half meters from it. It was possible to avoid death only by a miracle. When the recorder pen finally went up, indicating that the boat missed the ice floe, Anderson realized: the operation was a complete failure...

The captain sent his ship to Pearl Harbor. There was still hope that at the end of summer the ice boundary would move to deeper areas, and it would be possible to make another attempt to get closer to the pole. But who will give permission for it after so many failures?

On July 22, a nuclear submarine with obliterated numbers left Pearl Harbor. The Nautilus was moving at top speed. On the night of July 27, Anderson took the ship into the Bering Sea. Two days later, having traveled a 2,900-mile journey from Pearl Harbor, the Nautilus was already cutting through the waters of the Chukchi Sea.

On August 1, the submarine sank under the Arctic pack ice, which in some places went into the water to a depth of twenty meters. Navigating the Nautilus under them was not easy. Anderson himself was on watch almost all the time. The ship's crew was excited about the upcoming event, which they wanted to celebrate properly. Some, for example, proposed to describe twenty-five small circles around the pole. Then the Nautilus could enter the Guinness Book of Records as the ship that was the first in the history of navigation to make 25 trips around the world in one voyage.

Anderson rightly believed that such maneuvers were out of the question - the likelihood of going off course was too great. The commander of the Nautilus was worried about completely different problems. To cross the pole as accurately as possible, Anderson did not take his eyes off the indicators of the electronic navigation devices. On August 3, at twenty-three hours and fifteen minutes, the goal of the campaign - the North Geographic Pole of the Earth - was achieved.

Fifteen minutes later, the helicopter landed in Keflavik next to a transport plane ready to depart. When the plane's wheels touched the landing path of the airfield in Washington, a car sent from the White House was already waiting for Anderson - the president wanted to see the commander of the Nautilus. After the report on the operation, Anderson was again returned aboard the boat, which by this time managed to reach Portland. Six days later, the Nautilus and its commander entered New York with honor. A military parade was organized in their honor...

On March 3, 1980, Nautilus was retired from the fleet after 25 years of service and declared a National Historic Landmark. Plans were drawn up to convert the submarine into a museum for public display. Upon completion of decontamination and a large amount of preparatory work, on July 6, 1985, the Nautilus was towed to Groton (Connecticut). Here at the US Submarine Museum, the world's first nuclear submarine is open to the public.