Origin and history of the Incas. Artistic culture of the Incas
THE INCAS
In the XIV-XVI centuries, the power of a powerful "golden empire" spread on the western coast of South America. Thanks to the leadership of talented architects and engineers, the social life of the Incas reached a very high level. The territory of the state covered all the lands from the southern regions of modern Colombia to Argentina and reached a length of 5000 km. "The Incas believed that they had conquered almost the whole world," wrote National Geographic magazine. And those lands that still remained outside their state did not represent, in their opinion, any value. However, in another part of the world, no one even knew about the existence of their state.
When the rise of the Inca culture (1200-1572) began, all the previous outstanding civilizations of South America left the arena of history or were rapidly approaching sunset. The Inca country was located in the southwestern part of the mainland, stretching from north to south for many thousands of kilometers. During its heyday, 15-16 million people lived on its territory.
All land in the empire was divided into three parts: the fields of the community, the "land of the Sun" (the income from it went to the maintenance of priests and sacrifices), as well as the fields of the state and the Inca (intended to supply the state apparatus, warriors, builders, the Inca himself and his retinue , in case of natural disasters, as well as to the fund for widows, orphans and the elderly). The lands of the priestly fund and the state were cultivated by free residents in their free time, after the allotments of families were cultivated. This additional work was called minka. It was perceived as a necessary, feasible and sacred contribution of everyone to the common cause.
The standard of living of ordinary community members and their families was almost the same (the amount of food, clothing, quality of houses and utensils). There were no starving poor. Those who could not work were provided by the state with the necessary minimum.
The basis of the Inca economy is agriculture and animal husbandry. They cultivated the same plants and those. the same animals as everywhere in Peru. Natural conditions forced the creation of irrigation facilities: dams, canals. The fields were arranged in terraces. The land was cultivated by hand, with special sticks the size of a man.
Handicraft production was well organized. The bulk of goods were produced in the community, and the most skilled potters, gunsmiths, jewelers and weavers were resettled in Cusco. They lived on the maintenance of the Inca and were considered public servants. The best of their works were used for cult needs and gifts, tools and weapons were stored in state warehouses. The Incas achieved great success in metallurgy. Copper and silver deposits were developed. Weaving has received special development. The Incas knew three types of looms, on which they could even make carpets.
In order to meet the food needs of the empire, the Incas had to take a new approach to the use of land, and they successfully coped with this by creating terraces on the slopes of the mountains, straightening the course of some rivers, filling up or draining the swamps, directing water to desert areas. Agricultural terraces of the Incas (andenes) have been preserved in great numbers. They made it possible to make agriculture possible where it could not even be dreamed of before. Today in Peru, thanks to the Inca andenes, about 6 million acres of land are regularly cultivated.
In addition to working in the fields, the community members performed hundreds of other duties: they made pottery, weaved baskets, drove chicha (strong maize beer), were engaged in spinning and weaving to provide for the needs of both their own family and the state in fabrics and clothing.
Cleanliness and neatness of clothing in Inca society was given great attention. Men wore knee-length short trousers (a sign of maturity) and sleeveless shirts, while women wore simple long woolen dresses that were worn over the head and tied at the waist with a wide, elaborately decorated belt. On his feet were sandals made of llama wool. In cold weather, all the Incas wore long and warm cloaks.
In Inca society, no one had the right to spend time in idleness. Even pregnant women were rarely exempted from everyday menial work. Expectant mothers were allowed not to go to the fields only in the later stages of pregnancy, but in other cases they were obliged to do all the work as long as they had the strength. Nevertheless, from the point of view of the Incas, children were a valuable addition to the family, as a future additional labor force. Therefore, abortion was punishable by law death penalty to which both the mother herself and all those involved in her crime were subjected.
Although the Incas demanded that everyone work, they took into account the ability of a person and his state of health. The sick and infirm did not have to earn a living. Everything they needed - food and clothing - they received from state warehouses. They were assigned such tasks that they could perform in accordance with their physical condition. At the same time, the Inca regime, which was extremely pragmatic, did not allow the infirm to distract the strong and healthy inhabitants of the country from work in order to provide themselves with special care. Therefore, according to the law, a person deprived of working capacity due to a physical defect could start a family only with a disabled person like himself.
The elderly also enjoyed special attention from the state. It was believed that a person reaches old age at the age of about fifty years. Such people were no longer considered full-fledged workers, and they were exempted both from labor service (mita) and from taxation in general. However, as long as they were not completely deprived of physical strength, the old men were ordered to perform tasks that did not require much effort: they collected firewood in the forests, looked after babies, cooked food, drove chicha, weaved ropes and ropes, provided all possible assistance with harvesting.
Regarding the presence of writing among the Incas, there is an opinion, especially among non-specialists, that they used the knotted letter - quipu as this. This is not entirely accurate. The fact is that what is traditionally called knot writing performed completely different functions than those performed by writing. It was only a magnificent means of fixing, above all, statistical data. With the help of a kipu special people(kipukamayok), who received special training and belonged to highly respected officials of the empire, recorded all the information that should have been registered or about which Cuzco should have been informed: about the population or troops, the number of weapons or crops, the number of llamas, etc. .. Kipu consisted of several laces. One, thicker, was the base, many thinner multi-colored cords of various lengths and with a certain number of knots were attached to it. This record was based on the Inca decimal counting system. The position of the knot on the lace corresponded to the value of the digital indicators. It could be one, ten, one hundred thousand or even ten thousand. At the same time, a simple knot denoted the number "1", double - "2", triple - "3". In order to read the knot record, it was necessary to know not only the place occupied by the knot on the lace, but also the color of the corresponding lace. The colors of the laces were symbolic. White meant silver and peace, yellow meant gold, black meant sickness or time, red meant the army.
The significance of the quipu was so great in Tahuantinsuyu that one of the Spanish chroniclers even wrote on this occasion: "... The entire Inca empire was ruled by means of the quipu." A large number of copies of the quipu have survived to our time. They differ primarily in size. The largest kippah that has come down to us is 165 cm long and 6 cm wide. Often knots were lowered into the grave to accompany the deceased on his last journey. And yet it can in no way be considered a genuine type of writing. Therefore, it is hardly legitimate to translate the Quechuan word "kipu" using the very common equivalent "knot letter".
It is believed that the Incas had a written language different from what the Europeans used to consider writing. So they just didn't recognize her. The chroniclers mention special canvases kept in temples, on which “everything one needed to know about the past” was drawn, and about the messages of the lords painted on fabrics. Most likely, it was a pictographic letter, accessible only to the nobility; moreover, some scholars are inclined to consider images on ceramic vessels as inscriptions - kero. It is noteworthy that in the Quechua language, which allegedly did not have a written form, however, already in the pre-Hispanic period there were words that testified to the opposite. For example, “sprat” (“kelka”) - “writing” (“letter”), “kilkangi” - “write”, “kilyaskuni” - “read”.
In recent years, the point of view, expressed in a similar interpretation simultaneously in the works of two prominent researchers, has begun to win its adherents. According to this point of view, writing was known to the Incas, but it looked like a lot of peculiar square or rectangular images decorating ancient Peruvian fabrics, as well as kero vessels. A similar pictographic writing, if, of course, it can be considered writing, was also known to the pre-Inca cultures of this country. The idea that these images are signs of writing was first expressed by the Peruvian archaeologist Victoria de la Jara. She came to this conclusion on the basis of a fundamental, months-long study of tissues preserved in the cemeteries of Paracas. Victoria de la Jara found that 16 basic signs are most often repeated on South American fabrics. From the same point of view, these signs are studied by a German scientist, professor at the University of Tübingen, Thomas Bartel. He managed to find up to 400 different signs (tokapu) on the tissues and vessels of ancient Peru, which in all cases have exactly the same spelling. Apparently, these signs were not only a decorative ornament. However, there is no unequivocal evidence that Tokaku signs are really writing yet.
Despite the fact that there are no ancient written texts of Inca literature, it is still known that it had a fairly high level. There were religious and secular hymns, legends, myths, ballads, prayers, short epics, poems and fables, songs and elegies. Their authors lived at the palaces of the rulers. Among them, poets-philosophers and lyricists are distinguished, but their work remained nameless.
The pearl of world drama is the Inca drama in verse "Apu-Olyantai". She talked about a courageous and noble commander, a native of the provincial aristocracy, who dared to fall in love with the daughter of the greatest Pachacuti - Kusi Koylur ("Laughing Star") - and achieve her reciprocal love. To this day, this drama is still on the stage of the Indian theater of Latin America.
The Incas were good musicians. There were only five sounds in their sound range (do, re, fa, salt, la), but this did not prevent them from playing bone and metal flutes, drums, tambourines and water vessels, the neck of which was covered with leather, as well as reed or clay Andean pipes. To the sound of music, the people of Tahuantinsuyu often danced. The dances were mostly magical and ritual in nature, but sometimes they were performed just for fun. There were several types of dance: male military, shepherd, secular, folk.
The inhabitants of the great empire of the sun could not only dance. Among them were good mathematicians, astronomers, engineers and doctors. The basis of Inca science was mathematics. It was based on the decimal system and marked the beginning of the development of statistics. Mathematics has found wide application in astronomy. Observatories were placed throughout Peru, where the days of the solstice and equinox were determined, they observed the Sun, Moon, Venus, Saturn, Mars, Mercury, the constellations of the Pleiades, Southern Cross. The Inca solar year was divided into twelve months of thirty days each, plus one additional month of five days.
Tahuantinsuyu had its own geographers and cartographers who made excellent relief maps, as well as historians. There was even a post of official historian of the empire, who was elected from the relatives of the great ruler.
But medicine is recognized as the most developed science in the state. Diseases were considered the result of sin, so priests and healers were engaged in medical practice. They treated with magic tricks, fasting, bloodletting, washing the stomach and intestines, as well as herbs. In severe cases, they resorted to operations (craniotomy, amputation of limbs). They used a special way of treating wounds - with the help of ants, as well as painkillers, such as coca, which was highly valued. Evidence of the effectiveness of Inca medicine was the longevity of the inhabitants of the empire - 90-100 years.
A brilliant example of the urban art of the Incas is their capital - the city of Cusco. Cuzco was the capital and symbol of the empire - a fairy tale of stone and gold. Here were the residence of the Inca, the main authorities, the ritual center and city services. It was an important economic and cultural point, where funds were distributed, taxes were paid and the most important educational establishments, where for four years they taught everything that the Incas had achieved.
The city is considered one of major capitals world of the times of the conquest. In the XVI century. about 200 thousand inhabitants lived in it and there were more than 25 thousand houses painted in bright colors, decorated with marble and jasper, gold door and window frames. Cusco even had running water and sewerage. The city was built according to a predetermined plan and was distinguished by thoughtfulness. Surprises so high location capital of the Incas (more than 3000 m above sea level). The valley in which Cusco is located is surrounded on all sides by mountains and is open to penetration only from the southeast. The outlines of the city resembled the body of a cougar, which is why it was a symbol of the city. The imperial capital was divided into upper Cusco - Hanan-Cusco and lower - Urin-Cusco.
The palace-residence of the high priest and five beautiful buildings, in which his assistants lived, adjoin the great temple. These buildings were covered with straw, which was woven with golden threads. Nearby was temple of the moon lined with silver. Its altar in the form of a night deity was guarded by the mummies of the deceased spouses of the Incas.
On the other side of the building complex were the shrines to Thunder, Lightning, and Rainbow. And not far from it was the fantastic golden garden of Cuzco - half natural, half artificial. According to legend, water flowed here through golden gutters, and in the center of the garden there was also an octagonal fountain covered with gold. The whole world of the Incas was reproduced here from life-size gold: fields of ears, shepherds and llamas with cubs, trees and shrubs, flowers and fruits, birds and butterflies. Unique creations the people of the Incas gave skillful craftsmen to pay a ransom for the life of the last supreme Inca - Atahualpa (1532-1572).
There were many amazing things in Cusco, but nevertheless, the citadel of Machu Picchu (circa 1500) is considered the main wonder of South America. Machu Picchu, the last Inca fortress, is located high in the Andes, 120 km east of the capital, on rugged terrain, but the builders of the fortress were able to turn the disadvantages of the landscape into advantages, achieving unity architectural structures with the environment. The pointed battlements of the main fortress tower seem to be part of the mountain, and the stone terraces are in strict accordance with the curves of the rocks. All buildings in Machu Picchu are located at different heights, so there are more than 100 stairs in the citadel. The center of the city-fortress is considered to be "the place where the Sun is tied" - an observatory carved into the rock. Next to it are the temple of the Sun, the temple of the "Three Windows" (with three of the largest trapezoidal windows in Peru) and the palace of the high priest. This is the first part of the city. Its second part - the Royal Quarter - is made up of a semicircular fortress tower emerging from the rocks. Palace of the Princess - the residence of the wife of the ruler and the Royal Palace of the Inca. The third part of the fortress was a quarter of residential houses of ordinary residents. The whole city was surrounded by powerful ramparts.
Most of the monuments of pre-Columbian art are found in burials on the coast. Fewer objects with plot images were found in the mountains, and they date mainly from the Huari-Tiaunaco era or even more. early time. In the pre-Dinsk period, the geometric style dominated here everywhere.
The art of the Incas is not well known. The figurines that archaeologists find in burials are weakly individualized and are most likely associated with the world of lower mythology, with the veneration of spirits and ancestors. Inca vessels and fabrics are covered with geometric ornaments or decorated with artistically perfect, but thematically inexpressive images of people and animals. It was only under the influence of the Spaniards that a peculiar figured style of lacquer painting on cups developed in Cusco, but the plots presented on the vessels of the 16th-17th centuries are not of a purely Indian character.
Vessel. Ceramics. Inca culture
LECTURE
The Art of American Civilizations. pre-Columbian era. Aztecs. Mayan. The Incas.
M. Stingl. Secrets of the Indian pyramids., M .: Progress, 1982.
M. Stingl. Star worshipers. In the footsteps of the disappeared Peruvian states, M.: Progress, 1983.
M. Stingl. State of the Incas. Glory and death of the “sons of the Sun”, Moscow: Progress, 1986.
One of the characteristic features of the art of pre-Columbian America is the existence of a huge number of different cultures, each of which had a special, unique style. Only in the territory of Mexico there were about 11 thousand of them.
Among these cultures, the three most significant are:
· Aztec culture (Central Mexico);
· Mayan culture ( Southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras);
· Inca culture (Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador).
Aztec culture.
Culture has evolved over nearly four centuries, beginning with XII V. Until 1521, when the Spanish conquistadors (conquerors) destroyed the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan (ancient Mexico City). Cartes, the leader of the conquistadors, fell in love with Marina (a name that came to Europe from the Aztecs), the daughter of the last leader of the Aztecs, Mantesula. It was only by chance that Cartes managed to defeat the Aztecs. Wounded, he snatched a spear from the leader, and the Aztec troops began to obey him.
Most of the stone buildings of the Aztecs have come down to us badly damaged. These are primarily tetrahedral pyramids, on which temples or palaces were located. The Aztecs believed that every half century begins new period in the development of the world, and in accordance with this they renovated temples and palaces. The previously built temple, together with the pyramid, was covered with several layers of masonry, so that it turned out to be inside the updated pyramid, on top of which another temple was built. In one of the pyramids in Tenayuca, 8 successively walled-up temples were found. Sometimes palaces and temples on the peaks were built of wood, but they have not been preserved.
Aztec sculpture is distinguished by rigor and schematism. They created huge cult statues, sometimes remotely resembling a person and made up of symbolic images: corn cobs, fangs, etc. For example, the statue of the goddess of the Earth and Fertility Coatlicue.
Few paintings have survived. Bright decorative “mosaics” made of feathers glued onto dense fabric and works of the finest jewelry art have come down to us.
On the territory of Mexico, the bloodiest cult in the history of mankind associated with the planet Venus appeared. A wall of skulls covered with clay was found here.
Uxmal is a complex of ancient American culture. The Palace of the Rulers in Uxmal is located on an artificial platform 200´ 170 m. height 12m. The palace itself has the following dimensions 98 12 8.5 m. The upper part of the Supreme Palace is decorated with a huge relief. The main character of the relief is the god of Rain and Fertility Chak. Chuck is a mediator deity between God and man, this is a guardian dwarf.
There was a cult of the Feathered Serpent among the Teotihuacans, Toltecs, then the Aztecs. People worshiped him as the giver of civilization.
Mayan culture.
A vibrant culture created by the Mayan peoples. Already in II-III centuries AD Mayan tribes founded small city-states headed by priests and aristocracy.
Like the Aztecs, the Maya built their buildings on stone foundations. Two types of structures are more common: temples on top of the pyramids; vast palaces on high stone pillars(bases) that formed around an open courtyard. Mayan houses were usually built on the ledges of a natural or artificial hill, which made their buildings seem to be multi-story. Maya architecture is more picturesque and richer decorated than that of the Aztecs. The facades of buildings were decorated with geometric ornaments, reliefs and masks of deities. Sometimes the mass of the wall is completely hidden under the stone lace. Columns are often used. Notable monuments of this culture: the temple of the Sun in Palenque, the temple of the Jaguars and the temple of the Warriors in Chichen Itza. Four staircases of 91 steps lead to the top of the Kukulkan pyramid in Chichen Itza (91´ 4=364). At the top of the sanctuary of Kukulkan - Quetzalcoatl there is another 365th step. The pyramid is decorated with 52 reliefs. The Toltecs introduced the Venusian calendar and the highest calendar cycle - 52 years (365 days each) into the Mayac culture
Sculpture has reached a high development. In accordance with the very complex Mayan calendar, stone steles with reliefs were erected every 20 years. On the front side of the stele, a figure of a deity or ruler was depicted. The remaining three sides were covered with hierographic inscriptions.
Mayan culture reached its peak in VIII - IX centuries AD At this time, complex reliefs with multi-figure compositions appeared (stele of Piedras Negras, 795). The Maya had palaces, temples, monasteries, observatories, court yards, markets, ceremonial grounds, and steam bath buildings. They created underground stone reservoirs - Chultuny. Reservoirs were carved into the rocks, connected by canals and served to accumulate rainwater. The Maya built roads - sakbe (covering - lime concrete, compacted with a stone skating rink), but they did not know the wheel.
The Maya have no central government, no capital, all cities are equal.
The best examples of Maya painting are the frescoes of the temple in Bonampak (opened in 1946). Three rooms of the temple are covered with murals depicting preparation for battle, the battle and the celebration after the battle. Masters used pure, bright colors. The color was associated with a certain symbolism. The ancient inhabitants of Mexico, noticing a red figure in the composition, knew that it was about the god of the Earth Xipetoteca, thus, about the eastern sky with its meanings of sunrise, youth and spring.
Above the sacrificial priests, the prophet-priests and the Sun-priests, stood the high priest of the Mayacian state. He was also Master of Hierographic Writing, Chief Astrologer and Astronomer.
Inca culture.
The Inca Empire existed for a relatively short time from the beginning XV V. until 1532, when the country was captured by the Spanish conquerors. The writing of the Incas is not fully deciphered. The capital was the city of Cusco, famous for its Golden Garden (perhaps the masters who created it were from the Chimu people).
The architecture is simple and unadorned. Temples, dwellings, fortresses are made of huge boulders (up to 350 tons in weight) very precisely fitted to each other, but not fastened with binding solutions (Saxahuaman fortress). The houses had powerful stone walls and cramped interior spaces. Most of the houses have no windows and are lit through the doors. According to the descriptions of travelers, the buildings were originally decorated with wide belts of thick gold plates. The use of precious metals not as money, but as a decorative material is typical of the Incas. For example, in the Temple of the Sun in the city of Cuzco, several rooms are decorated with images of the Sun, Moon, rainbow and stars made of gold, silver and precious stones. Unlike Central America, the Incas built pyramids up to 40m high. not for temples, but for burials. Trapezoidal entrances and niches are characteristic features of Inca architecture.
Stone sculpture almost did not develop among the Incas.
The art of making and painting ceramics has been developed. It is conditionally divided into several periods. In the first period, scenes of battle, fishing, mythological scenes are depicted on the vessels. In the second period, the paintings practically disappear, but the vessels themselves turn into real sculpture. Most often, the vessels were made in the shape of a human head, sometimes conveying individual features. Later vessels appear in the form of animals, fruits and plants.
The main food of the Incas is potatoes (including canned ones), corn, and pumpkins. The Incas cultivated coca, a narcotic plant. In the empire, there was a clear division of the population into the elite and the bulk of the inhabitants. By law, the Inca (ruler of the empire) married his sister, who became his legal wife and, as a rule, the mother of the heir. In addition to the main wife, he had a harem and could live with any of the nuns of the monasteries, as he was the incarnation of the sun god on Earth. The heir was appointed during the life of the ruler by the rite of public hair cutting. The future heir helped his father and learned management. There were 10 age groups of the population, each of which had certain rights and obligations. Group 1: infants. Group 2: children under 2 years old. Group 3: children playing. Group 4: children 9-12 years old. Group 5: teenagers 12-18 years old. Group 6: 18-25 years old - serving in the army. Group 7: 25-50 years old - married and running a household. Group 8: 50-80 years old - old people. Group 9: 80 years and older - deaf old people. 10 group: sick.
There were no uprisings in the state. This social system provided old age security. It is therefore sometimes called "Indian socialism". There was no money in the empire, only barter in the market. Gold is used as decoration. The army is well trained and equipped (maces with stone or metal ends). There were excellent roads and a post office. The messengers ran from parking to parking for about two kilometers, as a result of the relay race, 2000 km were overcome in 3 days. The Incas composed poems that were later written down by the Jesuits. Quipu knot writing is widespread, on which you can count up to 1,000,000. Nobles studied at universities for 4 years, where she studied the Quechua language, solar religion, quipu knot writing, history and military affairs. The Incas wove dense fabrics, with a density of 80´ 45 threads/cm (modern parachute fabric has a density of 60´ 30 threads/cm). They performed operations, including trepanation of the skull.
The last Inca was called Tupac Omaru.
Additional information.
The oldest cultures of Peru are related to III millennium BC
Close to Lima there was a culture at that time, whose representatives did not know about the existence of metals, but erected clay and stone temples on artificial platforms. The Temple of the Crossed Hands is famous. Later, this gesture-sign is found in Colombia.
culture Chavin associated with the cult of the Jaguar was common at the end II - the middle of the I millennium BC
culture Nazca(middle II V. BC) corresponds to the valleys of the rivers Ica, Pisco and Nazca. Here was found the "wooden Stonehenge of Peru" - the sanctuary of Escuqueria. It consists of hundreds of dried mesquite trunks. The center of the composition is a square formed by 12 rows of 12 columns each. Found gigantic images in the Nazca desert. The Pampa de Nasca Gallery is platforms, lines, spirals, human and animal "figuras" (geoglyphs). The head of a giant bird (length 120m) is directed to the point of sunrise on the day of the winter solstice. According to M. Stingl, the Indians buried the deceased with a triangular-shaped balloon. The deceased was placed in a wicker basket at sunset, the balloon rose above the sea and disappeared over the horizon.
culture Mochica ( I - VII centuries BC) left behind the pyramids of the Sun and the Moon. In Pampa Grande. The Pyramid of the Sun has a base of 342´ 159 m. Gold items are unique. The legend of the existence of a golden garden has come down to us and eyewitness accounts of a room with five thousand golden butterflies, each of which weighed less than a gram and soared in the air with slight fluctuations in the air. Butterflies were melted down by the conquerors. As a result, they received 4 kg 700 g of pure gold. Around Lake Titicaca, many chulpas were found - burial towers of rectangular and cylindrical, expanded upwards.
According to legend, the founder of the Chimu culture sailed to Peru from the north with his detachment on rafts. His name is Naimlan. "Naym" means "bird" or "flight". Chimu built the city of Chan Chan with an area of 18 square meters. km. The city is surrounded by two rows of defensive walls and is divided into 10 quarters 450´ 300 m. In many respects, the customs that prevailed in the state of Chimu differed little from the customs XXV V. Incas. In the 1460s Two cultures collided - the coastal culture of Chimu, worshiping the moon, and the mountain culture of the Incas, worshiping the Sun. The victory remained for the second. Clay reliefs depicting birds, fish, lizards, foxes, and ornaments have been preserved from the Chimu culture. Since ancient times, the supreme deity in Peru has been depicted framed by a snake arch, surrounded by predators. The arch symbolized the rainbow, the Milky Way, thunder, the firmament.
culture Olmec- one of the cultures ancient mexico. San Lorenzo - the capital of the Olmecs - was abandoned for unknown reasons in 900. The second capital of the "jaguar" Indians was La Venta. Huge stone heads found in La Venta.
Tribes Chol and Zelltal left in Palenque (Mexico) the famous ensemble, in which the tower of the palace, a 4-storey building, was also an observatory.
Interesting culture of the Toltecs. The Pyramid of the Morning Star in Tula (Tollan) has been preserved.
The history of the Inca civilization begins from 1200 BC. e. The most prominent culture at this stage is Chavin. The next cultures were Paracas, Mochica, Ica-Nasca until 1200, when the culture of the "golden empire" appears. It was this period of development of the Inca culture from 1200. to 1572 is considered in the thesis.
In the XIV-XVI centuries, the power of a powerful “golden empire” spread on the western coast of South America. Thanks to the leadership of talented architects and engineers, the social life of the Incas reached a very high level. The territory of the state covered all the lands from the southern regions of modern Colombia to Argentina and reached a length of 5000 km. The Incas believed that they conquered almost the whole world, and those lands that still remained outside their state did not represent, in their opinion, any value. However, in another part of the world, no one even knew about the existence of their state.
Who are these Incas? What is their origin? Legends tell about the origin of this people. The sun god Inti sadly observed the life of people on earth: after all, they lived worse than wild animals, in poverty and ignorance. Once taking pity on them, Inti sent his children to the people: son Manco Capac and daughter Mama Oklio. Having given them a staff of pure gold, the divine father ordered them to settle down where the staff would easily enter the ground. It happened not far from the village of Pakari-Tambo, lying at the foot of the Wanakauri hill. In fulfillment of the divine will of the Sun, his children stayed and founded the city, which they named Cusco. They gave religion and laws to the people who lived there, men were taught to cultivate the land, mine rare metals and process them, and women were taught to weave and run a household. Having created the state, Manco Capac became its first Inca - the ruler, and Mama Oklo - his wife.
severe natural conditions(oxygen deficiency, low atmospheric pressure, low land fertility) and rapid population growth necessitated the struggle for survival and expansion of the occupied territory. At the same time, the Incas resettled the indigenous inhabitants of the conquered territories in the internal regions of the state, and their lands were settled by people from the central regions of the empire; as state language the Quechua language was introduced. When the ascent of the Inca culture began, all the previous outstanding civilizations of South America left the arena of history or were rapidly approaching sunset. During its heyday, 15-16 million people lived on its territory.
The Incas were the great state of pre-Columbian America, or, as the Incas themselves called their country, Tahuantinsuyu or "Land of the Four Parts". The last name is due to the fact that the country was divided into four provinces: Kuntinsuyu, Colyasuyu, Antisuyu and Chinchasuyu with the capital in the city of Cusco. indian tribe language family Quechua. Descendants of a people who settled in the Cuzco Valley, located at an altitude of more than 11,000 feet above sea level, the Incas began to develop their culture only after 1200 AD. e. Although the capital city of Cuzco grew steadily, their power remained rather limited. Then in 1438 Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui seized the throne. Calling himself "Earth Shaker", he and his troops made a campaign across all the Andes, conquering some states, negotiating with others, trying to unite several neighboring countries into a single powerful empire. Pachacuti rebuilt Cuzco, turning the capital into a city with beautiful stone palaces and temples. His provinces were governed by numerous disciplined, well-functioning bureaucrats, who stood in defense of the interests of the state. His successor, the son of Topa Inca, who came to power in 1471, dealt such a crushing blow to the Chimu that he secured complete control of this entire vast region, stretching from Ecuador to the heart of Chile. Having consolidated their power, the Incas achieved an unprecedented rise in culture. Armies marched along the extensive road network and trade took place.
From the mists of legend and myth, the Incas emerge around 1438 when they defeat the neighboring Chaika people. The organizer of this victory, the son of the ruler of Cuzco - Viracocha Inca - took over the supreme power, and with it the name of Pachacuti. The historicity of his personality is beyond doubt. Further expansion of the Incas unfolded mainly in the southern and southeastern directions. In the middle of the 15th century, the Incas intervened in the struggle between the Aymara leaders and, as a result, relatively easily subjugated the area around Lake Titicaca. Here the Incas took possession of colossal herds of llamas and alpacas. Pachacuti declared animals royal property. From now on, the armies of Cusco did not need vehicles, clothing and food.
Together with his heir Tupac Yupanqui, Pachacuti organized a large northern campaign, during which the Inca state finally approved its status as an empire, striving to unite the entire ancient Peruvian ecumene. The Inca expansion on the plateau near Titicaca brought them close to confrontation with the kingdom of Chimor. The ruler of the latter - Minchansaman - also began to expand his possessions. However, both the highlanders and the inhabitants of the lowlands tried to delay an open clash. Both experienced difficulties when they found themselves in an unusual landscape and climatic zone. Tupac Yupanqui led an army into mountainous Ecuador, where he had to wage a grueling struggle with local tribes. The Incas tried to make forays into the coastal plain of Ecuador, but the hot marshy land turned out to be unattractive for people accustomed to the mountain air. In addition, its large population actively resisted. In the late 60s - early 70s of the XV century, it was decided to attack Chimor. The victory remained with the Incas, although the peace concluded by the kingdom of Chimor was relatively honorable for the latter. Only after the uprising that soon broke out, the coastal state was finally defeated. Chimor lost all possessions outside of Moche, and Inca military posts settled in this valley itself.
After the death of Pachacuti, Tupac Yupanqui set off on a new campaign. Without much difficulty, the small states and tribes of the central and southern coast of Peru were subordinated to them. The Incas met with stubborn resistance only in the small valley of Cañete, south of Lima. Even easier than the capture of the southern coast of Peru was the conquest of thousands of kilometers of space south of Titicaca. Small groups of herders, farmers and fishermen in the local oases were not able to put up any noticeable resistance to his army. After the southern campaign of Tupac Yupanqui, the empire reached its natural boundaries. The peoples living on the plateau in the mountain valleys and in the oases of the Pacific coast were united under one authority. The Inca rulers tried to push the borders of their state also to the east. Tupac Yupanqui's successor Huayna Capac defeated the Chachapoya tribes in the Eastern Cordillera. However, further east - to the Amazon - the Incas could not advance. The eastern frontier was the only one that needed permanent protection. Here the Incas erected a series of fortresses, and on the territory of modern Bolivia, these fortresses were even connected by a stone wall stretching along the ridges of the mountains, almost 200 km long.
Under Huayne Capac (1493-1525), the Inca Empire reached its apogee. After his death, an internecine war broke out between the two pretenders to the Inca throne - Atahualpa and Huascar, which ended with the victory of Atahualpa. Pissarro took advantage of this struggle, luring Atahualpa into a trap. Taking a huge ransom in gold from Atahualpa, the Spaniards then executed him and placed Huascar's younger brother Manco Capac on the throne. The latter soon raised an uprising, but was unable to recapture Cuzco and led his supporters northwest of the capital, where he created the so-called New Inca kingdom in a remote mountainous region. Its last ruler was executed by the Spaniards in 1572.
In 1524, Francisco Pissarro, together with Diego de Almagro and the priest Hernando de Luque, organized an expedition to the undiscovered territories of South America. In 1527, Pissarro entered the Inca city of Tumbes. From the locals, he learns about in large numbers gold and silver decorating gardens and temples in the depths of their lands. Around the same time, Huayna Capaca (Sapa Inca) dies. And among his close associates begins a struggle for power. With the help of cunning and force, the throne is captured by one of the sons of Huayn Capac Atualpa. In 1532, Pissarro and Almagro returned to Tumbes along with 160 well-armed adventurers. On the site of the once flourishing city, they found only ruins. He suffered greatly from the epidemic, and then from civil war. As a result, Pissarro goes to the court of Atahualpa. Learning about the movement of white people within his country, Atahualpa invites them to visit him. From the words of the ambassador, he understood that the Spaniards looked and were friendly. During a meeting with the ambassador, Pissarro made gifts to the monarch and talked a lot about peace. Pissarro placed his men in an open area, in the main square of the city of Cajamarck. He sent Hernando de Soto to pay his respects to Atahualpa, so that he tried to seduce him with his offer to meet in person. Atahualpa agrees to pay a visit to Pissarro in Cajamarca. Pissarro, following the example of Cortes, who conquered the mighty Aztec empire by kidnapping the emperor, began to prepare his ambush.
At dawn, Pissarro posted his men in the buildings around the square. At sunset, the imperial procession approached the square. Atahualpa was carried by 80 servants on a wooden stretcher, inlaid with gold and decorated on all sides with parrot feathers. They came without weapons. In the square they saw only one Dominican monk in a cassock with a cross in one and a Bible in the other hand. According to Spanish law, the invaders were obliged to provide the savages with the opportunity to accept the "true faith". Atualpa refuses insulting words, and Pissarro, with almost no loss, captures the ruler of the Incas. Realizing that white people were attracted by gold, he decided to pay off, offering for his freedom to fill the rooms in which he was staying with gold, and also “fill the Indian hut with silver” twice. Instead of releasing Atahualpa with such a proposal, he signed his death warrant. By ordering to break all the gold in Cuzco, and delivering it to the Spaniards, he only ignited their passion for the precious metal. The Incas did not perceive gold and silver as something valuable. For them, it was just beautiful metal. They called gold "sweat of the sun" and silver "tears of the moon". For them, fabrics were valuable, as it took a lot of time to make them.
At a meeting of the council, headed by Pissarro himself, it was decided to burn Atahualpa. Pissarro understood what benefits a local ruler under Spanish control promised him. He opted for Huayna Capac's son, Manco Inca. When the Spaniards arrived in Cuzco, they were greeted as well-wishers who restored the rightful ruling branch of the Incas, although all the mummies were safely hidden before their appearance. But the atrocities perpetrated by the Spaniards led to the fact that Manco flatly refused to cooperate and attempted to leave Cuzco. The Spaniards returned him to the capital in chains. As a result, Manco again, but successfully, escapes. As soon as he got out of Cuzco, he called on his people to revolt. The matter ended with the siege of Cusco, which lasted almost a whole year. The hopelessness of the siege became clear when reinforcements arrived from Spain. After the failure of the siege of Cuzco, Manco took 20,000 of his compatriots with him into the dense jungle. There they built the new city of Vilcabamba in a short time. From this city, the Incas sometimes raided the conquerors, attacking outposts. In 1572, the Spaniards decided to do away with this last stronghold, as evidence of the former power of the natives. When they reached Vilcabamba, they found only deserted ruins on the site of the city. The defenders, before leaving the city, burned it. The Spaniards continued the pursuit, penetrating further and further into the jungle. As a result, they captured the last leader of the Incas, Tupac Amaru. He was brought to Cusco and beheaded in the town square. Thus ended the dynasty of the Inca rulers.
Huge amounts of gold and silver were exported to Spain. Art objects, as a rule, were melted down before export. The most beautiful products were delivered to the court of Charles V, then they were put on public display in Seville. When Charles began to lack funds for military campaigns, these outstanding works of Inca art were ordered to be melted down. The result of the fifty-year stay of the Spaniards was the reduction of the indigenous population - by three quarters. Many died from diseases brought from the Old World, and many from hard labor.
Thus, the great Inca empire perished at the hands of a more cunning and powerful enemy - the Spaniards. The culture of the people, who seized vast territories, built magnificent structures, and had a well-organized army, was destroyed to the ground. There is very little archaeological evidence of its existence. We mostly know about the Inca culture from the records of the Spaniards. The Inca civilization developed rapidly. Literally a few decades were enough for them to reach such a high level: a clear control apparatus, an organized army, cities with powerful structures. The Incas, like the Aztecs, came to the lands where ancient civilizations already existed before them, and also did not have much time before the invasion of the Spaniards to rally the newly defeated peoples around them. Comparing them with other civilizations, you immediately find that in the life and religion of the Incas there was much less mysticism and philosophy than the Aztecs or Mayans. But the Incas had great organizational skills aimed at creating one of the most consolidated theocratic empires in the history of mankind. While the Aztecs were renowned for their rich heritage of philosophical treatises and knowledge of astronomy, the Incas achieved an unsurpassed level of urbanization, including a sophisticated transportation system that linked their highland capital of Cuzco with the entire Andean region.
This presentation describes the best masterpieces of Inca art. The purpose of the presentation is to tell about the ancient people of the Incas, and about their contribution to culture and art, to demonstrate handicrafts that have survived to this day.
The Inca people are an Indian tribe that inhabited South America before Christopher Columbus reached its shores. The presentation contains examples amazing architecture Incas, their very high and strong pyramids of stone. The places of accumulation of the Inca pyramids are indicated, among which the most famous are Mount Macho Piccho in Peru, the temple of the Sun, the Temple of the Moon. Photographs of Inca household items are also shown, these are numerous jewelry, silver dishes, clay pots.
It is worth highlighting the products of the Incas made of gold. Skillful golden masks are of the greatest interest. Other items made of gold are also presented. The Incas were skillfully able to make special holes in the human skull in order to wear jewelry, which implies that they were quite good surgeons.
Artistic culture of the Incas
Inca art gravitated towards rigor and beauty. Weaving from llama wool was distinguished by a high artistic level, although it was inferior in richness of decor to the fabrics of the peoples of the Costa. Carving of semi-precious stones and shells, which the Incas received from the coastal peoples, was widely practiced.
Architecture. In the field of material culture, the Incas achieved the most impressive accomplishments in architecture. Although Inca architecture is inferior to Mayan in richness of decor and Aztec in emotional impact, it has no equal in that era either in the New or Old World in terms of boldness of engineering solutions, grandiose scales of urban planning, and skillful arrangement of volumes. Inca monuments, even in ruins, are amazing in their number and size. An idea of the high level of Inca urban planning is given by the Machu Picchu fortress, built at an altitude of 3000 m in a saddle between two peaks of the Andes. Inca architecture is characterized by extraordinary plasticity. The Incas erected buildings on the processed surfaces of rocks, fitting stone blocks together without lime mortar, so that the building was perceived as a natural element of the natural environment. In the absence of rocks, bricks baked in the sun were used.
Inca craftsmen were able to cut stones according to given patterns and work with huge stone blocks. The fortress of Sascahuaman, which protected Cusco, is undoubtedly one of the greatest creations of fortification art. 460 m long, the fortress consists of three tiers of stone walls overall height 18 m. The walls have 46 ledges, corners and buttresses. In the cyclopean masonry of the foundation, there are stones weighing more than 30 tons with beveled edges. It took at least 300,000 stone blocks to build the fortress. All the stones are irregularly shaped, but fitted together so tightly that the walls have withstood countless earthquakes and deliberate attempts at destruction. The fortress has towers, underground passages, living quarters and an internal water supply system. The Incas began building in 1438 and finished 70 years later, in 1508. According to some estimates, 30 thousand people were involved in the construction.
The Incas are one of the Indian tribes that lived in South America before Christopher Columbus discovered it. Examples of the masterpiece and amazing architecture of the Incas are shown, who could build pyramids of stone, very high and strong. The places of the largest accumulation of pyramids, such as the Temple of the Sun, Mount Macho Piccho in Peru, are highlighted. Items used by the ancient Incas in everyday life are shown. These are numerous clay pots, silverware, and jewelry.
It is worth noting the products of the Incas made of gold. Most Interest are elaborate golden masks. Other items made of Inca gold are also shown. It is noted that these people were good surgeons and knew how to make special holes in the skull for wearing jewelry.
The presentation is complemented by beautiful photographs of those places and household items of the Incas that have survived to this day thanks to the efforts of archaeologists.
Inca Golden Lama
Gold was revered by the Incas not only for its alleged connection with the Sun, but also for its apparent immutability: unlike silver and copper, gold is not stained and does not rot like the food and textile industries. The monopoly over the use and distribution of gold was one of the manifestations of the power of the Incas, and was based on the idea that gold was a representation of the Sun on Earth. Therefore, the emperor, even after his death, was put into the grave of gold items, among which there are lamas like the one shown in the illustration. For the Incas, the llama is a symbol of wealth, because the llama provided everything necessary for life, therefore, it was also considered to be in demand even after death.
Tiny figures of llamas were made, as a rule, from forged gold sheets, to which certain parts of the body were attached by soldering: ears, tail, etc. Gold, unlike silver and copper, was rarely mined, and was usually obtained by panning river sand or by looting the cemeteries and graves of neighboring tribes. For the Incas, only their own dead deserved respect.
Inca goldsmiths used the same methods of smelting and working gold as their predecessors, but still did not reach the same heights as their predecessors.
Sacred Valley of the Incas
The Sacred Valley of the Incas is located in the Andes, near the capital of the Inca Empire, Cusco, and the ancient city of Machu Picchu. In colonial documents, it is called the Yukai Valley.
The Sacred Valley of the Incas includes the territories located between the Colca Canyon, the cities of Pisac and Ollantaytambo. Due to its climatic and geographical features, the valley was highly valued by the Incas, who created agricultural terraces here. Cereals, potatoes, coca, vegetables and fruits were grown here.
Now in the Sacred Valley of the Incas, all conditions have been created for active rest: hiking, mountain biking, rafting and hang gliding.
Sources: pwpt.ru, otvet.mail.ru, prezentacii.com, zen-designer.ru, www.mits.ru
bohemian grove
Space Fighter Spiral
Attractions of the Abinsk region
Anomalous zones of Russia on the map
New processors from IBM will analyze the human brain in real time
Ukraine is one of the largest countries in Europe. Recently, despite various problems within the country, Ukraine attracts all...
"Colossi of Memnon"
On the spacious plain that stretches around Thebes, between the Nile and the Valley of the Kings, one can see the remains of a monumental avenue that led to the temple of Amenophis III. The temple, unfortunately, has disappeared, ...
City of Kitezh - the legend of the mysterious city
The city of Kitezh is a mysterious ancient city of Rus'. One of the most famous legends connects him with the name of the great noble prince Georgy Vsevolodovich. ...
Expeditions to Antarctica
“No man will ever dare to penetrate further south than I did,” wrote in his diary English navigator James...
Palermo
Seaside Southern City Sicily is not like other Italian cities. Palermo is filled with Christian shrines that adorn the red domes. Island on...
Athens city - the capital of Greece
Shopping areas in Athens are concentrated in the city center. The largest department stores are located at the beginning of Ermou Street, on Metropoleos Street there are jewelry stores...
Schooner Marlborough
In the boundless expanses of the oceans, a huge number of ships drift, which, for one reason or another, ended up without a crew. From the year...
It is believed that The Incas came to the Cusco Valley, where they founded the capital of the empire, around 1200. The American archaeologist J. X. Rowe, who excavated in the Cusco region, suggested that before the first half of the 15th century. the Inca state owned only a few mountain valleys, and the countdown of the imperial period began from 1438 - the date when the ruler of the Inca state, Pachacuti Yupanqui, defeated the warlike Chunk Indians and annexed them to his state " western part Sveta". However, the Inca civilization certainly carried out expansion before the defeat of the Chunk, but it was directed mainly to the south of Cuzco.
In 1470, the Inca armies approached the capital. After a long siege, the Chimu empire fell. Many skilled artisans were resettled by the winners in their capital, Cuzco. Soon the Incas conquered other states, including them in their new empire: Chincha in the south of Peru, Cuismanca, which united the coastal valleys of the central part of the country, including the temple city of Pachacamac, the small states of Cajamarca and Sikan in the north.
But the legacy of the Chimu Empire was not lost. The Inca Empire did not destroy the capital of Chan Chan and kept roads, canals, terraced fields intact, making these lands one of the most prosperous provinces. The centuries-old culture of the Indians of Peru became the basis of an ancient civilization.
From amazing wonders and treasures Inca empire Almost nothing has survived to this day. Having captured the ruler of the Incas, Ataualitu, the Spaniards demanded - and received - as a ransom for his life 7 tons of gold and about 14 tons of silver items, which were immediately melted down into ingots. After the conquistadors executed Ataualita, the Incas collected and hid the gold that remained in the temples and palaces.
The search for the missing gold continues to this day. If someday archaeologists are lucky enough to find this legendary treasury, we will undoubtedly learn about the civilization " children of the sun" a lot of new. Now the number of products of Inca masters can be counted on the fingers - these are gold and silver figurines of people and lamas, magnificent gold vessels and breast discs, as well as traditional crescent-shaped tumi knives. Combining their own technology with the traditions of the Chimu jewelers, the Inca metallurgists achieved perfection in the processing of precious metals. Spanish chroniclers recorded the story of the golden gardens that adorned the temples dedicated to the Sun. Two of them are authentically known - in the coastal city of Tumbes in the north of the empire and in the main sanctuary of Cusco, the Koricancha temple. The trees, shrubs and herbs in the gardens were made of pure gold. Golden shepherds grazed golden llamas on golden lawns, and golden corn ripened in the fields.
Architecture
The second highest achievement of the Incas can rightfully be considered architecture. The level of stone processing under the Incas surpasses the best examples of the craftsmanship of Chavin and Tiahuanaco masons. Simple, "typical" buildings were built from small stones, fastened with a clay-lime mortar - pirka. For palaces and temples, giant monoliths were used, not fastened together by any solution. The stones in such structures are held by numerous protrusions clinging to each other. An example is the famous dodecagonal stone in the wall in Cuzco, so tightly fitted to neighboring blocks that even a razor blade cannot be inserted between them.
Inca architectural style severe and ascetic; buildings overwhelm with their power. However, once many buildings were decorated with gold and silver plates, giving them a completely different look.
In the cities, the Incas used planned development. The main element of the city was the kancha - a quarter consisting of residential buildings and warehouses located around the courtyard. In every major center there was a palace, barracks for soldiers, a temple of the Sun and a "monastery" for the Aklya virgins dedicated to the Sun.
Great Inca Roads
All the cities of the empire were interconnected by a network excellent roads. Two main highways, to which smaller roads adjoined, connected extreme points in the north and south of the country. One of the roads ran along the coast from Guayaquil Bay in Ecuador to the Maule River, south of modern Santiago. Mountain road, called Capac-can (Royal Way), began in the gorges north of Quito, passing through Cusco, turned to Lake Titicaca and ended in the territory of modern Argentina. Both of these arteries, together with the secondary roads adjoining them, stretched for more than 20 thousand km. In wet places, roads were paved or filled with a waterproof mixture of maize leaves, pebbles and clay. On the arid coast, they tried to lay roads along the outcrops of hard rocks. Stone dams were erected in the swamps, equipped with drainage pipes. Poles were erected along the roads, indicating the distance to settlements. At regular intervals there were inns - tambo. The width of the canvas on the plains reached 7 m, and in the mountain gorges it was reduced to 1 m. The roads were laid in a straight line, even if this meant chiselling a tunnel or cutting down part of the mountain. The Incas built wonderful bridges, the most famous of which are suspension bridges, designed to cross mountain streams. Stone pylons were erected on each side of the gorge, thick ropes were attached to them - two served as a railing, and three supported a canvas of branches. The bridges were so strong that they withstood the Spanish conquistadors in full armor and on horseback. Local residents were charged with the duty to change the ropes once a year, as well as to repair the bridge if necessary. The largest bridge of this design across the Apurimac River was 75 m long and hung 40 m above the water.
Roads became the basis of the empire, stretching over a vast area from Ecuador in the north to Chile in the south and from the Pacific coast in the west to the eastern slopes of the Andes. The very name of the state claims to world domination. This word in the Quechua language means "four interconnected parts of the world." In the countries of the world happened and Administrative division: in the north was the province of Chinchasuyu, in the south - Kolyasuyu, in the west - Kontisuyu and in the east - Antisuyu.
During the reign of the most famous emperors - Tupac Yupanqui, who took the throne in 1463, and Vaino Capac (1493-1525), the state finally acquired the features of a centralized empire.
Society
At the head of the state was the emperor - Sapa-Inca, the only Inca. A census of the population of the empire was carried out and a decimal administrative system was introduced, with the help of which taxes were collected and an accurate count of subjects was kept. In the course of the reform, all hereditary leaders were replaced by appointed governors - kuraks.
The entire population of the country bore labor duties: processing state fields of maize and sweet potatoes (potatoes), maintaining state herds of llamas, military service and work in the construction of cities, roads and mines. In addition, subjects were required to pay tax in kind - in textiles and livestock.
The practice of mass migrations in the conquered territories spread widely. The Quechua language spoken by the Incas was declared official language empire. The inhabitants of the provinces were not forbidden to use their native language. Compulsory knowledge of Quechua was required only from officials.
Writing
It is believed that the Incas did not create their own script. To transmit information, they had a knot letter "kipu", perfectly adapted to the needs of management and the economy. According to one of the legends, the Incas once had writing, even books, but all of them were destroyed by the reformer ruler Pachacuti, who “rewrote history”. An exception was made for only one, kept in the main sanctuary of the Koricancha empire. Robbers of the capital ancient civilization of the Incas the Spaniards discovered in Coricancha canvases covered with incomprehensible signs, inserted into golden frames. The frames, of course, were melted down and the canvases burned. Thus perished the only written history of the Inca empire.
