Basic information on geography. General geographic information. Brief information about the discovery of Africa

For a long time, man has been interested in what lies beyond the horizon - new territories or the ends of the earth. Centuries passed, civilization accumulated knowledge. The time has come when scientists who have never been to distant lands knew a lot about them. In this they were assisted by sources of geographical information.

This article will tell you about what it is, as well as about their varieties.

General concepts

As you might guess, this is the name of all of which a person can get information of interest to him. What sources of geographic information does grade 5 consider (in a secondary school)? Let's list them:

• All geographical maps, atlases, as well as various topographic plans, including military ones.
• Diverse geographical descriptions specific locality.
• Handbooks, encyclopedic articles, results and reports of various expeditions.
• Aerial photographs and space
• and GPS/GLONASS.

Here are the sources of geographic information that grade 5 knows in an average secondary school. We will try to consider the characteristics of some of them in a little more detail.

Modern technologies

In recent years, more and more sources are being converted from paper to digital. And this is not surprising. Almost all 5 sources of geographic information that we just talked about can be found today in digital form. Even professional scientists in recent years prefer to work with the "digit".

It is much more convenient to work with the same GIS system than with a pile of books. Now let's discuss some sources of geographic information in more detail.

Cards

A map is a schematic generalized representation of the surface of a piece of land, the entire planet or celestial bodies. It is built on the principle of scaling, that is, mathematical methods are used for this. Depending on the scale, all maps are usually divided into three large groups:

• Large scale.
• Medium scale.
• Small scale.

If we talk about the first category, then these documents may have a ratio of 1:200,000 or larger. This includes almost all topographic plans. Small-scale maps are considered to be all maps whose ratio is less than 1:1,000,000. A typical geographic atlas includes either small-scale or medium-scale plans that are best suited for studying a particular area.

Sorting map information

You should know that long before creating a map, experts make a strict selection of what will be shown on it. This process is called as follows: cartographic generalization. Naturally, the most stringent selection exists for small-scale maps, since they need to accommodate the maximum volume useful information with a minimum footprint. In the generalization itself, an extremely important role is played by the direct purpose of the card, as well as the wishes of its customer.

Terrain plans

This is the name of the drawings of the area, which are carried out on a large scale (1: 5000 or more), and are drawn using special symbols. In this way, they resemble a school geographical atlas. The construction of such plans is carried out on the basis of visual, instrumental measurements, aerial photography, or a combined method.

Since the plans indicate relatively small areas of the earth's surface, when creating them, the curvature of the planet can be neglected. It should be clearly understood that these sources of geographic information that we have just described are fundamentally different from each other.

The main differences between plans and maps

• In a centimeter of the plan, more than five real kilometers on the ground are rarely laid. They are much more detailed than maps, in one millimeter of which hundreds of kilometers of the earth's surface can be laid.
• All objects on the ground in the plans are depicted as detailed as possible. In principle, all more or less significant areas are marked on the average drawing. So, on the topographic plans of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (and the USSR, of course) even trees and small streams can be displayed. It is impossible to fit all this information on the maps. Actually, this is why the generalization, which we talked about above, is being carried out. Even the exact outlines of the continents on many maps cannot be displayed, and therefore they are often plotted with significant distortions. In addition, the above-described additional literature on geography uses off-scale conventions.
• We emphasize once again that when constructing the plan, the curvature of the earth's surface is neglected. Maps, especially on a small scale, take it into account without fail.
• There is never a degree grid on the plans. At the same time, there are parallels and meridians on each of them.
• The plan is always simple in terms of orientation. The top of the document is north, the bottom, respectively, is south. On the maps, the direction is determined by parallels.

Ways of depicting objects on plans and maps

Conventional signs in this case are generally accepted options, in which the characteristics of the objects depicted on the map or plan are encoded. With their help, you can display both something concrete (a mountain, for example), and something completely abstract, conditional (population density in a city, village, etc.). Of course, all of them make life much easier for a person who knows the basics of cartography and can read these drawings.

How long does the map remain valid?

Almost all geographers and geologists ask this question at least once in a while. The specific answer to it depends on the purpose, scale, and author of the plan. So, medieval researchers often drew maps literally “on their knees”, so there is no longer any need to talk about their accuracy. But the maps of the General Staff, despite the time, are still striking in their accuracy.

Do not forget that the maps are quite stable, while the plans of the Amazon and the Nile can be safely thrown away fifty years after they were published. These rivers change the relief of the Earth's surface so effectively and quickly that older documents are only useful in a historical perspective.

Geographic descriptions, discoveries

All sources of geographic information discussed above are somehow dry and uninteresting. It is much more exciting to read a description of some region, area or even the mainland, written by the person who discovered it all!

Jokes aside, but descriptions and reports on geographical (geodesic, biological) studies can sometimes provide much more information than the most detailed topographical plan of the area. Moreover, the latter does not reflect some unpleasant features of a particular area (malaria, found in some central regions Africa at every turn, for example).

The list of references in geography that students are given at school (for example, Nikolina V.V. Geography, lesson developments; Samkova V.A. We study the forest; Forest Encyclopedia: in 2 volumes / chief ed. G. I. Vorobyov ), just the same, and formed thanks to the work of researchers who at one time entered all this information on the map, being in the thick of things.

Brief information about the discovery of Africa

Let's talk a little about the history of the discovery of the Black Continent. Of course, the word "discovery" is not entirely correct here: here is Australia - yes, I had to suffer with it. In the case of Africa, the coastal regions were perfectly explored, where they caught black slaves and bought ivory from Arab traders, but almost no one knew what was happening in the depths of the continent.

Everything changed in the 19th century, when the legendary arrived in Africa. It was he who had the honor of discovering the origins of the Nile and the magnificent Lake Victoria. Few people know, but the Russian scientist V.V. Junker (in 1876-1886) was once engaged in the studies of Central Africa.

For the indigenous population of the mainland, all this ended sadly: the main sources of geographical information (that is, maps), the data for which all these brave scientists collected with such difficulty and constant danger to life, began to be actively used by slave traders ...

So, with maps and plans, we are actually done. Geographic atlases are in the same category. And what is the role of modern sources of geographic information? To answer this question, let's consider the principle of sharing old paper maps and a navigator, which is now actively used even by professional geographers and geologists.

GPS/GLONASS + maps

It should be noted that this method is excellent for determining the accuracy of maps, atlases and topographic plans. In addition, this technique satisfies the needs of historians, as they can see for themselves how much the area has changed, which is described in historical chronicles by contemporaries of certain events. However, literature on geography often contains plans for the area that have not been updated since the beginning of the last century.

To use such an accurate, but rather laborious and somewhat extravagant method, you will have to bind three times (three different maps) to the same piece of terrain:

• First, find a more or less modern map or topographic plan.
• It is advisable to have a fresh aerospace image of the area under study with a topographic reference to the coordinate system.
• Finally, you need the card whose information you are going to check.

The meaning of this operation is to enter into the memory of the navigator all three of these drawings of the area. Modern models of such devices have a fairly powerful processor and an impressive amount of RAM, so you can switch between cards instantly.

Determination of the route

Route planning is best done using modern map or topographic plan. We do not recommend using old documents for this. It is quite possible that there is now a passable area on the site of the swamp, but you will no longer be able to walk along the edge of the once rare young forest, since the geography of the area has changed dramatically. A map is good, but in most cases such documents are not very accurate.

Why are aerial and satellite photographs preferred over maps?

But why are paper drawings so inferior to the products of modern technology? This is for the following two reasons:

• Firstly, the relevance of space photography or aerial photography in most cases is much higher. When else will cartographers be able to carry out the next generalization of new data and release up-to-date terrain plans?
• In the pictures you can literally in real time determine the characteristics of a particular area. On a map or even a topographical plan, tree species in the forest will be displayed only schematically and only in general order. Simply put, it is quite possible to stumble upon a dense spruce forest in the middle of a birch forest, and it is much easier to get lost in a dense coniferous forest.

After choosing a route and checking the new images, it is recommended to refer to the old map. Why such difficulties? Imagine that you are a field biologist. You need to determine how much the forest has grown, what new tree species have appeared, how many types of forest have changed over the years. Ideal for all these tasks is the simple overlay of a new card on its old counterpart. Thus, everything becomes visible as clearly as possible.

Here are the sources used by geography. The map is perhaps the most important of them, but one should not forget that over the past decades science and technology have made a huge step forward, and therefore it is foolish not to take advantage of all modern achievements.

Conclusion

So you have learned which sources of geographic information are currently the most relevant. Oddly enough, but we still use all the same plans and maps that were invented before our era. Of course, adjusted for their modern look.

A race is a historically formed group of people that has common physical features: skin color, eyes and hair, eye shape, eyelid structure, head outlines, and others. Previously, the division of races into “black” (Negroes), yellow (Asians) and white (Europeans) was accepted, but now this classification is considered outdated and incomplete.

The simplest modern division is not too different from the "color". According to it, 3 main or large races are distinguished: Negroid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid. Representatives of these three races have significant distinctive features.

Negroids are characterized by curly black hair, dark brown skin (sometimes almost black), brown eyes, strongly protruding jaws, a slightly protruding wide nose, thickened lips.

Caucasians usually have wavy or straight hair, relatively fair skin, varying eye colors, slightly protruding jaws, a narrow protruding nose with a high nose bridge, and usually thin or medium lips.

Mongoloids have straight coarse dark hair, yellowish skin tones, brown eyes, a narrow slit in the eyes, a flattened face with strongly protruding cheekbones, a narrow or medium-wide nose with a low bridge of nose, and moderately thickened lips.

In the extended classification, it is customary to distinguish several more racial groups. For example, the Amerindian race (Indians, American race) - indigenous people American continent. It is physiologically close to the Mongoloid race, however, the settlement of America began more than 20 thousand years ago, therefore, according to experts, it is incorrect to consider the Amerindians as a branch of the Mongoloids.

Australoids (Australian-Oceanian race) - the indigenous population of Australia. ancient race, which had a huge range limited by regions: Hindustan, Tasmania, Hawaii, Kuriles. The features of the appearance of indigenous Australians - a large nose, beard, long wavy hair, a massive eyebrow, powerful jaws sharply distinguish them from Negroids.

At present, there are few pure representatives of their races left. Basically, mestizos live on our planet - the result of mixing different races, which may have signs of different racial groups.

Time zones are conventionally defined parts of the Earth in which the same local time is accepted.

Prior to the introduction of standard time, each city used its own local solar time, depending on geographic longitude. However, it was very inconvenient, especially in terms of train schedules. The modern time zone system first appeared in North America at the end of the 19th century. In Russia, it became widespread in 1917, and by 1929 it was adopted throughout the world.

For greater convenience (so as not to enter local time for each degree of longitude), the Earth's surface was conditionally divided into 24 time zones. The boundaries of time zones are not determined by meridians, but by administrative units (states, cities, regions). This is also done for convenience. When moving from one time zone to another, the values ​​​​of minutes and seconds (time) are usually preserved, only in some countries, local time differs from world time by 30 or 45 minutes.

For the reference point (zero meridian or belt) is taken Greenwich Observatory in the suburbs of London. At the North and South Poles, the meridians converge at one point, so time zones are usually not followed there. Time at the poles is usually equated with universal time, although at the polar stations it is sometimes kept in its own way.

GMT -12 - International Date Meridian

GMT -11 - about. Midway, Samoa

GMT -10 - Hawaii

GMT -9 - Alaska

GMT -8 - Pacific Time (USA and Canada), Tijuana

GMT -7 - Mountain time, USA and Canada (Arizona), Mexico (Chihuahua, La Paz, Mazatlán)

GMT -6 - Central Time (USA and Canada), Central American Time, Mexico (Guadalajara, Mexico City, Monterrey)

GMT -5 - Eastern Time (USA and Canada), South American Pacific Time (Bogotá, Lima, Quito)

GMT -4 - Atlantic Time (Canada), South American Pacific Time (Caracas, La Paz, Santiago)

GMT -3 - South American Eastern time(Brazilia, Buenos Aires, Georgetown), Greenland

GMT -2 - Mid-Atlantic Time

GMT -1 - Azores, Cape Verde

GMT - Greenwich Mean Time (Dublin, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London), Casablanca, Monrovia

GMT +1 - Central European Time (Amsterdam, Berlin, Bern, Brussels, Vienna, Copenhagen, Madrid, Paris, Rome, Stockholm), Belgrade, Bratislava, Budapest, Warsaw, Ljubljana, Prague, Sarajevo, Skopje, Zagreb), West Central African Time

GMT +2 - Eastern European Time (Athens, Bucharest, Vilnius, Kiev, Chisinau, Minsk, Riga, Sofia, Tallinn, Helsinki, Kaliningrad), Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, South Africa

GMT +3 - Moscow time, East African time (Nairobi, Addis Ababa), Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia

GMT +4 - Samara time, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia

GMT +5 - Yekaterinburg time, West Asian time (Islamabad, Karachi, Tashkent)

GMT +6 - Novosibirsk, Omsk Time, Central Asian Time (Bangladesh, Kazakhstan), Sri Lanka

GMT +7 - Krasnoyarsk time, Southeast Asia (Bangkok, Jakarta, Hanoi)

GMT +8 - Irkutsk Time, Ulaanbaatar, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Taiwan, Western Australian Time (Perth)

GMT +9 - Yakut time, Korea, Japan

GMT +10 - Vladivostok Time, East Australian Time (Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, Sydney), Tasmania, Western Pacific Time (Guam, Port Moresby)

GMT +11 - Magadan time, Central Pacific time ( Solomon islands, New Caledonia)

GMT +12 - Wellington

A wind rose is a diagram that depicts the mode of change in wind directions and speeds in a certain place over a certain period of time. It got its name due to the pattern similar to a rose. The first wind roses were known even before our era.

It is assumed that sailors came up with the wind rose, who tried to identify patterns of wind changes, depending on the time of year. She helped determine when to start sailing in order to get to a certain destination.

A diagram is constructed as follows: on rays coming from a common center in different directions, the value of repeatability (as a percentage) or wind speed is plotted. The rays correspond to the cardinal points: north, west, east, south, northeast, north-northeast, etc. At present, the wind rose is usually built from long-term data for a month, season, year.

Clouds are classified using Latin words to define the appearance of clouds as seen from the ground. The word cumulus is the definition of cumulus, stratus - stratus, cirrus - cirrus, nimbus - rain.

In addition to the type of clouds, the classification describes their location. Usually, several groups of clouds are distinguished, the first three of which are determined by the height of their location above the ground. The fourth group consists of clouds of vertical development, and the last group includes clouds of mixed types.

Upper clouds are formed in temperate latitudes above 5 km, in polar - above 3 km, in tropical - above 6 km. The temperature at this altitude is quite low, so they consist mainly of ice crystals. Upper clouds are usually thin and white. The most common form of upper clouds are cirrus (cirrus) and cirrostratus (cirrostratus), which can usually be observed in good weather.

Middle clouds usually located at an altitude of 2-7 km in temperate latitudes, 2-4 km in polar and 2-8 km in tropical latitudes. They consist mainly of small particles of water, but at low temperatures they can also contain ice crystals. The most common types of mid-tier clouds are altocumulus (altocumulus), altostratus (altostratus). They may have shaded portions, which distinguishes them from cirrocumulus clouds. This type of cloud usually results from air convection and also from the gradual rise of air ahead of a cold front.

Lower clouds located at altitudes below 2 km, where the temperature is quite high, so they consist mainly of water droplets. Only in the cold season. When the surface temperature is low, they contain particles of ice (hail) or snow. The most common types of low clouds are nimbostratus (nimbostratus) and stratocumulus (stratocumulus), dark low clouds accompanied by moderate precipitation.

Clouds of vertical development - cumulus clouds, having the form of isolated cloud masses, the vertical dimensions of which are similar to the horizontal ones. Arise as a result of temperature convection, can reach heights of 12 km. The main types are fair weather cumulus (fair weather clouds) and cumulonimbus (cumulonimbus). Good weather clouds look like pieces of cotton wool. The time of their existence is from 5 to 40 minutes. Young fair-weather clouds have sharply defined edges and bases, while the edges of older clouds are jagged and blurry.

Other types of clouds: contrails (condensation trails), billow clouds (wavy clouds), mammatus (vymoid cloud), orographic (obstacle clouds) and pileus (hat-cloud).

Precipitation is called water in liquid or solid state, which falls from clouds or is deposited from the air on the surface of the Earth (dew, hoarfrost). There are two main types of precipitation: heavy precipitation (occurs mainly during the passage of a warm front) and showers (associated with cold fronts). The amount of precipitation is measured by the thickness of the water layer that has fallen over a certain period (usually mm/year). On average, about 1000 mm / year of precipitation falls on Earth. The amount of precipitation less than this value is called insufficient, and more - excessive.

Water does not form in the sky - it gets there from the earth's surface. This happens in the following way: under the influence of sunlight, moisture gradually evaporates from the surface of the planet (mainly from the surface of the oceans, seas and other bodies of water), then water vapor gradually rises, where, under the influence of low temperatures, it condenses (transformation of gas into a liquid state) and freezing. This is how clouds form. As the mass of liquid in the cloud accumulates, it also becomes heavier. When a certain mass is reached, the moisture from the cloud spills onto the ground in the form of rain.

If precipitation falls in areas with low temperatures, then the moisture drops freeze on their way to the ground, turning into snow. Sometimes they seem to stick together with each other, as a result of which the snow falls in large flakes. This happens most often at not very low temperatures and strong winds. When the temperature is close to zero, the snow, approaching the ground, melts and becomes wet. Such snowflakes, falling to the ground or objects, immediately turn into drops of water. In those areas of the planet where the surface of the earth has had time to freeze, snow can remain in the form of a cover for up to several months. In some especially cold regions of the Earth (at the poles or high in the mountains), precipitation falls only in the form of snow, and in warm regions (tropics of the equator) there is no snow at all.

When frozen water particles move within the cloud, they expand and compact. In this case, small pieces of ice are formed, which in this state fall to the ground. This is how hail is formed. Hail can fall even in summer - the ice does not have time to melt even when the surface temperature is high. The sizes of hailstones can be different: from a few millimeters to several centimeters.

Sometimes moisture does not have time to rise into the sky, and then condensation occurs directly on the surface of the earth. This usually happens when temperatures drop at night. In the summer, you can observe the settling of moisture on the surface of leaves and grass in the form of water droplets - this is dew. In the cold season, the smallest particles of water freeze, and frost forms instead of dew.

Soils are classified by type. Dokuchaev was the first scientist to classify soils. The following types of soils are found on the territory of the Russian Federation: Podzolic soils, tundra gley soils, arctic soils, permafrost-taiga, gray and brown forest soils and chestnut soils.

Tundra gley soils are found on the plains. Formed without much influence of vegetation on them. These soils are found in areas where there is permafrost (Northern Hemisphere). Often, gley soils are places where deer live and feed in summer and winter. An example of tundra soils in Russia is Chukotka, and in the world it is Alaska in the USA. In areas with such soils, people are engaged in agriculture. Potatoes, vegetables and various herbs grow on such land. To improve the fertility of tundra gley soils in agriculture, the following types of work are used: draining the most moisture-saturated lands and irrigating dry areas. Also, the methods of improving the fertility of these soils include the introduction of organic and mineral fertilizers into them.

Arctic soils are produced by thawing permafrost. This soil is quite thin. The maximum layer of humus (fertile layer) is 1-2 cm. This type of soil has a low acidic environment. This soil is not restored due to the harsh climate. These soils are common in Russia only in the Arctic (on a number of islands in the Northern Arctic Ocean). Due to the harsh climate and a small layer of humus, nothing grows on such soils.

Podzolic soils are common in forests. There is only 1-4% humus in the soil. Podzolic soils are obtained through the process of podzol formation. There is a reaction with an acid. That is why this type of soil is also called acidic. Podzolic soils were first described by Dokuchaev. In Russia, podzolic soils are common in Siberia and Far East. There are podzolic soils in the world in Asia, Africa, Europe, the USA and Canada. Such soils in agriculture must be properly cultivated. They need to be fertilized, organic and mineral fertilizers should be applied to them. Such soils are more useful in logging than in agriculture. After all, trees grow on them better than crops. Soddy-podzolic soils are a subtype of podzolic soils. They are similar in composition to podzolic soils. A characteristic feature of these soils is that they can be more slowly washed out by water, unlike podzolic ones. Soddy-podzolic soils are found mainly in the taiga (territory of Siberia). This soil contains up to 10% of the fertile layer on the surface, and at a depth the layer sharply decreases to 0.5%.

Permafrost-taiga soils were formed in forests, in permafrost conditions. They are found only in continental climates. The greatest depths of these soils do not exceed 1 meter. This is caused by proximity to the permafrost surface. The humus content is only 3-10%. As a subspecies, there are mountain permafrost-taiga soils. They are formed in the taiga on rocks that are covered with ice only in winter. These soils are Eastern Siberia. They are found in the Far East. More often, mountain permafrost-taiga soils are found next to small reservoirs. Outside of Russia, such soils exist in Canada and Alaska.

Gray forest soils are formed in forest areas. An indispensable condition for the formation of such soils is the presence of a continental climate. Deciduous forests and herbaceous vegetation. Places of formation contain the element necessary for such soil - calcium. Thanks to this element, water does not penetrate deep into the soil and does not erode them. These soils are grey. The content of humus in gray forest soils is 2-8 percent, that is, soil fertility is average. Gray forest soils are divided into gray, light gray, and dark gray. These soils prevail in Russia in the territory from Transbaikalia to the Carpathian Mountains. Fruit and grain crops are grown on soils.

Brown forest soils are common in forests: mixed, coniferous and broad-leaved. These soils are found only in temperate warm climates. Soil color brown. Usually brown soils look like this: on the surface of the earth there is a layer of fallen leaves, about 5 cm high. Next comes the fertile layer, which is 20, and sometimes 30 cm. Even lower is a clay layer of 15-40 cm. There are several subtypes of brown soils. The subtypes vary with temperatures. There are: typical, podzolized, gley (surface-gley and pseudopodzolic). On the territory of the Russian Federation, soils are common in the Far East and near the foothills of the Caucasus. Undemanding crops such as tea, grapes and tobacco are grown on these soils. Forest grows well on such soils.

Chestnut soils are common in steppes and semi-deserts. The fertile layer of such soils is 1.5-4.5%. That says the average fertility of the soil. This soil has a chestnut, light chestnut and dark chestnut color. Accordingly, there are three subtypes of chestnut soil, differing in color. On light chestnut soils, agriculture is possible only with abundant watering. The main purpose of this land is pasture. On dark chestnut soils, the following crops grow well without irrigation: wheat, barley, oats, sunflower, millet. There are slight differences in the soil and in the chemical composition of the chestnut soil. Its division into clay, sandy, sandy loamy, light loamy, medium loamy and heavy loamy. Each of them has a slightly different chemical composition. The chemical composition of chestnut soil is diverse. The soil contains magnesium, calcium, water-soluble salts. Chestnut soil tends to recover quickly. Its thickness is supported by annually falling grass and leaves of rare trees in the steppe. On it you can get good yields, provided that there is a lot of moisture. After all, the steppes are usually dry. Chestnut soils in Russia are common in the Caucasus, the Volga region and Central Siberia.

There are many types of soils on the territory of the Russian Federation. All of them differ in chemical and mechanical composition. At the moment, agriculture is on the verge of a crisis. Russian soils must be valued as the land on which we live. Take care of soils: fertilize them and prevent erosion (destruction).

Biosphere - a set of parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, which is inhabited by living organisms. This term was introduced in 1875 by the Austrian geologist E. Suess. The biosphere does not occupy a certain position, like other shells, but is located within their limits. Thus, waterfowl and aquatic plants are part of the hydrosphere, birds and insects are part of the atmosphere, and plants and animals living in the earth are part of the lithosphere. The biosphere also covers everything related to the activities of living beings.

The composition of living organisms includes about 60 chemical elements, the main of which are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, iron and calcium. Living organisms can adapt to life in extreme conditions. Spores of some plants withstand ultra-low temperatures down to -200°C, and some microorganisms (bacteria) survive at temperatures up to 250°C. The inhabitants of the deep sea withstand the enormous pressure of water, which would instantly crush a person.

By living organisms are meant not only animals, plants, bacteria and fungi are also considered living beings. Moreover, plants account for 99% of the biomass, while animals and microorganisms account for only 1%. Thus, plants make up the vast majority of the biosphere. The biosphere is a powerful accumulator of solar energy. This is due to the photosynthesis of plants. Thanks to living organisms, the circulation of substances on the planet occurs.

According to experts, life on Earth originated about 3.5 billion years ago in the oceans. It was this age that was assigned to the oldest found organic remains. Since scientists determine the age of our planet in the region of 4.6 billion years, we can say that living beings appeared at an early stage in the development of the Earth. The biosphere renders greatest influence on the rest of the shells of the Earth, although not always beneficial. Inside the shell, living organisms also actively interact with each other.

The atmosphere (from the Greek atmos - steam and sphaira - ball) is the gaseous shell of the Earth, which is held by its attraction and rotates with the planet. The physical state of the atmosphere is determined by the climate, and the main parameters of the atmosphere are the composition, density, pressure and temperature of the air. Air density and atmospheric pressure decrease with height. The atmosphere is divided into several layers depending on temperature changes: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere. Between these layers are transitional regions called the tropopause, stratopause, and so on.

Troposphere - the lower layer of the atmosphere, in the polar regions it is located up to a height of 8-10 km, in temperate latitudes up to 10-12 km, and at the equator - 16-18 km. The troposphere contains about 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere and almost all of the water vapor. The air density is the highest here. For every 100 m you rise, the temperature in the troposphere drops by an average of 0.65 °. The upper layer of the troposphere, which is intermediate between it and the stratosphere, is called the tropopause.

The stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere, which is located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. Here, on the contrary, the temperature rises with height. At the border with the troposphere, it reaches approximately -56ºС, and rises to 0ºС at a height of about 50 km. The region between the stratosphere and mesosphere is called the stratopause. The ozone layer is located in the stratosphere, which determines the upper limit of the biosphere. The ozone layer is also a kind of shield that protects living organisms from the destructive ultraviolet radiation of the sun. The complex chemical processes occurring in this shell are accompanied by the release of light energy (for example, the northern lights). About 20% of the mass of the atmosphere is concentrated here.

The next layer of the atmosphere is the mesosphere. It starts at an altitude of 50 km and ends at an altitude of 80-90 km. The air temperature in the mesosphere decreases with height and reaches -90ºС in its upper part. The intermediate layer between the mesosphere and the following thermosphere is the mesopause.

The thermosphere or ionosphere begins at an altitude of 80-90 km and ends at an altitude of 800 km. The air temperature here rises quite rapidly, reaching several hundred and even thousands of degrees.

The last part of the atmosphere is the exosphere or scattering zone. It is located above 800 km. This space is already almost devoid of air. At an altitude of about 2000-3000 km, the exosphere gradually passes into the so-called near space vacuum, which does not enter the Earth's atmosphere.

The hydrosphere is the water shell of the Earth, which is located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere and is a collection of oceans, seas and land surface waters. The hydrosphere also includes groundwater, ice and snow, water contained in the atmosphere and in living organisms. The bulk of water is concentrated in the seas and oceans, rivers and lakes, which cover 71% of the planet's surface. The second place in terms of water volume is occupied by groundwater, the third - by ice and snow of the Arctic and Antarctic regions and mountainous regions. The total volume of water on Earth is close to 1.39 billion km³.

Water, along with oxygen, is one of the most important substances on earth. It is part of all living organisms on the planet. For example, a person consists of approximately 80% water. Water also plays an important role in the formation of the Earth's surface topography, the transport of chemicals in the depths of the Earth and on its surface.

The water vapor contained in the atmosphere acts as a powerful filter of solar radiation and a climate regulator.

The main volume of water on the planet is the salty waters of the oceans. On average, their salinity is 35 ppm (1 kg of ocean water contains 35 g of salts). The highest salinity in the Dead Sea is 270-300 ppm. For comparison, in the Mediterranean Sea this figure is 35-40 ppm, in the Black Sea - 18 ppm, and in the Baltic - only 7. According to experts, the chemical composition of ocean waters is in many ways similar to the composition of human blood - they contain almost all known us chemical elements, only in different proportions. The chemical composition of fresher groundwater is more diverse and depends on the composition of the host rocks and the depth of occurrence.

The waters of the hydrosphere are in constant interaction with the atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. This interaction is expressed in the transition of water from one species to another, and is called the water cycle. According to most scientists, it was in water that life on our planet originated.

Hydrosphere water volumes:

Sea and ocean waters - 1370 million km³ (94% of the total)

Groundwater - 61 million km³ (4%)

Ice and snow - 24 million km³ (2%)

Land water bodies (rivers, lakes, swamps, reservoirs) - 500 thousand km³ (0.4%)

The lithosphere is called the solid shell of the Earth, which includes the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle. The thickness of the lithosphere on land ranges on average from 35–40 km (in flat areas) to 70 km (in mountainous areas). Under the ancient mountains, the thickness of the earth's crust is even greater: for example, under the Himalayas, its thickness reaches 90 km. The earth's crust under the oceans is also the lithosphere. Here it is the thinnest - on average about 7-10 km, and in some areas of the Pacific Ocean - up to 5 km.

The thickness of the earth's crust can be determined by the speed of propagation of seismic waves. The latter also provide some information about the properties of the mantle located under the earth's crust and entering the lithosphere. The lithosphere, as well as the hydrosphere and atmosphere, was formed mainly as a result of the release of substances from the upper mantle of the young Earth. Its formation continues even now, mainly at the bottom of the oceans.

Most of the lithosphere is made up of crystalline substances that were formed during the cooling of magma - molten matter in the depths of the Earth. As the magma cooled, hot solutions formed. Passing through cracks in the earth's crust, they cooled and released the substances contained in them. Since some minerals decompose with changes in temperature and pressure, they were transformed into new substances on the surface.

The lithosphere is exposed to the influence of the air and water shells of the Earth (atmosphere and hydrosphere), which is expressed in weathering processes. Physical weathering is a mechanical process that breaks down rock into smaller particles without changing its chemical composition. Chemical weathering leads to the formation of new substances. The weathering rate is also influenced by the biosphere, as well as by land relief and climate, water composition and other factors.

As a result of weathering, loose continental deposits were formed, the thickness of which ranges from 10-20 cm on steep slopes to tens of meters on plains and hundreds of meters in depressions. These deposits formed soils that play a crucial role in the interaction of living organisms with the earth's crust.

Orientation on the ground includes determining one's location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks), maintaining a given or selected direction of movement towards a specific object. The ability to navigate the terrain is especially necessary when you are in sparsely populated and unfamiliar areas.

You can navigate by map, compass, stars. Landmarks can also serve as various objects of natural (river, swamp, tree) or artificial (lighthouse, tower) origin.

When orienting on a map, it is necessary to associate the image on the map with a real object. The easiest way is to go to the river bank or road, and then rotate the map until the direction of the line (road, river) on the map matches the direction of the line on the ground. Items located to the right and left of the line should be on the same sides as on the map.

Map orientation by compass is mainly used in areas that are difficult to navigate (in the forest, in the desert), where it is usually difficult to find landmarks. Under these conditions, the compass determines the direction to the north, and the map is placed with the upper side of the frame towards the north so that the vertical line of the coordinate grid of the map coincides with the longitudinal axis of the magnetic needle of the compass. It must be remembered that the compass readings can be affected by metal objects, power lines and electronic devices located in the immediate vicinity.

After the location on the ground is determined, you need to determine the direction of movement and azimuth (deviation of the direction of movement in degrees from the north pole of the compass clockwise). If the route is not a straight line, then you need to accurately determine the distance after which you need to change direction. You can also select a specific landmark on the map and, after finding it on the ground, change the direction of movement from it.

In the absence of a compass, the cardinal directions can be determined as follows:

The bark of most trees is rougher and darker on the north side;

On conifers, resin is more commonly accumulated on the south side;

Annual rings on fresh stumps on the north side are closer to each other;

On the north side, trees, stones, stumps, etc. earlier and more abundantly covered with lichens, fungi;

Anthills are located on the south side of trees, stumps and bushes, the southern slope of anthills is gentle, the northern one is steep;

In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side;

In separate trees, the crowns are more magnificent and denser on the south side;

Altars Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran kirok are facing east, and the main entrances are located on the west side;

The raised end of the lower crossbar of the churches faces north.

A geographical map is a visual representation of the earth's surface on a plane. The map shows the location and state of various natural and social phenomena. Depending on what is shown on the maps, they are called political, physical, etc.

Cards are classified according to various criteria:

By scale: large-scale (1: 10,000 - 1: 100,000), medium-scale (1: 200,000 - 1: 1,000,000) and small-scale maps (smaller than 1: 1,000,000). The scale determines the ratio between the real size of the object and the size of its image on the map. Knowing the scale of the map (it is always indicated on it), you can use simple calculations and special measuring tools (ruler, curvimeter) to determine the size of an object or the distance from one object to another.

According to the content, maps are divided into general geographical and thematic. Thematic maps are divided into physical-geographical and socio-economic. Physical-geographic maps are used to show, for example, the nature of the relief of the earth's surface or climatic conditions in a certain area. Socio-economic maps show the borders of countries, the location of roads, industrial facilities, etc.

According to the coverage of the territory, geographical maps are divided into world maps, maps of the continents and parts of the world, regions of the world, individual countries and parts of countries (regions, cities, districts, etc.).

By purpose, geographical maps are divided into reference, educational, navigational, etc.

Bondarev N. D.

Arkhyz and Bolshaya Laba. -M, 2002.

Foreword

General information

Features of travel in spring and summer

History pages

B.Laba Valley

M1. Kurdzhinovo - pos. Phia.

M2. To the origins of the Great Laba.

MZ. Ashirhumara

M4. To the Labinsk glacier.

Zagedan

M5. To the Zagedan lakes (20 km, 1.5 days)

Other routes

phia

M6. Rechepsta River - trans. Phiya - pos. Phia (23 km, trail, 1 day)

M7. Phiya village - r. Phiya - trans. Urup-Phiya - at the source of the river. Atsgara.

Stormy and Azimba

M8. River B. Laba - r. Stormy - lane. Vorontsova-Velyaminov - l. Azimba - r. Azimba (25 km, 2 days)

M9. Burnaya River - lane. Duritsky - r. Amanauz (17 km, 1 day)

From the upper reaches of Bolshaya Laba

M10. River B. Laba - trans. Zegerker - trans. 46th Army - trans. Alashtrahu, trail, 12 km, 1 day.

M11. Glacier Labinsky - lane. Psyrs - Psyrs lakes (1.5 days)

Sanchara

M12. Phiya village - r. Sanchara - trans. Sanchara - trans. Ad-zapsh, trail, 2 days.

M13. Glade 7th post - mineral springs Adzapsh - per. Adapsh.

M14. Mineral springs Adzapsh - trail along the crest of the GKH - per. V. Damkhurts - the valley of the river. Damkhurts (trail, 2 days).

M15. River B. Laba - trans. Abgytskha - the left source of the river. Abgytskha (20 km, 1.5 days)

Other routes

Makera

M16. Phiya village - r. Makera - trans. Makera (trail)

Mamhurts

M17. The village of Damkhurts - r. Mamhurts - "Seven lakes" (4-5 days)

Other routes

Damkhurts

M18. The village of Damkhurts - per. Damkhurts

Other routes

Big Zelenchuk. Arkhyz

On the way to Arkhyz

M19. Village Zelenchukskaya - aul Arkhyz (highway, 48 km).

M20. Lower Yermolovka - gully Curve - ancient settlement Shpil - r. Kyafar (trail, 1-2 days).

M21. Monuments of Nizhny Arkhyz (1 day).

M22. To the Savior Not Made by Hands

M23. Lower Arkhyz - Jeti-Karasu tract - Large azimuth telescope.

M24. Climbing Mount Pastukhovaya (2733 m, 4 h)

Other routes

In the vicinity of the village Arkhyz

M25. Medieval Alan settlement (excursion for 4 hours).

M26. Barite beam - Mt. Abishira-Akhuba (8 hours).

M27. Rock Karcha-Tebe - trans. Byoryu-aush

M28. Arkhyz outlook (6 hours).

M29. Cossack glade - Morkh-Syrty lakes - lane. Ozerny.

M30. Climbing Mount Krasnaya (trail, half a day)

Other routes

Arkhyz river valley

M31. Aul Arkhyz - r. Arkhyz (19 km, road).

M32. Arkhyz river - Gabulu-Chat plateau - Smirnova town -r. Psysh (2 days, trail).

M33. Dukka River - trans. Ayulu - r. White - r. Psysh (26 km, 2 days).

M34. Dukka Pass - r. Stormy - r. B. Laba.

M35. Fedoseev Pass (1 A, 2880 m).

M36. Rechepsta River - trans. Atsgara - r. Atsgara (trail, 17 km).

Other routes

Psysh

M37. River valley Psysh - lake. Naurskoye (trail, 31 km).

M38. Naur Pass (1 A, 2839 m).

M39. Magana pass - lakes Psyrs - per. Bearish.

M40. Pshish pass

M41. Sekirtme River - trans. Chuchkhur - Green lakes - per. Hare Ears or per. Kholodovsky - r. Psysh (3 days)

M42. Bush Glacier - trans. Kizgych False - trans. Chuchkhurskaya Shchel - per. Chamagwara.

M43. Glacier Psysh - trans. Tokmak and per. Psysh.

Other routes

White and amanauz

M44. Belaya River (Ayulu) - lane. Dorbun - the source of the river. Stormy

M45. River Gorge Amanauz - trans. Tornau i per. Bear-Labinsky glacier.

M46. Amanauz River - trans. Poachers - r. Burnaya (9 km)

M47. Amanauz and Azimba passes

Other routes

Sofia

M48. Aul Arkhyz - r. Sofia - Glacier farm (road, 16 km).

M49. Sofia waterfalls(half-day excursion) leave an unforgettable impression.

M50. Sofia Saddle Pass (2640 m)

M51. Glacier farm - r. Ak-Airy - trans. Bash-Jol -r. Psysh (20 km, 1 day)

M52. Ak-Airy River - trans. Topal-Aush (Kozhukhova) - Green lakes (2 days)

M53. Ak-Ayra Glacier - trans. Ak-Airy - r. Kyshlau-su (1 day)

M54. Climbing Mount Nadezhda (1A, 3355 m, 10-12 h)

M55. Ak-Airy River - trans. Kel-Aush - Upper Sofia Lakes - Kel-Bashi city - r. Ak Airy (2-3 days)

M56. River valley Sofia - Gammesh Chat lakes (excursion, 15 km)

M57. Sofia River - trans. Eaglet - lake. Kraternoye - lake. Comma - lakes Kashkha-Echki-Chat - r. Sofia (16 km, 2 3 days)

Other routes

Kizgich

M58. Aul Arkhyz - r. Kizgych - Kshgych-Bash tract (trail, 3-6 days).

M59. Kizgych-Bash tract - Besh-Chuchkhur waterfall - Green lakes (one-day excursion).

M60. Passes Kizgych and Satkharo

M61. The tract Kizgych-Bash - the valley of the river. Salynngan - l. Saleunggan (one day tour)

M62. Lake Mironova (excursion for 6-8 hours)

M63. Kongur, Salynggan, Chvakhra passes

M64. The Baga-Tala tract - per. Bugoychat - r. Marukh (14 km)

M65. Pass of the 810th Rifle Regiment (1 B, 3000 m)

M66. Pass Kurella - lane. Chvakhra - trans. Kongur - trans. Satkharo - trans. Kizgych False

Kafar-Urup. Abishira-Akhuba

M67. The village of Zelenchukskaya - the village of Storozhevaya - the village. Leso-Kyafar

M68. Stanitsa Zelenchukskaya - r. B. Zelenchuk - Generovskaya beam - r. Kyafar-Agur - forestry cordon

At the source of the Kyafar-Agur River

M69. Ridge Kyzylchuk - Scattered hillock - Agur lakes - per. Fedoseeva - Arkhyz (trail, 4-6 days).

M70. Agur lakes - lane. Agur - trans. Mylgval - lake. Kyzylchuk (1-1.5 days).

M71. River Zap. Agur - trans. Kumbyzh - lake. Kyzylchuk - lake. Fish (trail, 4-5 hours).

Other routes

Kyzylchuk. Chilik.

M72. Loose hillock - the tract Kumbyzh - r. Kyzylchuk - lake. Fish - per. Rechepsta - r. Arkhyz (3-4 days)

M73. Fish Lake - per. Kynhara - lake. Chilik - trans. Chilik - r. Arkhyz (1.5-2 days)

M74. Fish Lake - per. Kyzylchuk - lake. Chilik - trans. Psykela - r. Atsgara - Field of poppies (2-3 days)

M75. Traverse Mt. Abishira-Akhuba from the lane. Chilik to per. Rechepsta

M76. Kyafar-Rechepsta pass (1A, 3000 m)

M77. Kyafar-Arkhyz pass (1 A*, 3000 m)

Other routes

Atsgara

M78. Atsgara River - trans. Zagedan - r. Zagedanka - r. B. Laba (1-1.5 days).

M79. Glade of poppies - lane. Kabanly - r. Zagedanka -r. B. Laba

M80. Glade of poppies - lane. Kirthua - r. Zagedanka -r. B. Laba (1.5 days)

To the source of the river Urup

M81. The village of Urup - Mt. Akshirsky - the upper reaches of the river. Urup -r. Zagedanka (trail, 3-4 days)

M82. Big Urup Canyon

M83. Urup-Atsgara pass (1 A*, 3000 m)

Other routes

Brief toponymic dictionary

FOREWORD

Western Caucasus is one of the most popular areas mountain tourism, which in the 90s experienced a decline in attendance, as, indeed, the entire Caucasus as a whole. In recent years, tourists and climbers have begun to return here. Convenient access roads, various, technically interesting passes and peaks, many high-mountain lakes - all this attracts lovers of mountain travel.

The last book on this area was the guidebook "Mountain travel in the Western Caucasus" (V. V. Arsenin, N. D. Bondarev, E. D. Sergievsky. M: FiS, 1976). From that time on Zap. The Caucasus has undergone major changes.

Paths to the southern slopes of the Main Caucasian ridge(GKH) turned out to be cut off due to the appearance of the state border, new routes were developed on the northern slopes. There was a need for a new guide, and it was decided to publish it in two books: "Arkhyz. Bolshaya Laba" (N. D. Bondarev) and "From Marukh to Elbrus" (V. V. Arsenin). They continue the series of guidebooks "Elbrus and its spurs" and "South of Baksan" (A. A. Alekseev).

The guide for each valley first describes the approaches, then the pass routes to the neighboring gorges. By joining separate sections, you can make multi-day routes of different categories of complexity. Descriptions of the passage of passes are tied mainly to July - August. A separate section is devoted to travel in the off-season (April - May, October - November). Techniques for overcoming mountainous terrain, with rare exceptions, are not given.

Due to rare visits to some valleys, descriptions of individual sites may not correspond to the specific situation, primarily in terms of the condition of paths, bridges, and the location of cats. In recent years, intensive melting of glaciers has been observed in the Caucasus, which is why already in August large areas of open ice open even on the slopes of the northern exposure, and the danger of rockfalls increases.

In the descriptions, the indications "left" and "right" are used in an orographic sense, when the observer looks down the river. Other is stipulated.

At present, the region has become borderline. To visit it, especially near the border with Abkhazia, a permit is required, which can be obtained in advance at the address: 357100, Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Cherkessk, st. Leonova, 2, military unit 2011.

At the end of the book is a list of literature that allows you to become more familiar with the nature and history of the area.

In the guide, the chapter "General Geographical Information" was written jointly with V. V. Arsenin. E. A. Alperten, E. A. Chernopyatov took part in the descriptions of the routes. A. Kovalenko, A. Kozhukhov, N. V. Koloshina, V. P. Kuznetsov, I. T. Kuznetsov, V. A. Lunin, P. F. Chirukhin, V. Ya. . It should be noted that L. V. Wegener played a special role in the preparation of the guide. He compiled a toponymic dictionary, described several routes and made valuable comments on the text and diagrams.

The guidebook uses photographs by E. A. Alperten, N. D. Bondarev, V. A. Zheltyakov, N. Yu. Kretov, A. V. Pavelchik and E. A. Chernopyatov. At the final stage of preparing the book, V. A. Kozhin, V. V. Konyshev, L. V. Turkina, E. A. Chernopyatov did a great deal of technical work.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

The Western Caucasus is the region of the Caucasus west of Elbrus with borders along the upper reaches of the Kuban and Nenskra. In a narrower sense, to Zap. The Caucasus includes the area that includes the high-altitude, glacier-covered section of the Main Caucasian Range (GKH) about 200 km long. Located to the west, the lower mountains belong to the North-West. Caucasus.

The guide covers part of Zap. Caucasus with mountains in the upper reaches of B. Zelenchuk, B. Laba, Kyafar-Agur and Urup. Administratively, this territory belongs to the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Stavropol and Krasnodar Territories. Most high peaks district - Pshish (3790 m) and Sofia (3640 m).

To the north, spurs depart from the GKH, separated by deep valleys of the B. Zelenchuk and B. Laba tributaries. At a distance of about 20 km from the GKH, the ridge is located parallel to it. Abishira-Akhuba, belonging to the system of the Advanced (Lateral) Range. By the way, Elbrus (5642 m) also belongs to it. Even further north, along Peredovoe, the Rocky Range stretches (altitude about 2000 m), which has gentle northern slopes. To the south of the GKH are the Bzybsky and Chkhalta ridges. Their spurs cut deep canyons the Amtkel, Jampal, Kelasuri and Gumista rivers gradually disappear towards the Black Sea coast.

The rivers of the northern slope of the GKH cut through the Side Range with narrow gorges, and in the upper reaches many valleys have extensive hollows. The rivers originate from glaciers and snowfields, the maximum water falls in the summer, for the most part the rivers are clean and transparent.

mountain river- a serious obstacle. It is especially difficult to cross rainy weather when the water level rises noticeably. In the Caucasus, where there is a fairly dense network of roads and trails, through almost all major rivers there are bridges. It is necessary to tie a route to them. Shepherds arrange luggage, temporary bridges and across large streams. You can find out about the state of these crossings in the villages, kosh.

There are many lakes in this region. At a height, the largest of them lie in the caravans left by ancient glaciers. Numerous small tarns and moraine lakes (some with ice until the end of summer) give these mountains a special charm.

The higher the mountainous country is raised, the deeper and more ancient stone layers are opened up and come into view as a result of weathering and washing away of rocks. When traveling through the valleys of the Kuban, near Cherkessk, near the river, you see Quaternary deposits and sedimentary rocks of the Tertiary period (up to 65 million years old), beyond Ust-Dzhegutinskaya - the Cretaceous period (up to 140 million years old). Then, at the entrance to Karachaevsk and behind it, you cross a wide belt of Jurassic rocks (up to 200 Ma).

On the seismic map of the country, the Caucasus is assigned to the 7-8 point zone. An earthquake in the mountains is dangerous due to the occurrence of rockfalls, collapse of cornices and mudflows. A strong earthquake, called Chkhalta, occurred on July 16, 1963. Its epicenter was near the village of Ptysh, which caused great damage. A rockfall led to a tragedy in a group of climbers on the wall of Mount Dombay-Ulgen.

Landslides occurred on the southern slope of the GKH, where at that time there was a thunderstorm with a downpour. As a result, the road to the village was destroyed in several places. Chkhalta. The landslide blocked the upper reaches of the river. Ptysh. The river swept away the barrier, the mudflow washed away the banks and knocked down the forest.

Although strong tremors are rare, the probability of them forces one to carefully approach the choice of a bivouac site, critically evaluating it (including ready-made sites) in terms of rockfall.

The climate of the region is influenced by two factors: proximity to the Black Sea and a chain of high mountains. The influence of the sea is stronger on the southern slopes, which intercept a significant part of the moisture of warm western and southwestern winds. At their foot and on the coast, about 1500 mm of precipitation falls annually. With height, the amount of precipitation increases, reaching 3000 mm or more. In winter, a lot of snow falls at moderate altitudes; in the highlands, the thickness of the snow cover reaches several meters.

The northern slopes are colder and drier. When crossing the GKH, this difference is very noticeable. As the mountains rise, the temperature drops and the amount of precipitation increases. In Teberda, located at an altitude of about 1300 m, average temperature July +15.6 "C, January ~ 4 "C, about 700 mm of precipitation falls per year.

In Dombai (1630 m) the temperature is several degrees lower, and the precipitation is twice as much. According to long-term observations at the meteorological station "Klukhorsky Pass" (2037 m), the height of the snow cover reaches 2 m, and on the pre-summit slopes it reaches 4 m. The rainiest months are May and June. The relatively dry season runs from August to October. In August, at altitudes of 2500 m, frosts are already frequent.

Over the past hundred years, the area of ​​most glaciers has decreased by about a quarter, and their number has increased due to crushing (although some small ones have disappeared altogether). The average thickness of cirque glaciers is 25-30 m, and that of large valley glaciers is 100 m. Glaciers continue to recede, moraines are covered with grass and shrubs. The Caucasus is characterized by the proximity of glaciers and bright greenery. Azalea blooms in the Khetskvara Gorge in July, a few dozen meters from the glacier.

Avalanche danger occurs in late autumn in October - November, when snowfalls begin. Dry snow avalanches occur during or immediately after heavy snowfalls (70-100 mm per day). During snowstorms, snow boards form. In cold winters with little snow, the cause of an avalanche can be the formation of an unstable layer of deep frost. With transition average daily temperature after 0 ° C in March - April, the time of wet avalanches begins. They are also possible in winter during thaws. Mass avalanches usually end by May, but in the highlands this period is delayed. On snowy slopes and under eaves, avalanche danger persists all year round.

Avalanche cones remain at the foot of the slopes until the middle, and in shaded places until the end of summer. The danger of avalanches also exists in the middle mountains: avalanche centers, although rare, are known near Teberda and Arkhyz. Special attention avalanche risk is required when traveling in spring (May) and autumn.

Entering the mountains from the north, you first cross the belt of deciduous forests, starting from a height of 500-600 m. beech. In the wide developed parts of the valleys, such forests are found in islands, but they cover the steep, hard-to-reach slopes of the gorges completely. Alder and willow grow along the banks of the rivers. At altitudes from 1200-1400 m to 2200 m there are dark coniferous forests (fir, spruce). Dry sunny slopes and rocks are occupied by pine.

Above is the subalpine belt, the limits of which range from 1800 to 2500 m. Above the edge of the tall forest, a strip of beech, birch, and maple crooked forests stretches. Thickets of rhododendrons also creep here, the bushes of which bloom at different times, and its white or cream inflorescences can be seen almost all summer. Even higher lie tall-grass, human-height meadows. Here is the realm of flowers: orange elecampane, blue bells, white daisies, pink mallows, yellow lilies, crimson clover. In the middle of a sea of ​​flowers, three-meter hogweed umbrellas rise. Touching it causes long-term non-healing burns.

On the gentle slopes where cattle graze, the herbage is poorer. Thickets of horse sorrel and poisonous hellebore stand out here. In alpine meadows (2500-3200 m) short grass does not hide stones. The floral carpet is filled with bright blue hyacinths, purple primroses, yellow buttercups, pink asters and purple bluebells. Grass and flowers also grow on rock shelves high above snowfields and ice.

The fauna includes more than 40 species of mammals and 120 species of birds. Wild boar, roe deer, Caucasian deer, fox, lynx, jackal, and marten are found in the forests. The hare is found everywhere. The Altai squirrel, introduced in 1937, has spread. There are also wolves. In the Caucasian and Teberdinsky reserves, work is underway to restore the herd exterminated at the beginning of the 20th century. Caucasian bison. The brown bear stays near the border of the forest in summer, where you can stumble upon a nest he left behind. It also enters the valleys, especially the raspberries. On the grassy ledges near the forest, you can see a herd of chamois, and on the rocks in the upper reaches of the gorges - tours. Turya "paths" go along barely noticeable ledges and shelves, traces of tours are also found on snowfields. It is dangerous to be below these animals, because stones can fall from under the hooves!

Among the birds of the forest and meadow zone, there are both common for the middle zone - jay, woodpecker, cuckoo, and mountain ones - stone partridge (keklik), griffon vulture, black vulture. In the highlands lives the snowcock (large gray turkey) and the black alpine jackdaw with a yellow beak, which lives near glaciers and snowfields.

Of the reptiles, there are (up to the rocks of the Alpine belt) lizards, snakes, copperheads, steppe and Caucasian vipers. Caucasian viper, endemic Zap. Caucasus, occurs up to a height of 2500 m in glades and overgrown screes. In the subalpine zone, the viper keeps near rocks and talus. It can have a different color, but it is characterized by a wide black zigzag stripe on the back. The snake is difficult to distinguish among dry fern leaves or stones covered with lichens.

Trout is found in rivers and some lakes.

On the Zap. There are nature reserves in the Caucasus - Caucasian and Teberdinsky (with a branch in Arkhyz). Permission is required to stay in them. In the gorges (B. Zelenchuk, Urup, B. Laba, etc.), sanctuaries have been created where hunting, fishing, and berry picking are prohibited.

The foothills and valleys suitable for agriculture and horticulture are densely populated. The main type of economic activity is cattle breeding. The movement of livestock to mountain pastures takes place in May-June, the season usually lasts until September. For temporary residence, traditional koshi are used - huts made of logs, stone, shreds or twigs and tents.

Meadows in the valleys, where there are roads, are used for haymaking. Highlanders value them, clean them from stones and enclose them. In no case should you trample the grass, shortening the paths, arrange a bivouac on it and scatter stones.

A fascinating subject, geography is a scientific discipline that studies the earth's surface, oceans and seas, the environment and ecosystems, and the interaction between human society and the environment. The word geography literally translated from ancient Greek means "description of the earth." The following is a general definition of the term geography:

"Geography is a system of scientific knowledge that studies the physical features of the Earth and environment including the impact of human activities on these factors, and vice versa. The subject also covers patterns of population distribution, land use, availability and production.

Scholars who study geography are known as geographers. These people are engaged in the study of the natural environment of our planet and human society. Although the cartographers of the ancient world were known as geographers, today it is a relatively independent specialty. Geographers tend to focus on two main areas geographical research: physical geography and human geography.

History of the development of geography

The term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks, who not only created detailed maps surrounding area, and also explained the difference between people and natural landscapes in different places on the earth. Over time, the rich heritage of geography has taken a fateful journey into the bright Islamic minds. The golden age of Islam witnessed astonishing achievements in the field of geographical sciences. Islamic geographers became famous for their pioneering discoveries. New lands were explored and the first base grid for the map system was developed. Chinese civilization also instrumentally contributed to the development of early geography. The compass developed by the Chinese was used by explorers to explore the unknown.

A new chapter in the history of science begins with the period of great geographical discoveries, a period coinciding with the European Renaissance. A fresh interest in geography woke up in the European world. Marco Polo - Venetian merchant and traveler led this new era of exploration. Commercial interests in establishing trade contacts with the rich civilizations of Asia, such as China and India, became the main incentive for travel at that time. Europeans have moved forward in all directions, discovering new lands, unique cultures and. The enormous potential of geography for shaping the future of human civilization was recognized, and in the 18th century, it was introduced as a major discipline at the university level. Based on geographical knowledge, people began to discover new ways and means to overcome the difficulties generated by nature, which led to the prosperity of human civilization in all corners of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technology, computerized systems, and sophisticated software revolutionized science and made the study of geography more complete and detailed.

Branches of geography

Geography can be considered as an interdisciplinary science. The subject includes a transdisciplinary approach, which allows you to observe and analyze objects in the space of the Earth, as well as develop solutions to problems based on this analysis. The discipline of geography can be divided into several areas of scientific research. The primary classification geography divides the approach to the subject into two broad categories: physical geography and socio-economic geography.

Physical geography

is defined as a branch of geography that includes the study of natural objects and phenomena (or processes) on Earth.

Physical geography is further subdivided into the following branches:

• Geomorphology: engaged in the study of topographic and bathymetric features of the Earth's surface. Science helps to elucidate various aspects related to landforms, such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also attempts to predict future changes in physical characteristics appearance Earth.
• Glaciology: a branch of physical geography that studies the relationship between the dynamics of glaciers and their impact on the ecology of the planet. Thus, glaciology involves the study of the cryosphere, including alpine and continental glaciers. Glacial geology, snow hydrology, etc. are some subdisciplines of glaciological research.
• Oceanography: Since the oceans contain 96.5% of all water on Earth, the specialized discipline of oceanography is dedicated to their study. The science of oceanography includes geological oceanography (the study of the geological aspects of the ocean floor, seamounts, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (the study of marine life, fauna and ecosystems of the ocean), chemical oceanography (the study of the chemical composition sea ​​waters and their impact on marine life forms), physical oceanography (the study of ocean movements such as waves, currents, tides).
• Hydrology: another important branch of physical geography, dealing with the study of the properties and dynamics of the movement of water in relation to land. It explores the rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground aquifers of the planet. Hydrology studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another, above and below the surface of the Earth, through.
• Soil science: the branch of science that studies the different types of soils in their natural environment on the earth's surface. Helps to collect information and knowledge about the process of formation (pedogenesis), composition, texture and classification of soils.
• : an indispensable discipline of physical geography that studies the dispersal of living organisms in the geographic space of the planet. It also studies the distribution of species over geological time periods. Each geographic region has its own unique ecosystems, and biogeography explores and explains their relationship to physical geographic features. There are various branches of biogeography: zoogeography (the geographical distribution of animals), phytogeography (the geographical distribution of plants), island biogeography (the study of factors affecting individual ecosystems), etc.
• Paleogeography: the branch of physical geography that studies geographic features at various points in time in the earth's geological history. Science helps geographers gain information about continental positions and plate tectonics as determined by studying paleomagnetism and fossil records.
• Climatology: scientific study of climate, as well as the most important section of geographical research in the modern world. Considers all aspects related to micro or local climate as well as macro or global climate. Climatology also includes the study of the influence of human society on climate, and vice versa.
• Meteorology: studies weather conditions, atmospheric processes and phenomena that affect local and global weather.
• Ecological geography: explores the interaction between people (individuals or society) and their natural environment from a spatial perspective.
• Coastal geography: a specialized field of physical geography that also includes the study of socio-economic geography. It is devoted to the study of the dynamic interaction between the coastal zone and the sea. Physical processes that form coasts and the influence of the sea on landscape change. Research also involves understanding the impact of residents coastal areas on the relief and ecosystem of the coast.
• Quaternary geology: a highly specialized branch of physical geography dealing with the study of the Quaternary period of the Earth (geographical history of the Earth, covering the last 2.6 million years). This allows geographers to learn about the environmental changes that have taken place in the recent past of the planet. Knowledge is used as a tool to predict future changes in the world's environment.
• Geomatics: the technical branch of physical geography that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation, and storage of data about the earth's surface.
• landscape ecology: a science that studies the influence of various landscapes of the Earth on the ecological processes and ecosystems of the planet.

Human geography

Human geography, or socio-economic geography, is a branch of geography that studies the impact of the environment on human society and the earth's surface, as well as the impact of anthropogenic activities on the planet. Socio-economic geography is focused on the study of the most developed creatures in the world from an evolutionary point of view - people and their environment.

This branch of geography is divided into various disciplines depending on the direction of research:

• Geography population: deals with the study of how nature determines the distribution, growth, composition, lifestyle and migration of human populations.
• Historical geography: explains the change and development of geographical phenomena over time. While this section is seen as a branch of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography tries to understand why, how and when places and regions on the Earth change, and what impact they have on human society.
• Cultural geography: explores how and why cultural preferences and norms change across spaces and places. Thus, it is concerned with the study of the spatial variations of human cultures, including religion, language, livelihood choices, politics, and so on.
• Economical geography: the most important section of socio-economic geography, covering the study of location, distribution and organization economic activity person in geographic space.
• Political geography: considers the political boundaries of the countries of the world and the division between countries. She also studies how spatial structures influence political functions, and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics are some of the sub-disciplines of political geography.
• Geography of health: explores the impact geographical location on the health and well-being of people.
• Social geography: studies the quality and standard of living of the human population of the world and tries to understand how and why such standards change depending on place and space.
• Geography settlements: deals with the study of urban and rural settlements, economic structure, infrastructure, etc., as well as the dynamics of human settlement in relation to space and time.
• Geography of animals: studies animal world Earth and interdependence between humans and animals.

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The current state of geodesy

The beginning of the modern fifth period development of geodesy coincides with the launch of the first artificial Earth satellites (AES). The advent of satellites opened up new possibilities for solving scientific and practical problems of geodesy, laid the foundation for space geodesy. A prime example This is served by the emergence of global positioning systems GPS, GLONASS. The parameters of the global ellipsoid were determined from satellite measurements.

important scientific and technological achievement that literally revolutionized the processes of performing geodetic work is the emergence of computer technology. Their use allowed:

Create automated geodetic instruments, which increases productivity and reliability of measurement results;

Fast mathematical processing of large volumes of results of geodetic measurements;

Store large arrays of geodetic data in databases, quickly access them;

Present geodetic data in computer graphics formats that are convenient for consumers of geodetic data and solve their specific problems.

It is known from geography that: The Earth is a sphere, the surface of the Earth is covered by almost two-thirds of water. The surface itself is uneven. There are plains and mountains, both on land and under water (Fig. 31).

Rice. 31. The physical surface of the Earth

The highest mountain is located in Tibet. This is Chomolungma (Everest), 8848 meters above sea level. the deepest ocean trench- Mariana in the Pacific Ocean. Its depth is 10994 meters below sea level. Thus, the maximum difference in landforms on the planet is less than 19 km.

In total, there are 6 continents on Earth (Eurasia, North America, South America, Africa, Australia and Antarctica) and 4 oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic)

Rice. 32. Geographic map

The entire surface of the Earth or part of it can be depicted in the form of a geographical map (Fig. 32).

To describe the position of objects on the Earth's surface, there is a system of geographical coordinates - latitudes and longitudes, measured in degrees and minutes of arc (Fig. 32).

To do this, meridians and parallels are drawn along the surface of the Earth.

meridians go from pole to pole. The meridians are counted from the zero meridian - Greenwich to the east (east longitude) and to the west (west longitude). St. Petersburg is located on the meridian 30 ° E.

The change of day and night is caused by the fact that the Earth rotates on its axis, performing a complete revolution in 24 hours. The next date starts at midnight. But on different meridians, midnight comes at different times. If it is day in St. Petersburg, then it is night in the USA. It turns out that each meridian has its own time, which is called local time. For example, if in St. Petersburg it is 1 hour (1 h) local time, then in Moscow it is approximately 1.5 h local time. Local time is used, for example, when making astronomical observations. Under normal conditions, such a calculation of time is inconvenient. Therefore, standard time is used everywhere, and in the Russian Federation also maternity and summer time.

Each revolution of the planet adds one day, that is, after receiving standard (declarative, summer) time, the next date comes. To harmonize dates in the world, a international date line, which runs approximately along the 180º meridian. Therefore, if, for example, September 16 comes at midnight in Alaska, then after 3 hours, September 17 comes at midnight in Chukotka.

Parallels run parallel to the equator. Latitude is determined by parallels. Latitudes are counted both north (north latitude) and south (south latitude) of the equator. Accordingly, the latitude of the North Pole is +90° N, latitude South Pole-90° S.

There are four special parallels. northern tropic or Tropic of Cancer - a parallel on which at noon on the day of the summer solstice on June 22, the Sun will be exactly at its zenith. It runs along the parallel 23º 27" N. southern tropic or the Tropic of Capricorn runs along the parallel 23º 27" S respectively.

Arctic Circle- a parallel, to the north of which polar day and polar night can be observed. Its latitude is 66º 44 "N, for the southern polar circle- 66º 44" S respectively.

By geographical map you can determine the geographical coordinates of any object depicted on it. For example, according to a fragment of a geographical map in Figure 33, one can approximately determine the coordinates of St. Petersburg as follows: latitude 60 ° N, longitude 30 ° E.

Rice. 33. Fragment of a geographical map

In addition, on a geographical map, you can determine the height (depth) of a point above sea level.

The latitude and longitude of a point are inherently global (general earth), absolute coordinates. Often there is a need for a point to describe its position relative to another point. Such coordinates are called relative. Consider Figure 34.

Rice. 34. Relative coordinates of points

There are two points on the geographical map: point 1 And point 2 . The first coordinate is the distance S 1-2 , which is determined in a known way - the distance on the map is measured, for example, with a ruler, and the distance on the ground is calculated based on the scale of the map.

The second coordinate is azimuth. To determine it, you need:

Draw a line on the map connecting both points;

Draw lines of meridians of points on the map (“meridian point 1” and “meridian point 2”);

Using a protractor, measure the angles between the meridians and the line connecting the points; the angle is measured from the north direction of the meridian clockwise.

The measured angles are the azimuths. At the same time, it is assumed that for point 1 azimuth A 1-2 is direct, A A 2-1 - reverse. For point 2 - vice versa.