Georgia. The highest peak in Georgia. Central authorities

TBILISI, Dec 11 - Sputnik. Georgia has been famous since ancient times for its beautiful mountains and peaks, with routes that are difficult to access. on the international day of mountains, which is celebrated every year on December 11, presents the TOP-7 famous and most difficult mountains of Georgia.

1. Shkhara - height 5,193.2 meters

Thomas Vahe

The highest peak in Georgia. Located in the Svaneti region. Shkhara was first climbed by Soviet climbers in 1933. At the foot of the southern slopes of Shkhara, at an altitude of 2,200 m above sea level, there is the village of Ushguli in the Mestia region of Svaneti, which is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

2. Kazbek or Mkinvartsveri - height 5,033.8 meters

© photo: Sputnik / Alexander Imedashvili

It is an extinct stratovolcano. Located on the border of Russia and Georgia. The last eruption supposedly occurred in 650 BC. It was formed, according to experts, 805 million years ago. Approximately at an altitude of 3800 m, on an 80-meter rock wall in a cave, there is an ancient Georgian monastery of Betlemi (Bethlehem).

3. Ushba - height 4690 meters

© photo: Sputnik / S. Onanov

One of the most famous mountains of the Caucasus. It is located in the Svaneti region. From the Svan language "ush" means trouble, "ba" means mountain. That is, a mountain that brings misfortune. It is called the killer mountain or the ghost mountain. It was this mountain that caused the death of many climbers who wanted to conquer it.

4. Tetnuldi - height 4,869 meters

A resort of the same name is being built on the slope of the mountain, the ski slope of which will be the longest in the Caucasus - 9.5 kilometers.

5. Diklosmta - height 4,285 meters

© photo: Sputnik / Said Tsarnaev

A mountain range in the eastern part of the Greater Caucasus on the crest of the Snegovoi Ridge, which is the natural border of Chechnya, Dagestan and Georgia. Translated from Georgian: "Mta" - mountain, "Diklo" - one of the oldest villages in Tusheti, located at the foot of the mountain.

Construction on the northern slope of the mountain ski resort"Veduchi".

Countries:
18-04-2014, 16:33

Mountain peaks

• Bethlem cave
  The cave, located on the massif of the Kazbek peak, at an altitude of about 4100 meters above sea level. The entrance to the cave is carved into the red andesitic sheer rock at a height of 350-400 meters from the base.
• Kazbek
  An extinct stratovolcano, the easternmost five-thousander of the Caucasus, is located in the eastern part of the Central Caucasus, on the border of Russia and Georgia, in the eastern part of the Khokhsky ridge. The last eruption occurred in 650 BC. e. The height in the Baltic system of heights is 5033.8 m.
• Kolka
  Karovo-valley glacier, located in the upper reaches of the Genaldon river valley in the Terek river basin mountain system Greater Caucasus in the Genaldon gorge on the northern slope of the Kazbek-Dzhimarai mountain range. According to widespread, widely circulating data, the length of the Kolka glacier is 3.2 km, the area is 2.5 km². According to other, more accurate scientific data, the length of the glacier is much longer - 8.4 km, area 7.2 sq. km
• barbalo
  Mountain on the site of the Main Caucasian Range, located. Some large rivers originate here: Iori, Alazani - and many tributaries of other rivers, incl. flowing to the north (Argun rivers, Terek basin) and east (Andean Koisu, Sulak basin). To the south of Barbalo, two significant spurs separate, serving as a watershed, one [Kartala (Kartli) ridge] - between the Pshav Aragvi and Iori, the other [Kakheti (Tsivi-Gombori) ridge] - between Iori and Alazani (all - the Kura basin). Barbalo (together with Tebulos-mta located to the north) serves as the boundary of the geological structure of the Main Caucasian Range; thus, to the west of Barbalo, the mountains mainly consist of eruptive rocks (granite, crystalline schist, porphyry, etc.), and to the east - of rocks of sedimentary origin (clay shale, sandstones). Barbalo-big has a height of 3296 m above sea level, Barbalo-small is located somewhat north of the big one.
• Dzhangitau
  Mountain peak in the central part of the Main Caucasian (Dividing) Range. Height 5085 m. It is part of a unique 12-kilometer mountain range, known as the Bezengi Wall. It is located on the border of Russia (Kabardino-Balkaria) and Georgia. According to the latest topographic data, Dzhangitau peak is the highest point of the GKH and the highest point of Georgia. Previously, the highest accurate GKH and the highest point of Georgia was the Shkhara peak and had a height of 5203m., But according to the latest topographic data, this height was not accurate, and on this moment the peak of Shkhara has a height of 5068 meters, which is 17 meters lower than the peak of Dzhangitau Main, with a height of 5085 meters above sea level. Popular climbing site.
• Diklosmta
  A mountain range in the eastern part of the Greater Caucasus on the crest of the Snegovoi Ridge, which is the natural border of Chechnya, Dagestan and Georgia. It is mainly composed of Lower Jurassic shales and sandstones. The massif has significant glaciation, the total area of ​​nine large permanent glaciers is 5.1 km². Glaciers feed the Hulandoy, Chero, Gakko rivers, as well as tributaries of the Khargabe river.
• denunciation
  Peak in the Main Caucasian Range (Pirikit Range), on the border of Russia (Chechnya) and Georgia (Tushetia). The name is based on the name of the Sharoev clan Donoi (Danei), similarly to Maistismta.
• Zilga-Khokh
  Top of the watershed Caucasian Range, on the border of South Ossetia and Georgia. Altitude: 3,853 m (12,645 ft) above sea level. On the northeastern slope of the mountain is the source of the Terek.
• Kideganis
  A mountain in the east of the Main Caucasian Range, on the border of the northern outskirts of the municipality of Dusheti and the Republic of Ingushetia, on the watershed of the Armkhi and Assa rivers. Main peak has a height of 4275 m, several minor peaks. The mountain is composed of Jura shales. Glaciers. Fauna and flora characteristic of the mountain - meadow and glacial - nival-glacial zone.
• Komito
  Mountain peak in the Sharoi region of Chechnya. The height above sea level is 4261 meters. Located on the border with Georgia
• Tetnuld
  Peak in the spur of the Bezengi Wall, the Main Caucasian Range in the region of Upper Svaneti, Georgia, 2 km south of the peak of Gestola and the border of the Russian Federation (Kabardino-Balkaria). Height - 4 869 m. The peak is two-headed, composed of ancient crystalline rocks. The glaciers Oish, Nageb, (sources of the Enguri), Adish and others flow down from Tetnuld. The total area of ​​glaciers is 46 km². 22 km west of the summit is the regional center of Mestia.
• Ushba
  One of the peaks of the Greater Caucasus in the Georgian region of Upper Svaneti, 1.5 km south of the border with Russia (Kabardino-Balkaria). Although not among the 10 highest peaks in the region, Ushba is known as the "Matterhorn of the Caucasus" due to its picturesque double peak. Due to its steep profile and unstable weather, Ushba is considered by many climbers to be the most difficult peak in the Caucasus to climb.
• shang
  One of the peaks of the main ridge of the Greater Caucasus, on the border of Georgia and Ingushetia. The highest point of Ingushetia (4451 m.). Between the ridges Shan (in the east) and Kuro-Shino (in the west) is the gorge of the Kistinka River.
• Shoda
  Mountain on the southern slope of the Main Caucasian Range, forms the Shoda-Kedela Range, height 3609 meters. It has two peaks covered with eternal snow. There are deposits of albite - spectacular druses on sandstones, rock crystal - in the cavities of quartz veins; quartz - veins of the Alpine type in clay shales and sandstones, calcite, chlorite. At the foot of the mountain passes the Ossetian Military Road.
• Shkhara
  A mountain peak in the central part of the Main Caucasian (Dividing) Range, the highest point in Georgia. Height 5,068 m above sea level, some sources give an estimate of 5,201 m. Located in Svaneti from the south and Bezengi in Kabardino-Balkaria from the north, on the border with Russia, about 90 km north of the city of Kutaisi. It is part of a unique 12-kilometer mountain range known as the Bezengi wall.

mountain ranges

• Arsian Ridge
  A mountain range in the northwestern frame of the Armenian Highlands (the Lesser Caucasus system) located in southern Georgia and eastern Turkey. Northern part The ridge, entering Georgia, borders the upper reaches of the Adzharistskali River from the east and adjoins the western tip of the Lesser Caucasus. The southwestern end of the ridge lies at the confluence of the Oltu and Chorukha rivers. The total length of the ridge is about 150 km. The maximum height is 3165 m (Mount Arsiyan). The ridge is composed of shales and sandstones, which alternate with volcanogenic strata. Retains moisture brought from the sea. The slopes of the ridge are covered below with beech-chestnut, above with beech and fir-spruce forests, then with alpine meadows.
• Bezengi wall
  13-kilometer mountain range, the highest section of the Main Caucasian (Dividing) Range.
• side ridge
  The mountain range of the Greater Caucasus, stretching from the north side parallel to the Main Range. Unlike the Main Caucasian Range, the Side Range does not represent a single continuous chain of mountains, but is divided into independent mountain ranges by transverse faults. It is separated from the Main Caucasian Range by a deep intermountain depression - a depression that runs along the fault line of the earth's crust.
• Main Caucasian Range
  An uninterrupted mountain range extending over 1,100 km from the northwest to the southeast from the Black Sea (Anapa region) to the Caspian Sea (Mount Ilkhydag northwest of Baku). The Caucasian Range divides the Caucasus into two parts: Ciscaucasia (Northern Caucasus) and Transcaucasia (South Caucasus). The Main Caucasian Ridge separates the basins of the Kuban, Terek, Sulak and Samur rivers in the north and the Inguri, Rioni and Kura rivers in the south. The mountain system, which includes the Main Caucasian Range, is called Greater Caucasus(or the Greater Caucasus Range), in contrast to the Lesser Caucasus, a vast highland located south of the Rioni and Kura valleys and directly connected with the uplands of Western Asia.
• Javakheti Range
  The mountain range in Georgia and Armenia is about 50 km long. The highest peak of the range is Mount Achkasar (3196 m, Armenia). The Javakheti Range is formed by a chain of numerous volcanoes active in the Quaternary period. The name Wet Mountains is associated with the climate of these places - there is a lot of precipitation here. The vegetation is characteristic of mountain steppes, subalpine and alpine meadows. The rivers Tzakhkashen, Ghukasyan and Chichkhan originate on the ridge.
• Kartli Range
  A mountain range in Georgia, on the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus, located between the Pshavskaya Aragvi and Iori rivers. The length of the ridge is over 100 km. Heights reach 3000 m in the north. The ridge is composed mainly of sandstones, marls, and shales. The slopes are covered with beech and oak forests. On the tops there are mountain meadows.
• Kakheti Range
  Mountain range in Georgia, in the southern part of the Greater Caucasus. It serves as a watershed for the Iori and Alazani rivers. The length of the ridge is about 120 km. The maximum height is 2506 m. The ridge is composed mainly of sandstones, marls, and shales. The slopes are covered with broad-leaved forests and shrubs. At an altitude of 2000 m - mountain meadows. In the lower parts of the slopes there are vineyards.
• Lechkhum Range
  Mountain range in Georgia. It is the front range of the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus. The length of the ridge is about 60 km. The highest height is 3584 m (Mount Samertskhle). It is composed of porphyrites, shales, and flysch in the northeast. Subalpine and alpine meadows, beech and dark coniferous forests.
• Likhsky ridge
  The ridge of the Georgian-Imereti and Meskhi mountains. Located on the territory of South Ossetia and Georgia. It is the only continuous watershed ridge connecting the Greater Caucasus with the Lesser. Altitude up to 1926 m. It starts at the top of Zikari (12563 feet) of the Main Caucasian Range, then goes southwest and, adjoining the latitudinal chain, which is the northern margin of the Lesser Caucasus, divides the Kura and Rioni basins, dividing Transcaucasia into two very different climates , vegetation and other parts - eastern and western. The Likh Range is composed of granites and chalk rocks. In the middle part, there is a rather convenient Suram pass (3027 feet), leading (under the Russian Empire) from Imeretia to Kartalinia (from Kutaisi to Tiflis province).
• Meskheti Range
  Mountain range in Georgia, in the northern part of the Lesser Caucasus. The length from west to northeast is about 240 km. The highest height is 2850 m (Mepistskaro). Karst is widely developed. On the slopes, broad-leaved and dark coniferous forests are not uncommon, and at an altitude of more than 2000 m, subalpine and alpine meadows, which serve as excellent pastures in the warm season. It is one of the ridges along which the watershed between the Black and Caspian Seas passes.
• Pontic mountains
  A mountain system in northern Turkey, stretching along the southern coast of the Black Sea, from the mouths of the Yeshilyrmak River to the mouths of the Chorokh River and even a little further to the peak of Karchal (3428 meters), which can be considered its eastern tip.
• Racha Range
  Mountain range in Georgia and South Ossetia, in the central part of the Greater Caucasus on the south side. The highest height is 2862 m. The Racha Range separates the basins of the Kishelta, Tsata, Bolshaya Liakhvi in ​​the east and Jochiara, Jodzhora and Rioni in the west. Karst is widely developed. On the slopes there are beech and dark coniferous forests, subalpine and alpine meadows. The Tkibul coal deposit is located near the southwestern spurs. Near the north-eastern - Kvaisskoe deposit of lead-zinc ores.
• Samsar Range
  The watershed plateau (3000 m above sea level) separates the basins of the Paravani and Khrami rivers, the right tributaries of the Kura. The Samsar plateau is composed mainly of trachyte lavas. Samsari peak (3284 m) rises in the center of the Samsari plateau, located between the lakes of Tabatskuri and the largest lake in Georgia, Paravani. The climate on the plateau is the most severe in Georgia: summers are short and cool, winters are unusually cold (frosts -25 to -35 degrees Celsius). There are no forests on the plateau.
• Svaneti Range
  Mountain range in Georgia. It is the front range of the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus. The length of the ridge is 85 km. The highest height is 4,008 m (Mount Laila). It is composed of shales and quartzites. The crest of the ridge is occupied by glaciers with a total area of ​​about 30 km². On the slopes there are alpine meadows, turning into coniferous and beech forests. The northern slopes of the ridge face the valley of the upper reaches of the Inguri River (the historical region of Upper Svaneti), the southern slopes face the upper reaches of the Tskhenistskali River (the historical region of Lower Svaneti).
• Somkhet Range
  A mountain range in Armenia and Georgia, located in the middle part of the Lesser Caucasus. The length of the ridge is 75 km. The maximum height reaches 2543 m (Mount Lalvar). The ridge is dissected by the transverse gorge of the Debed River. It is composed of basalts, andesites, sandstones and limestones with granitoid intrusions. The ridge has gentle slopes in the western half, steep slopes in the eastern. The northern slope of the ridge is covered with forest, the southern slope is dominated by mountain steppe with sparse shrubs. Also, a deposit of copper ores (Alaverdi) was discovered on the southern slope.
• Trialeti ridge
  A mountain range in Georgia on the right bank of the Kura to the west of Tbilisi, the length is estimated from 150 to 200 km, the width is about 30 km. The ridge serves as a major watershed. Formed by volcanic activity of the Paleogene era, it is composed of flysch and volcanogenic rocks. On the northern slope of the ridge is the medieval monastery of Kvatakhevi.
• Tusheti ridge
  Mountain range, in the eastern part of the Greater Caucasus, on the border of Georgia, as well as Chechnya, Ingushetia and Dagestan. It is located between the upper reaches of the Argun and Andi Koisu rivers. The ridge belongs to the system of the Lateral Range of the Greater Caucasus, extending parallel to the lower Dividing Range. The length of the ridge is 80 km. The highest point is Mount Tebulosmta (4493 m). The ridge is composed of shales and sandstones of the Lower Jurassic age. On the slopes there are alpine and subalpine meadows. There are glaciers on the highest massifs.
• Khokhsky ridge
  A mountain range in the Caucasus Mountains, part of the Lateral Caucasian Range, passing through the territory of Georgia and Russia ( North Ossetia). The Khokhsky Range runs north of the Main Caucasian Range, separated from it by the Trusovsky Gorge. The ridge is cut by the Ardon and Terek gorges. It includes mountains: Kazbek (5034 m), Siveraut (3767 m), Jimara (4780 m), Maylihokh (4598 m); glaciers: northern slope - Midagrabin, Mayli, Chach, Devdoraksky; southern slope - Abana, Mna, Savitisi.
• Shavshetsky ridge
  A mountain range in the southwest of Transcaucasia, on the border of Adjara and Turkey. The length of the ridge is about 65 km. The highest point is Mount Kheva (2812 m). The ridge is composed of volcanogenic flysch and sandstones. Plateau-like surfaces predominate. Broad-leaved and spruce-fir forests with evergreen undergrowth grow on the slopes. On the ridge - subalpine meadows.
• Egrisi Ridge
  A mountain range on the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus, located on the territory of Georgia. It stretches parallel to the Main Caucasian Range between the Inguri and Tskhenistskali rivers. The highest peak of the ridge is Mount Chitagwala with a height of 3226 m. Broad-leaved forests of oak, beech and other trees grow on the slopes of the ridge. Above 2000 m there are subalpine and alpine meadows.

passes

• Becho
  Alpine pass, located in the central part of the Main, or Dividing Range of the Greater Caucasus, between the Donguz-Orun and Shkhelda mountain ranges. Until the middle of the 20th century, it was of great trade and economic importance, since it connected the Becho valley in the South Caucasus (Upper Svaneti region, Georgia) with the Baksan Gorge of the North Caucasus (now in the territory of the Russian Federation). The pass is located at an altitude of 3,375 meters above sea level; for most of the year it is covered by a glacier, and therefore is accessible to pedestrians only in summer. Compared to other passes of the Caucasus, it is considered relatively easy to cross. In Soviet times, there was laid hiking trail from the Baksan River, which ran along the valley of the Yusenga River (Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic) to the river. Enguri (along the Dolra Valley, Georgian SSR). After 2008, the use of the pass for recreational, tourist and economic purposes is difficult due to tensions in Russian-Georgian relations.
• Donguzorun
  Mountain pass through the Main Caucasian Range, located on the border of Georgia and Kabardino-Balkaria (Russia). The pass connects the Donguzorun Gorge in Kabardino-Balkaria with the Nakra River Gorge in Georgia. The height of the pass reaches 3203 m. The name comes from the words donguz - "pig" and orun - "place", that is, it means "pen for pigs".
• Zekarsky pass
  Pass through the Dvaletsky Range (part of the Main Caucasian Range) on the border of Russia (North Ossetia) and South Ossetia (Georgia).
• Zekarsky pass
  A pass through the Meskheti Range (the northernmost of the Lesser Caucasus) in Georgia, located at the headwaters of the Khanistskali rivers. Through the Zekar Pass there is a road from Kutaisi (through the Zekari resort on the northern slope of the ridge) to the mountain resort of Abastumani (on the southern slope), which is further connected to the Batumi-Akhaltsikhe highway. It is located on the border of Imereti (Bagdat municipality) and Samtskhe-Javakheti (Adigeni municipality) regions of Georgia.
• whalelod
  Mountain pass through the Main Caucasian Range, on the border of Kabardino-Balkaria and Georgia. Located between the peaks of Tikhtengen and Kulak-tau, it connects the upper reaches of the Chegem Gorge (in the north) and the upper reaches of the Mulkhra River (in the south). The name is translated from Turkic as “pass behind the peak” and is due to the fact that the pass, when observed from the Kulak glacier, along which the path to the pass goes, is not visible, as it is obscured by the peak of the same name
• Kodori pass
  The pass through the Main Caucasian Range, connecting the valley of the upper reaches of the Andean Koisu in Dagestan with the Alazani valley in Georgia. Height - 2365 m. Rivers flow: Metlyuta, Khufri, Sokori, Intsoba, Alazani.
• Cross Pass
  Pass on the Georgian Military Highway (Vladikavkaz - Tbilisi) at an altitude of 2379 m through the Main Caucasian Range. It leads from the valley of the Terek River to the valley of the Aragvi River. To the west of the pass is the Kelskoe volcanic plateau.
• Laba
  Mountain pass in the Western Caucasus, on the border of Karachay-Cherkessia and Abkhazia. The height of the pass is 2614 m.
• Laschedar
  Mountain pass through the Main Caucasian Range, located on the border of Georgia and Kabardino-Balkaria (Russia). The pass connects the Bashil (in the north) and Laskhedar (in the south) glaciers. The height reaches 3629 m.
• Marukh pass
  Pass at an altitude of 2748 m through the Main Caucasian Range in the western part of the Greater Caucasus. The pass leads from the valley of the Marukha river (Kuban basin) to the Atsgara valley (a tributary of the Kodori). The Marukh Pass now belongs to the Republic of Abkhazia.
• Sanchar pass
  Pass at an altitude of 2589 m in the Western Caucasus. From August 1942 to January 1943, battles took place on the Sancharsky Pass between the 49th Mountain Rifle Corps of General Rudolf Konrad with two Romanian mountain rifle divisions on the one hand, and units of the 46th Army of the Transcaucasian Front on the other. The pass changed hands several times.
• Seven Pass
  Mountain pass in the southern spur of the Main Caucasian Range, on the border of Kabardino-Balkaria and Georgia. The pass connects the Kitlod and Tsaneri glaciers. Its height is 3769 m. According to one version, the name of the pass is translated from Svan as “third” or “triple” and is due to the fact that in order to pass from the Chegem gorge to the Bezengi gorge, it is necessary to pass three passes in a row: Kitlod, Semi, Upper Tsanner (on this route, the Semi Pass is the middle one). According to another version, the pass got its name in honor of the seven Soviet climbers who passed it in 1929.
• Suram pass
  Mountain pass Likhsky (Suramsky) mountain range(connects the Greater Caucasus with the Lesser) on the territory of present-day Georgia. It is the lowest pass of this range (height 949 meters above sea level). A highway and a railway pass through the pass (section Khashuri - Zestaponi). In 1932, this railway section was electrified and the operation of the first electric locomotives in the Soviet Union began on it.
• Truso
  The pass on the border of Georgia and Russia (North Ossetia), between the Trusovsky Gorge and the Zakinsky Gorge. The height of the pass is 3150 m.
• zanner
  The common name of two mountain passes through the Main Caucasian Range: Upper Tsanner and Lower Tsanner. Located on the border of Kabardino-Balkaria and Georgia, between the peaks of Ortokara and Lyalver. The height of the Lower Tsanner pass is 3900 m.

Mountains

• Caucasian mountains
  Mountain system between the Black, Azov and Caspian seas. The etymology of the name has not been established. It is divided into two mountain systems: the Greater Caucasus and the Lesser Caucasus. The Caucasus is often divided into the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia, the border between which is drawn along the Main, or Watershed, ridge of the Greater Caucasus, which occupies a central position in the mountain system. The Greater Caucasus stretches for more than 1100 km from the northwest to the southeast, from the Anapa region and the Taman Peninsula to the Absheron Peninsula on the Caspian coast, near Baku. Max Width The Greater Caucasus reaches in the region of the Elbrus meridian (up to 180 km). In the axial part is located the Main Caucasian (or Dividing) Range, to the north of which a number of parallel ranges (mountain ranges) extend, including a monoclinal (kuest) character (see Greater Caucasus). The southern slope of the Greater Caucasus mostly consists of echelon-shaped ridges adjacent to the Main Caucasian ridge. Traditionally, the Greater Caucasus is divided into 3 parts: the Western Caucasus (from the Black Sea to Elbrus), the Central Caucasus (from Elbrus to Kazbek) and the Eastern Caucasus (from Kazbek to the Caspian Sea).
• Kehl plateau
  Volcanic plateau in the Caucasus, zone of extinct volcanoes and volcanic lakes. It is located on the territory of Georgia and South Ossetia in the upper reaches of the Belaya Aragvi River, on the southern side of the Main Caucasian Range at an altitude of about 2600-3300 m above sea level. From the west it is bounded by the valley along which the Transcaucasian highway passes, from the east the highlands adjoin the Cross Pass, through which the Georgian Military Highway runs. In the north is the Trusovskoye gorge, which separates the plateau from Kazbek. Extinct volcanoes: Khorisar (3736 m), Shadilkhokh, Sharkhokh, Mepiskalo (3519 m), Narvankhokh (3247 m).
• Latsga
  One of the peaks of the Main Caucasian Range in the Latsga-Chegettau massif above the slopes of the Dzhantugan plateau in the Svaneti region, Georgia. The southern slopes of the mountain and adjacent valleys are covered by the Lekzyr glacier. Popular with climbers. Height varies depending on from the source from 3995 to 4019 m w. y. m.
• maistismta
  Mountain peak in the Itum-Kalinsky region of Chechnya. The name is based on the name of the Chechen clan (teip) Maisto. The height above sea level is 4081 meters. The mountain is located on the border with Georgia
• Mtatsminda
  Mountain in Tbilisi, part of the Trialeti Range. It is located on the right bank of the Kura River (the Georgian name of the river is Mtkvari), practically in the center of the city. Mtatsminda dominates the surrounding hills and is a kind of symbol of the capital of Georgia.
• Tichtengen
  Mountain range in the central part of the Greater Caucasus. It is located on the Main Caucasian Range, in the upper reaches of the Chegem River, on the border of Kabardino-Balkaria and Georgia. The height reaches 4611 m. The massif is composed of crystalline schists, gneisses and granites. The sources of many large glaciers (Zaneri and others) are located on Tikhtengen. The total area of ​​glaciation is about 46.8 km².
• Shota Rustaveli Peak
  A mountain in the center of the Main Caucasian Range, located on the border of Svaneti (Georgia) and Kabardino-Balkaria (Russia). Named after the Georgian statesman Shota Rustaveli. The height of the mountain is 4859 meters. It is considered the ninth highest peak of the Caucasus. There is a danger of glaciers descending into the neighboring valley.

· Hydrography · Climate · Flora · Fauna · Protected areas · Notes · Official site ·

The northern part of the republic is occupied by the mountain system of the Greater Caucasus (gr. Kavkasioni) with altitudes up to 4500-5000 m above sea level. The highest point is Mount Shkhara (5068m.), and Kazbek (5033m). The Caucasus belongs to young folded systems (i.e., tectonic processes have not been completed here). Most of the coast of Georgia is slowly sinking. On average, the sinking of the land of the Colchis lowland is about 13 cm per century. There is a high seismicity of the territory (especially in the east, earthquakes up to 5-7 points).

In the watershed part of the Central Caucasus there are well-known passes - Cross (2384 m) and Mamison (2829 m). Previously, the Georgian Military Road led through the Caucasus Range to Georgia (closed in 2006). Two more routes to Georgia from the north: along the Black Sea coast and through the Roki tunnel along the Transcaucasian highway due to the unresolved Georgian-Abkhazian and Georgian-Ossetian conflicts, are practically not used for through communication between Russia and Georgia.

The alpine part of the Caucasus is characterized by glaciers, karst phenomena in the west, and young volcanic forms in the east.

In total, there are over 600 glaciers in Georgia with a total area of ​​520 km2. The largest glaciers are located in Svaneti.

In the south of the country - the mid-mountain ranges of the Lesser Caucasus (altitudes up to 2850 m), between the Greater and Lesser Caucasus - the Colchis lowland, which has the shape of a triangle with a base facing the Black Sea, and in the east - the Iberian depression, where the Kura river flows.

The Colchis lowland is inclined to the west. In the coastal strip, it barely rises above sea level, and to the east it gradually rises to 150 m, until it rests on a granite ridge that connects the Greater and Lesser Caucasus and is a watershed between the basins of the Black and Caspian Seas. Colchis is described by Konstantin Paustovsky in his story of the same name. It was here, according to legend, that the Argonauts went for the Golden Fleece.

In political geography, the Pankisi Gorge is known - a region near the border with Chechnya, where Chechens-Kists, related to the Chechens of the North Caucasus, live. Ezhensy from Chechnya also settled here, who left it during the second Chechen campaign (1999-2000).

In the extreme south of Georgia, there is the South Georgian (Javakheti) volcanic highland, which is characterized by lava plateaus, chains of volcanoes and canyon-like river gorges. The highest point of the highlands is Mount Didi Abuli, 3301 m.

The main minerals are manganese ores (Chiatura), coal (Tkibuli), small oil reserves. One of the main natural resources is numerous mineral and thermal springs. Up to 50 resorts have been created on the basis of mineral springs. The most popular are Borjomi and Tskhaltubo.

The content of the article

GEORGIA, The Republic of Georgia (Georgian Sakartvelo), a state in the Transcaucasus. Until 1991 it was part of the USSR, since 1991 - an independent state. It borders on Russia in the north, Azerbaijan in the east, and Armenia and Turkey in the south. The total area is 69.7 thousand square meters. km., including Abkhazia (area 8.6 thousand sq. km.) and South Ossetia (area 3.9 thousand sq. km.), which unilaterally proclaimed their separation from Georgia.

NATURE

Terrain relief.

Two thirds of Georgia's area is occupied by mountains. In the north, the mountain system of the Greater Caucasus stretches with altitudes up to 4500–5000 m above sea level. highest point Georgia - Mount Shkhara (5068 m). In the upper parts of the ridges of the Greater Caucasus, there are 786 glaciers with a total area of ​​556 sq. km. km. The well-known mountain passes are confined to the axial watershed part of the mountains: Cross (2384 m), Mamisonsky (2829 m), Roksky (2996 m), along which tourist routes pass.

The echelon-shaped ridges of the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus are separated by deep river valleys. Here, in a warm and humid climate, karst is widely developed in carbonate rocks. Only on low ridges (below 1000 m above sea level) there are more than 470 karst caves, including the largest New Athos cave (3.3 km long, with an area of ​​about 50 thousand square meters). On the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus there are large deposits of manganese, silver-lead and zinc ores, barite, coal, marble.

Between the Greater and Lesser Caucasus there is a sublatitudinal zone of intermountain basins, where the most fertile lands of Georgia are concentrated. In the west, the heavily swampy Colchis lowland stands out, in the east - the plains, on which the historical provinces of Imereti, Kartli and Kakheti have long been formed. From the east, the Colchis lowland is closed by the Likhi (Surami) ridge, which is a natural boundary separating the western regions of Georgia from the eastern ones. To the east of the Likhi Range, the Kartli Plain, the Iora and Shirak Plateaus (with heights up to 500–700 m) and the Alazani Valley (up to 500 m) stand out. Oil deposits have been explored within the Kakheti Plain, and oil and peat deposits have been explored in the Colchis Lowland.

The mountains of the Lesser Caucasus are separated from the zone of intermountain basins by the Meskheti and Trialeti ranges. The average heights of the mountains in the south of the country are 2000–3000 m above sea level. Within the South Georgian (Javakheti) Highlands, there are lava plateaus composed of volcanic tuffs and lakes volcanic origin(Paravani, Hozapini, etc.).

In addition to the minerals mentioned above, deposits of copper, talc, diatomites, marl, limestone, and refractory clays are found on the territory of Georgia. In many regions of Georgia there are outlets of mineral springs that are used in balneology (Borjomi, Tskaltubo, Menji, Avadkhara, Sairme, etc.).

The territory of Georgia is characterized by increased seismicity, in some areas earthquakes with a magnitude of up to 5–7 points occur (especially in the eastern regions). Mountainous areas in the modern era, they experience a general tendency to rise (more than 10 mm per year), and lowlands - to sink. The Colchis lowland is characterized by a particularly high rate of subsidence (up to 1.3 mm per year). Many ancient coastal settlements are now flooded.

Climate.

In the western regions affected by the Black Sea, summers are humid and warm, with mean July temperatures of 22–24°C. Winters are mild, with January mean temperatures of 4–7°C. maximum in Adjara (up to 3200 mm). Most of the precipitation falls in the spring.

The Likhi Range intercepts the moisture of air masses moving from west to east. In the eastern regions of Georgia, the climate is formed under the influence of continental air masses. On the plains, summers are longer and hotter, with average July temperatures of 23–25°C. Winters are cool, with an average January temperature of +1 to –2°C. summer.

On the slopes of the mountains of Georgia, the average July temperatures drop to 4–6 ° C, in the highlands, the average January temperatures can reach –10–16 ° C. The average annual precipitation ranges from 1600–2800 mm in the west to 1000–1800 mm in the east of the Greater Caucasus and up to 600–700 mm in the South Georgian Highlands. The weather in the mountains changes quickly. Sudden cold snaps are accompanied by heavy snowfalls, downpours, hail and foehns (strong, warm winds blowing from the mountains to the valleys), causing significant damage to the economy.

Water resources.

In Georgia, ca. 25 thousand rivers, many of them are used for energy production and as sources of irrigation. They feed mainly on melted snow and glacial waters and atmospheric precipitation. In the foothill areas, composed of carbonate rocks, a significant role in the feeding of rivers is played by The groundwater. The rivers of Western Georgia are full of water throughout the year, and in the east, in winter and summer, the river flow is reduced.

Most of the rivers (Rioni, Enguri, Bzyb, Keda, etc.) belong to the Black Sea drainage basin, the smaller part belongs to the Caspian Sea (Kura with tributaries of the Alazani, Iori, Aragvi, Liakhvi, Khrami). The longest and abounding river Western Georgia - Rioni (327 km) originates in the Greater Caucasus and flows into the Black Sea near Poti. The Kura River (Mtkvari in Georgian) begins in the mountains in northern Turkey, crosses southern and eastern Georgia and flows into the Caspian Sea in Azerbaijan.

There are few lakes in Georgia. The largest of them are Paravani (37.5 sq. km) and Tabatskuri (14.2 sq. km) on the Javakheti highlands and Paleostomi (18.2 sq. km) on the Black Sea coast, at the mouth of the Rioni river.

Soils.

There are three main soil-geographic regions in Georgia: western, eastern and southern. The lowlands of the western region (between the Likh Range and the Black Sea) are characterized by peaty soils suitable for growing corn; in the foothills, subtropical red and yellow soils are common, which are ideal for growing grapes, tea and tobacco; in the higher areas of Megrelia, Abkhazia and Svanetia - brown or carbonate forest and mountain soils. The eastern region is dominated by ancient alluvial soils. On the Lower Kartli Plain, chestnut soils are common, suitable for the cultivation of vegetables, fruit and grain crops. The chernozems and brown soils of the Kakheti Plain are mainly used for grain crops and vineyards, although in the Gardabani and Sagarejo regions (southeast of Tbilisi) these soils are infertile due to the arid climate. The southern region is confined to the foothills and southern slopes of the Lesser Caucasus and the South Georgian Highlands. It is characterized by a combination of brown and mountain meadow soils used for the cultivation of crops, vegetables and, to a lesser extent, grapes.

Vegetable world.

The flora of Georgia is very diverse: there are more than 5,000 species of flowering plants alone. Depending on the climatic features and the absolute height of the area, several zones and vertical belts of vegetation (from steppe to alpine) are distinguished.

Forests are distributed mainly in the mountains and occupy about a third of the country's area. In the west of Georgia, they descend to the very sea, and in the east, their lower border is at altitudes from 600 to 800 m above sea level. The forests of Western Georgia are especially rich and diverse. Their lower zone (up to 1000–1200 m) is dominated by broad-leaved species (oak, hornbeam, chestnut, maple, beech, etc.) with evergreen undergrowth of Pontic rhododendron, laurel cherry, boxwood, Colchis holly, Colchis needle, Caucasian blueberry. This type of forest, called Colchis, is characterized by an abundance of lianas - ivy, clematis, and obitnik; in places it becomes impassable. In the swampy forests of the Colchis Lowland, alder predominates and there is almost no undergrowth. In some parts of the coast of Abkhazia, endemic species are found, for example, Pitsunda pine, a relic of the Tertiary Crimean-Caucasian flora. Over the past millennia, grapes and fruit crops have been cultivated in the valleys.

In Western Georgia, above the belt of Colchis forests and up to the upper forest line (1700–1800 m), mixed forests are common, which combine beech and spruce-fir, less often pine stands. At the upper border of the forest there are birch forests with an admixture of mountain ash and thickets of rhododendron.

The forests of Eastern Georgia are floristically less rich. In the upper belt of mountains (up to 2300–2400 m), spruce-fir forests are common, occurring to the west of the Ksani River, and in more eastern regions - only pine and pine-birch forests. Below, coniferous forests give way to beech, and then oak-hornbeam. On extreme east In the country there are small areas of dry steppes (fescue-feather grass and fescue-bearded with forbs) and xerophytic light forests with species such as carcass, pistachio, pomegranate, hold-tree. Wormwood semi-deserts with cochia and saltwort have an even more limited distribution. In the valleys of the Kura, Alazani, Iori and other rivers, floodplain tugai forests of aspen, willow, silvery poplar, oak, dogwood have been preserved.

Subalpine and alpine meadows in the west of Georgia rise to 2800–3000 m, in the east - up to 3600 m above sea level. The subalpine meadows of Western Georgia are characterized by lush tall grasses with a large proportion of Umbelliferae, Legumes and Labiaceae. Low grass alpine meadows are distributed in fragments, alternating with stone placers, rock outcrops and glaciers.

Animal world

Georgia is diverse. It is represented by more than 100 species of mammals, 330 species of birds and 160 species of fish. Many representatives of the fauna are endemic or semi-endemic, for example, the Artvinian lizard and the Kuban tur (whose horns are used in Georgia as vessels for wine).

The fauna of the steppes of Eastern Georgia is very peculiar. Until recently, there was a goitered gazelle, which was preserved only in certain areas of the Shirak steppe. The striped hyena is found in the Gardabani steppe and the Alazani valley. Of the other predators, we note the fox, jackal, reed cat. Wolves are common in livestock areas. Rodents are typical for the steppes: jerboas, voles, hamsters. Among the birds are common sparrow, gray partridge, quail, steppe eagle. The abundance of lizards and turtles, as well as snakes (already ordinary and water, western boa constrictor, yellow-bellied snake) is characteristic. Gyurza is found in the Eldar and Shirak steppes.

The animal world of forests is the richest. In many areas, the Caucasian deer, roe deer, wild boar, hare, squirrel are common, and predators include brown bear, wolf, jackal, lynx, forest cat and fox. The badger causes great harm to agriculture. The forests of Georgia are famous for the abundance and diversity of birds. Species such as chaffinch, black-headed tit, great tit, greenfinch, blackbird, etc. are common. Of the birds of prey listed in the Red Book of Georgia, there are (mainly in reserves) bearded vulture, golden eagle, griffon vulture, black vulture, etc. In In some areas of Colchis and Kakheti, you can still see a pheasant. Of the reptiles in the forests of Georgia, the most numerous are lizards, marsh turtles and snakes (snake, copperhead, Caucasian viper).

The alpine fauna is better preserved within the Main Caucasian Range. In its western part there is a Kuban tur, in the eastern part - a Dagestan one. Both species descend into the forest belt for the winter. The chamois is almost ubiquitous, and the bezoar goat is found in the east. Of the characteristic birds of the highlands, one can note the Caucasian black grouse, keklik, bearded vulture.

Trout, barbel, carp, etc. are found in mountain rivers and lakes.

The state of the environment and nature conservation.

One of the main environmental problems is air pollution in industrial cities, especially in the center of metallurgy - Rustavi. Increased deforestation, soil erosion and pollution of the Black Sea are of serious concern. There is concern about the uncontrolled use of pesticides and some toxic chemical fertilizers.

On the territory of Georgia, in order to protect natural complexes and preserve biodiversity, the Tbilisi National Park, 17 reserves and 6 sanctuaries have been created. Special attention paid attention to the protection of natural plantations of relic species: Imeretian oak, Hartvis oak, zelkova in the Ajametsky reserve within the Colchis lowland, hornbeam zelkva and yew berry in the Akhmeta reserve in Eastern Georgia, Pitsunda pine groves - in the Pitsundsko-Myussersky reserve on the Black Sea coast of Abkhazia.

Georgia is a party to many international agreements on environmental protection. In April 1992, the heads of governments of Georgia, Bulgaria, Romania, Russia, Ukraine and Turkey signed the Convention for the Protection of the Black Sea from Pollution. In April 1993, an intergovernmental declaration on the protection of the Black Sea was adopted in Odessa. It notes the need to create a system of joint management of the coastal zone and states that the Black Sea countries should develop and implement national policies within the framework of this system. The operation of this system in Georgia is supported by international organizations, in particular the Black Sea Environmental Protection Program funded by the World Bank, the United Nations Development Program and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).

POPULATION

According to the 1989 census, 5.4 million people lived in Georgia. Over the previous 10-year period, the population increased by 8.7%, and urban - by 16.7%, rural - by 0.3%. Approximately 56% of the population lived in cities (23% in Tbilisi) and approx. 44% - in rural areas. In the post-Soviet period, there is a decrease in the population.

According to the preliminary census data, in July 2003 approximately 4.9 million people lived in Georgia (excluding Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which did not take part in the census). The age group under 15 years old made up 18.6% of the population, the group from 15 to 65 years old - 68.4%, over 65 years old - 13%. The birth rate in 2003 was estimated at 11.79 per 1000 people, the death rate - 14.71 per 1000, emigration - 2.48 per 1000 and natural decline - 0.59%. Infant mortality was estimated at 51.24 per 1,000 births. Life expectancy is 64.76 years (61.33 for men and 68.36 for women).

According to an estimate in 2013 (July), 4 million 556 thousand people lived in the country. The age group under 15 years old made up 15.4% of the population, the group from 15 to 65 years old - 68.4%, over 65 years old - 16.2%.

Birth rate in 2013 was estimated at 10.72 per 1000 people, mortality - 10.17 per 1000, emigration - 3.86 per 1000. Infant mortality was estimated at 14.21 per 1000 newborns. Life expectancy is 77.51 years (74.16 for men and 81.17 for women).

Ethnic composition.

Georgia is a multinational society. In 1989 Georgians made up 70.1% of the population (in 1979 - 68.8%). Among ethnic Georgians, there are distinctly different regional groups - Mingrelians and Svans. Of the national minorities, Armenians (8.1%), Russians (6.3%), Azerbaijanis (5.7%), Ossetians (3.0%), Greeks (1.9%) and Abkhazians (1.8%) stood out ). In the period 1979-1989, as a result of assimilation and departure from Georgia, there was a decrease in the share of almost all of the listed groups, with the exception of the Abkhazians and Azerbaijanis.

In 2002, Georgians made up 83.8% of the population, Armenians - 5.7%, Russians - 1.5%, Azerbaijanis - 6.5%, the rest - Ossetians, Greeks and Abkhazians - 2.5% of the population.

Abkhazians are a special ethnic group that has its own autonomy. Ossetians (Iranian-speaking people of the Greater Caucasus) are concentrated mainly within the former South Ossetian autonomous region, where in 1989 they accounted for 66.2% of the population. Outside of its borders, most Ossetians lived dispersed throughout eastern Georgia. Adjarians (Georgians who converted to Islam) have their own autonomous republic, where in 1989 they made up 82.8% of the population. The smallest national minorities include Jews, Assyrians, Kurds and Tatars.

Language.

The official language is Georgian, on the territory of Abkhazia it is also Abkhazian. The Georgian language belongs to the Kartvelian group of Caucasian (Iberian-Caucasian) languages, which includes Megrelian, Svan and Laz (Chan) languages. The Georgian language is the only one among the Iberian-Caucasian languages ​​that has an ancient alphabetic script, although it underwent significant changes in the 11th and 17th centuries. The unique spelling of letters is incomparable with any other alphabet in the world. Over 98% of ethnic Georgians consider Georgian as their mother tongue. The Abkhazian language belongs to the Abkhaz-Adyghe group of Caucasian languages ​​and has been using the Cyrillic alphabet since 1954 (in 1928 a script based on the Latin alphabet was developed, which was replaced by the Georgian graphic system in 1938).

Religion.

The majority of ethnic Georgian believers belong to the Georgian Orthodox Church (65% of believers), a branch of Orthodox Christianity. Eastern Georgia in 326 AD was converted to Christianity thanks to the preaching of St. Equal-to-the-Apostles Nina from Jerusalem and became the second (after Armenia) state to adopt Christianity as the official religion. Georgian Orthodox Church in the 5th c. received autocephaly and remained independent for a long time. From the 11th century its primate has the title of catholicos-patriarch. In 1811 the Georgian Orthodox Church was incorporated into the Russian Orthodox Church and lost the status of autocephaly. The Georgian Exarchate was formed, which was ruled by an exarch in the rank of metropolitan, and later in the rank of archbishop. The Georgian Orthodox Church returned the status of autocephaly in 1917, at the same time there was a complete break in relations with the Russian Orthodox Church. Their connections were restored only in 1943. In Soviet times, the Georgian Church lost its former influence. The number of church parishes decreased from about 2000 (in 1917) to 80 (1960s). The influence of the church began to recover only from the late 1980s.

In Georgia there is a small number of Catholics, in Adjara and in the southern border regions there are many Muslims. Abkhazians are mostly Sunni Muslims, but there are also Orthodox Christians among them. Azerbaijanis, Assyrians and Kurds are Muslims. In total, among believers, there are approx. 11% Muslim. Most Ossetians profess Orthodoxy. Armenians, Greeks and Russians have their own Orthodox churches, and approximately 8% of believers belong to the Armenian Apostolic Church.

Cities.

Tbilisi, founded in the 5th c. AD King Vakhtang I Gorgasali, is located in the very center of Georgian lands, at the junction of several historical regions– Inner and Lower Kartlines (Kartli), Kakheti and Javakheti. From 1801 to 1917 Tiflis (as Tbilisi was called until 1936) was the main administrative and commercial center of the Caucasus region. In 1845 it became the residence of the governor of the Russian Empire, who ruled the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia.

1115 thousand people live in modern Tbilisi (2009). The city is constantly growing, mainly due to the influx of people from rural areas. As a result of the Georgian-Abkhazian ethnic conflict of 1993–1994, approx. 80 thousand refugees from Abkhazia.

According to the 1989 census, ethnic Georgians made up 66% of its population, Armenians 12%, Russians 10%, Ossetians 3%, Kurds 2% and Greeks 2%. The city's architecture reflects a rich mixture of Eastern and Western cultures. The old part of the city is characterized by winding streets, bazaars and low houses with flat roofs and carved balconies. Modern quarters have a European look: beautiful high-rise buildings face wide boulevards and avenues lined with shady trees. Large areas around Tbilisi are occupied by forest parks, orchards and vineyards.

To others big cities include Kutaisi (267.3 thousand inhabitants in 2002), the oldest city in the country and the regional center of Western Georgia; Rustavi (180.5 thousand), the main center of metallurgy; Batumi (144.6 thousand), the capital of Adjara, the main port and oil terminal of Georgia; Gori (70 thousand), ancient city(7th century), railway junction; Chiatura (68.4 thousand) and Tkibuli (36.9 thousand) are the centers of manganese and coal mining; Sukhumi (60.9 thousand, in 1989 - 121.4 thousand), the capital of Abkhazia and in the recent past main resort; Poti (51.7 thousand) - a port city; Zugdidi (50.6 thousand), industrial center; Tskhinvali (42 thousand) is the center of South Ossetia.

GOVERNMENT

Central authorities.

According to the Constitution adopted on August 24, 1995, the highest legislative body - Parliament - consists of two chambers - the Council of the Republic and the Senate. The Senate consists of deputies from Abkhazia, Adzharia and other territorial units of Georgia, as well as five senators appointed by the president. At present, the construction of the state apparatus has not been completed, and due to the unstable political position there is a unicameral parliament, which is elected for a term of four years on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage. 150 deputies are elected according to the proportional system, 85 - according to the majoritarian system. Citizens of the republic who have reached the age of 18 are endowed with the right to vote.

The head of the Republic of Georgia and the head of the executive branch is the President, who is elected by popular vote for a term of five years. The position of president was established in April 1991. The president can only be elected for two consecutive terms. Executive power belongs to the government. Ministers are appointed by the President with the consent of Parliament. The government has a state minister who acts as prime minister.

Local government.

In accordance with the administrative-territorial division adopted in 1995, the Republic of Georgia consists of 9 regions (Samegrelo - Upper Svaneti, Racha-Lechkhumi - Lower Svaneti, Guria, Imereti, Meskhet-Javakhetia, Shida Kartli / Lower Kartliniya /, Kvemo Kartli /Upper Kartliniya/, Mtskheta-Mtianeti, Kakheti), two cities as territories (Tbilisi and Poti) and two autonomous republics (Adzharia and Abkhazia). Abkhazia is currently pursuing an independent policy. In addition, de facto there is South Ossetia (the former South Ossetian Autonomous Region, abolished by the Supreme Council of Georgia in 1990), which is not subordinate to the central authorities.

Elections in local authorities authorities - rural, district, city municipalities (sakrebulo) - are held according to mixed proportional and majoritarian systems. Mayors of cities are appointed by the president of the country. The 2002 local government elections revealed a sharp decline the authority of the political coalition, the Union of Citizens of Georgia (UCG), which has a majority in the current parliament and government. She did not receive a single seat in the Tbilisi Sakrebulo, which included representatives of the Labor Party of Georgia (25.5% of the seats), the National Movement - Democratic Front bloc (23.75%), the New Rights (11.36%), The Christian Conservative Party (7.27%), the bloc "Industry will save Georgia" (7.13%). The majority of votes in elections to local councils in other regions of Georgia were received by the New Rights. The CUG party won local elections only in Telavi (Eastern Georgia).

Judicial system.

The system of general courts of first instance includes city courts, district city courts, and regional courts. The courts of second instance are the Tbilisi and Kutaisi Courts of Appeal, as well as the Supreme Courts of Abkhazia and the Autonomous Republic of Adjara. The highest court of general courts is the Supreme Court of Georgia, which supervises the execution of legal proceedings in these courts, acts as a cassation instance, and also considers cases of first instance defined by law. The structure of the Supreme Court includes the Judicial Collegium for Criminal Cases; chamber for civil cases, cases of entrepreneurship and bankruptcy; Chamber of Administrative Affairs; chamber for criminal cases; supervisory board; plenum. The Chairman and Judges of the Supreme Court of Georgia are elected by the Parliament on the proposal of the President.

The management of the judicial system and the competitive selection of judges is carried out by the Council of Justice, which consists of 12 members (4 representatives of the legislative, executive and judicial branches each). Judges of city courts, district city courts, regional courts are appointed by the President of Georgia for a period of 10 years, judges of the Supreme Courts of Adjara and Abkhazia are elected by the highest representative bodies of these autonomous entities.

Since 1996, constitutional control has been carried out by the Constitutional Court, which consists of 9 judges (three are appointed by the President of Georgia, three are elected by the Parliament, and three are appointed by the Supreme Court). The term of office of the court is 10 years. Every 5 years there is a change of the chairman of the Constitutional Court through the election of one of its members.

Political parties.

Until 1990, the Communist Party was in power in Georgia. Since 1990, the country has had a multi-party system. The first president of the independent republic, Zviad Gamsakhurdia (1991-1992), relied on the Round Table - Free Georgia bloc, and Eduard Shevardnadze, who was in power in 1992-2003, relied on the Union of Georgian Citizens, which collapsed after his overthrow. Currently, the main parties of the country are:

national movement–Democrats- the ruling political organization, created in 2004 as a result of the merger of the National Movement, the United Democrats (break away from the Union of Citizens), etc. The center-right party advocates a market economy and close cooperation with the West. In the 2004 parliamentary elections, the party received 67% of the vote. The leader is President Mikheil Saakashvili.

"New Right"- the right party, enjoys support in business and youth circles. In the 2004 parliamentary elections, in a bloc with the Industry Will Save Georgia organization, she received 7.6% of the vote. Leaders - Livan Gochechiladze, David Gamkrelidze.

"Industry will save Georgia" is a conservative organization founded in 1999. It relies on business circles and advocates a free market economy. Leader - Georgy Topadze.

Democratic Revival Union– centrist, formed in the 1990s. It was headed by Aslan Abashidze, leader of autonomous Adjara. In the 2004 elections, he received 6% of the vote. After the removal of Abashidze from power in Adjara in May 2004, it actually disintegrated.

Labor Party of Georgia- Social Democratic, formed in 1995. Initially, it sought to pursue a foreign policy of neutrality, later it began to support Georgia's entry into NATO. In the 2004 elections, she received 5.8% of the vote. Leader - Shalva Natelashvili.

freedom movement(“Tavisupleba”) is a conservative-nationalist group of followers of the first president of Georgia, Z. Gamsakhurdia. In the 2004 elections, she received 4.2% of the vote.

National Democratic Party- center-right, created in the 1980s, close to Christian-democratic positions. In 2003, she supported the Shevardnadze administration. In 2004, she headed the National Democratic Alliance - the Third Way, which collected 2.5% of the vote. Leader - Irina Sarishvili.

Union of Georgian Traditionalists- the monarchist party, founded in 1990. In 2004, it joined the National Democratic Alliance - the Third Way. Leader - Akaki Asatiani.

"Unity"- centre-left bloc. In the 2004 elections, together with the Intellectual League, he collected 2.4% of the vote. Leader - Jumber Patiashvili.

Armed forces.

After the annexation of Georgia to Russia in the 19th century. Georgian troops were included in the Russian army, and in the 20th century. - in the Soviet armed forces. In 1991, the country hosted approx. 200 thousand Soviet troops. By 1994, as a result of the withdrawal of the main military contingent and the conclusion of a bilateral agreement with Russia, the number of Russian troops in Georgia was reduced to 20 thousand people. By 2002, military bases remained on the territory of Georgia only in Batumi and Akhalkalaki. The Georgian side insists on the speedy withdrawal of Russian military units. The Russian contingent of the CIS Collective Peacekeeping Forces in the zone of the Georgian-Abkhazian conflict is stationed at the former Russian military base in Gudauta.

In November 1990, the Georgian National Guard was formed. Subsequently, it was included in the regular army, created in the spring of 1992. The Mkhedrioni paramilitary organization actually had an autonomous status within the army, although it was transformed into the official state structure of the Georgian Rescue Corps. In the summer of 1994, the Minister of Defense reorganized the 20,000-strong army.

The legislative base for the armed forces of Georgia is the Constitution of 1995, as well as the laws "On Conscription and Military Service", "On Defense", "On Martial Law". In 1995, the parliament approved the country's military doctrine. The armed forces of Georgia include the army (ground forces, navy - coast guard, air force) and the national guard, which are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defense; border troops (subordinate to the State Department of Border Protection); internal troops, an independent brigade and police special forces (led by the Ministry of the Interior); special service of the state guard (subordinate to the presidential apparatus). The size of the armed forces and defense spending is approved by the Parliament of Georgia, the structure of the armed forces is approved by the president. The commander-in-chief of the armed forces is the President of Georgia. The draft age for compulsory military service is 18 years.

At present, the United States and Turkey are actively involved in the reform of the armed forces of Georgia (the latter allocated about $30 million for the modernization of the Georgian army).

Foreign policy.

After the collapse of the USSR in 1991 and Georgia's secession from the Soviet Union, many transformations took place in the country, such as: a change of elites, a change in the geopolitical course, a change in priorities and values, etc. In many respects, this situation has developed due to difficult internal political processes, social problems and unresolved Georgian-Abkhazian and Georgian-Ossetian conflicts.

In the 1990s, the world was also undergoing changes - there was a process of globalization, a reorganization of the world order and competition for spheres of influence. Against this background, the importance of Transcaucasia and specifically Georgia increased, because. this region was a transit transport area to the hydrocarbon resources of the Caspian region and Central Asia. a transport route was created, called the "Silk Road Strategy": Europe - the Black Sea - Transcaucasia - the Caspian Sea - Central Asia.

While the West had developed a clear strategy, Russia did not have a clear foreign policy program of action regarding the South Caucasus.

Independent Georgia has signed friendship treaties with Russia, Turkey, Iran, Armenia and Azerbaijan and has established diplomatic relations with most Western countries. She is a member of the UN since 1992, the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, the International Monetary Fund and has the status of an invited state in the Council of Europe, since 1999 Georgia is a member of the WTO.

On October 22, 1993, it was decided that Georgia would join the CIS. In addition, Georgia agreed to conduct a peacekeeping operation on the territory of Abkhazia.

In the 1990s, relations with Russia ceased to be a priority for the new Georgian elites, and since 2004, when M. Saakashvili came to power, the country's orientation has become exclusively pro-Western. Relations with Russia began to deteriorate. The peak was the war in August 2008, there was a break in diplomatic relations and Georgia's withdrawal from the CIS. Although the presence of Georgia in the CIS can be characterized more as a formality. The foreign policy of the country was a course towards Western international structures like NATO and the European Union. The main strategic partner is the United States as a counterbalance to Russian influence in the South Caucasus.

ECONOMY

Traditional occupations in Georgia were the cultivation of tea and citrus fruits, viticulture and winemaking. The infrastructure of the sanatorium and resort economy was developed on the Black Sea coast. By the end of the 1980s, such industries as hydropower, coal, manganese and copper mining, ferrous metallurgy (production of ferroalloys, cast iron and steel), mechanical engineering (machine tool building, instrument making, production of trucks, electric locomotives, marine vessels) had developed and successfully operated in Georgia. ), oil refining, production of building materials (cement, slate, blocks), chemical (production of mineral fertilizers and chemical fiber) and textile (silk, wool, cotton). The food industry (tea production, bottling of mineral water, including carbonated water, etc.) and the textile industry (production of silk, cotton and woolen fabrics) developed. The volume of foreign trade was insignificant, although two-thirds of the food produced in Georgia was exported to other republics of the USSR. In 1990, over 40% of the able-bodied population was employed in the service sector, and 27% in industry. Until 1992, almost all means of production belonged to the state, and the economy was managed by the union and local planning authorities.

Almost all industrial production was concentrated in the flat regions of the country. More than half of the enterprises are located in the cities of Tbilisi, Rustavi (Eastern Georgia) and Kutaisi (Western Georgia). The most industrialized region of Tbilisi is Rustavi, followed by Kutaisi - Zestaponi, Abkhazia, South Ossetia and southern regions. The industrial growth rates in Abkhazia and South Ossetia are lower than in Georgia. More than 70% of all employed in industry are concentrated in Central Georgia.

The government of independent Georgia faced a catastrophic downturn in the economy. In 1992, production as a whole fell by 40% (in industry by 48%, in agriculture by 32%). Rapid inflation began. In April 1993, Georgia introduced a temporary currency - the coupon. By the middle of 1994, many sectors of the economy, such as forestry and construction, had practically ceased to exist, while the rest had sharply reduced production volumes. Inflation for the year amounted to 8500%, and unemployment reached 20%.

In 1995, the government began to bring the economy out of the crisis, bringing down inflation, directing almost all IMF loans to stabilize the financial sector and bringing the structure of the economy in line with the conditions for granting loans. Prices for grain and grain products were released, agreements were signed on the construction of a pipeline through the territory of Georgia, laws on commercial banks, land and tax reforms were adopted. The introduction in October 1995 of a new monetary unit, the lari, and a relatively balanced state budget had a beneficial effect on the economy. There has been an increase in GDP, which in 1996 reached 14% (in 1995 - 2.4%). More than 30 thousand private enterprises were registered. The total number of employed in 1996 was estimated at 2.2 million people (31% in industry and construction, 25% in agriculture and forestry, and 44% in other sectors). The liberalization of bread prices from June 1, 1996 contributed to the formation of the grain market and the reduction in food aid to 138 thousand tons (in 1995 - 540 thousand tons).

In 1997, economic growth was stimulated by the development of small and medium-sized private enterprises that were active in the service sector, transport, construction and the food industry. The private sector provided over 50% of GDP. In its structure, 38.8% was the share of agriculture, 12% - industry, 39.1% - services. The pace of privatization has accelerated. Most small enterprises were privatized, as well as several large enterprises (9,630 objects in total) and housing.

In 1994-1996, Georgia received large financial and humanitarian assistance from international organizations and donor countries.

Currently, together with American companies, the country's energy complex is being restored and electricity production is growing, as well as the development of promising oil fields in Eastern Georgia. The Baku-Supsa oil pipeline is in operation. New gas pipeline networks are being built in Kutaisi, Gori, Kaspi, Rustavi, etc. Many enterprises are starting to operate, although as of the beginning of 2000, approximately 27% of enterprises (more than 800) have not resumed production.

In independent Georgia, the Soviet system of agriculture was dismantled, collective farms and state farms were liquidated. To carry out agrarian reform in 1996, two laws were adopted: "On the ownership of agricultural land" and "On the lease of agricultural land." More than 1 million families received 918 thousand hectares of land (arable land, perennial plantations, hayfields, pastures) in private ownership, 825 thousand hectares were leased to 46 thousand enterprises.

Since 1995, there has been a curtailment of humanitarian food aid and the expansion of local agricultural production in cooperation with international organizations (the World Bank, the International Development Association - IDA, the International Fund for Agricultural Development - IFAD, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization - FAO). The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) is funding a project called the Wholesale Market. Its goal is to increase the role of small enterprises in new system distribution and sale of fruits and vegetables based on the principles of a market economy. The project envisages the opening of a central wholesale market in Tbilisi and three regional markets in Akhaltsikhe, Gurjaani and Marneuli.

Due to its geographical position between European Russia and Asia, the territory of Georgia is of great transit importance, especially for the access of neighboring Azerbaijan and Armenia to the Black Sea. During the Soviet period, Tbilisi became a major junction of railways and highways in the Caucasus region. Railways account for about a third of domestic freight traffic. Their length is 1583 km, they are all electrified. The main railway line of Transcaucasia connects Baku with Poti and Batumi. Branches depart from it to Tkibuli, Borjomi, Chiatura, the Kakheti road and the line to Yerevan. Communication with Russia was maintained in the east - through Baku and in the west - along the Black Sea coast (at present, the railway communication through Abkhazia is interrupted). For the development of the peripheral regions of the republic, the railway lines Natanebi - Makharadze, Ochamchire - Tkvarcheli, Brotseula - Tskhaltubo, Gori - Tskhinvali, Borjomi - Akhaltsikhe - Vale, Grakali - Tedzami, Kachreti - Tsiteli-Tskaro and others were built. railway transport difficult due to the dilapidation of the rolling stock, damage to many sections of the tracks, the lack of a modern system of automatic blocking and single-track traffic in some sections. For railways, the main priorities are the reconstruction of existing lines and the modernization of their servicing devices in order to increase the traffic load, as well as the renewal of the rolling stock. It is planned to extend the southern (Meskhetian) branch of the railway in two directions - to the south to Turkey through Akhaltsikhe, Akhalkalaki and to the west to Ozurgeti and the ports of Poti and Batumi.

Road transport accounts for 63% of freight traffic. The length of roads with a hard surface (mainly gravel and pebble) is more than 20 thousand km (only a tenth of them is asphalted). Among the most picturesque is the famous Georgian Military Road through the Cross Pass (one of the four routes crossing the highland zone of the Greater Caucasus). Only two main highways connecting Tbilisi with western part countries are adapted for intensive traffic flows, but even they will not be able to pass large cargo flows if a system of freight transit is established. The rest of the roads are in very poor condition, and about 8,000 km of roads are in urgent need of repair.

The World Bank allocated a target loan of $12 million for the reconstruction of Georgia's rail and road transport. In 2001, Japan provided a $3 million grant to purchase 30 road repair equipment from Japan.

Georgia has a number of ports on the Black Sea. Notable among them are Batumi, the main oil terminal and container port, and Poti, where the Georgian naval base is located. Sukhumi played the role of the main tourist and resort port for a long time. Most of the cargo transported through Georgian ports is crude oil. Despite the international status of the port of Batumi, a significant part of the trade is limited to the Black Sea region.

The country's main airport in the vicinity of Tbilisi is connected by international airlines with most of the capitals of the CIS and Europe. Due to an acute shortage of fuel in 1991–1993, air communication with almost all regional centers of the former USSR was interrupted, which complicated the development of foreign and domestic trade. In 1994 some air services were restored by private airlines. Airports are in need of reconstruction, while the existing Georgian airlines are experiencing an acute shortage of working capital, modern aircraft, spare parts and equipment.

The reconstruction and use for commercial purposes of military airfields (eg Senaki) and naval ports open up new opportunities for the development of air and sea transport.

Georgia has a stable negative trade balance. It is an importer of food, energy, cars, machinery and transport equipment. Georgia exports mineral waters, wines, tea, citrus fruits, pipes, ferrous and non-ferrous metal alloys, textiles. In addition, it is engaged in the re-export of crude oil. The volume of imports in 2000 was estimated at 898 million dollars, exports - 372 million dollars. The largest partners for imports are the EU countries, Russia, Turkey, the USA, for exports - Russia, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia.

In 1995 decisive measures were taken to regulate the banking system. One of the main goals of the banking and financial reform is to restructure the accounting system in accordance with international standards. In 1995, banks from several regions of Georgia entered the unified electronic settlement system. In 1996, a regional intra-bank network of cashless payments was formed and the existing one was modernized. electronic system cashless payments. In 1995, Georgian commercial banks connected to the international telecommunications network of SWIFT bank accounts.

Georgia's economy acquired a steady GDP growth (over 10%) in 2006–2007 based on a large inflow of foreign investment and stabilization of government spending. However, GDP growth slowed after the conflict with Russia in August 2008 and dropped to negative 4% in 2009 as FDI and labor migrant remittances declined as a result of the global financial crisis. The economy began to recover in 2010–2012, but this process was accompanied by price increases above 6% per year. Foreign direct investment, the engine of Georgian economic growth prior to the 2008 conflict, has never fully recovered.

GDP (purchasing power parity) in 2012 was $27.11 billion. GDP per capita amounted to 6 thousand dollars.

The structure of GDP by sectors of the economy in 2012 was as follows: agriculture - 7.8%; industry - 23%; services - 69.2%. The real GDP growth rate is 6.5% (2012).

The economy remains precarious due to complex structural problems, including tax and energy collection difficulties, shadow economic activity (according to unofficial estimates, in 2001 - 68% of trade income, 63% of the hotel and restaurant business, 50% of construction and 40% industry), corruption of officials, etc. Unemployment in the country also remains high - above 15%.

CULTURE

The culture of Georgia is a synthesis of Middle Eastern, European and local traditions. Already in the Middle Ages, philosophy and historiography, theology and law, poetry and art, in particular applied art, national architecture, astronomy, geography and other branches of knowledge flourished in Georgia. Despite the territorial proximity and cultural influence of Persia and Turkey, the Georgians gravitated towards Europe to a greater extent. The 19th century was marked by a cultural upsurge and the creation of a rich national literature.

Education system.

Education in Georgia has a long tradition. Medieval monasteries and academies were important centers of education and preserved the national heritage even in times of foreign oppression.

After gaining independence, Georgia faced problems in financing the education system. Pre-school education has suffered the most from the crisis. In many areas, especially in rural areas, local budgets are not able to support kindergartens, so the fee for the stay of children in them is increased. In order to raise funds for the wages of educators and attendants, it is widely practiced to rent part of the premises of kindergartens.

The majority of children between the ages of 6 and 17 attend schools, with 3/4 of the schools teaching in Georgian. Education in Russian is conducted in more than 200 schools in Georgia (excluding Abkhazia and South Ossetia), and they use Russian programs, textbooks and teaching aids. In Abkhazia, the number of schools teaching in Georgian is decreasing. Since 1995, children enrolled in the first grades of schools in the Gali district of Abkhazia have been taught only in Russian. As a result, classes 1–3 were taught mainly in Russian. In the Georgian language, high school students studied in only nine schools in this region.

In 1997 a new law on education was passed. Education in elementary school lasts 6 years - from 6 to 12 years. After that, children move on to a two-year basic school or a vocational school (students aged 12-14). The secondary three-year school is divided into general education, vocational and special education (students aged 14–17). Certificates of completion of secondary school give the right to competitive admission to all higher educational institutions in the country.

The higher education system in Georgia includes universities, academies and institutes. The country has 26 public universities (of which 8 are universities) and 209 private institutions of higher education. Education is conducted mainly in the Georgian language, but in a number of universities there are departments where students study in the Abkhaz, Azerbaijani, Armenian, Russian, English, German languages. Education in state universities is both free and paid. There is a system of scholarships and grants for material support of students. At the end of a 4-year course of study, graduates receive a bachelor's degree, at the end of a 6-year course - a master's degree. After the master's degree, you can enter full-time or part-time graduate school, defend a dissertation and get a Ph.D.

The oldest educational institution in the country is Tbilisi State University. I. Javakhishvili (founded in 1918) with 5 regional branches, 4 research institutes, 20 faculties, 140 departments, 57 research and problem laboratories, 9 republican scientific centers, 7 museums, an information center and a scientific library (3.5 million items). More than 30 thousand students study at the university. Other major universities in the country are the Technical University of Georgia, Tbilisi State Pedagogical University, Tbilisi State Medical University, Tbilisi Academy of Economics and Law, Tbilisi Institute of Asia and Africa, Tbilisi State Academy of Arts, State Institute of Theater and Cinema. Sh. Rustaveli, Tbilisi Conservatory (founded in 1917). State universities have a highly qualified staff of professors and teachers. New institutions based on international partnerships have been created: the European School of Management (sponsored by the Shevardnadze Foundation), the Institute of Public Administration (a joint educational institution with the US National Academy of Social and Political Sciences, works on the basis of American programs and textbooks, invites foreign teachers).

Literature and art.

The earliest surviving Georgian literary monuments date back to the 5th century. AD Many outstanding personalities have contributed to the literary heritage of Georgia. These include the author of the epic poem Knight in tiger skin Shota Rustaveli (12th century); author explanatory dictionary Georgian language (1716) Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani; Ilya Chavchavadze, Alexander Kazbegi, Akaki Tsereteli, Galaktion Tabidze, Konstantin Gamsakhurdia, Niko Lordkipanidze, Mikhail Javakhishvili and Anna Kalandadze (20th century). Vivid works of prose and poetry, such as a poem Merani Nikoloz Baratashvili, 40 epic works of Vazha Pshavela ( Guest and host dandy wedding etc.), Gamsakhurdia's novel Hand of the Grand Master and Tabidze's poems Moon of Mtatsminda And The wind blows are universally recognized masterpieces. Many works of Georgian authors have been translated into Russian.

Theater.

Georgian drama goes back to the middle of the 19th century. The writer, translator and theater figure Giorgi Eristavi (1811–1864) is considered its founder. There are more than 30 theaters in Georgia. The most visited of them is the Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre. Z.Paliashvili, State Academic Drama Theatre. Sh. Rustaveli, Drama State Academic Drama Theater. K. Mardzhanishvili, who celebrated his 150th anniversary of the State Russian Drama Theater. A.S. Griboyedov, State Musical Theater named after A.S. V. Abashidze, State Armenian Drama Theater named after. P. Adamyan, Tbilisi State Puppet Theatre, State Puppet Theatre. G. Mikeladze.

Movie.

Cinematography originated in Georgia at the beginning of the 20th century. (the first film was made in 1912). Georgian films enjoy international recognition. Filmmakers such as Eldar Shengelaya (film Shirekilebi), Georgy Chkheidze ( Pirosmani), Tengiz Abuladze (trilogy Supplication, Wishing Tree, Repentance), Otar Ioseliani ( Moon minions), Irakli Makharadze ( Riders of the Wild West - Georgian dexterous horsemen) are winners of awards at international film festivals.

Painting.

Georgia is famous for wall paintings of the 7th-13th centuries, which have been preserved in the Gelati Monastery, Atensky Zion and in the temples in Betania, Kintsvisi and others. Such Georgian artists as Niko Pirosmanishvili (Pirosmani), Gigo Gabashvili, David Kakabadze, Lado Gudiashvili gained wide popularity , Kornely Sanadze, Elena Akhvlediani, Sergey Kobuladze, Simon Virsaladze and Ekaterina Baghdavadze.

Georgian art is distinguished by its sophistication, combining local and European styles. Artists such as Lado Gudiashvili, David Kakabadze and Elena Akhvlediani worked in Paris in the 1920s. Georgian sculptors Elguja Amashukeli, Irakli Ochiauri and Zurab Tsereteli are world famous.

Music.

Georgian folk music, which has existed for over 1500 years, strikes with a combination of Eastern and Western influences. Georgian polyphony is characterized by a special vocal technique and the use of tones close to each other. Usually men sing in Georgia. A typical Georgian song is performed in three voices.

The Tbilisi Conservatory has earned a reputation as an educational institution that trains excellent performers classical music. Pianists Alexander Toradze and Eliso Virsaladze, violinist Leana Isakadze, bassist Paata Burchuladze, singer Nani Bregvadze, pianist and music teacher Manana Doidzhashvili, violinist and music teacher Marina Iashvili stand out among them. Georgia has a national symphony orchestra.

Composer Zakhary Paliashvili (1871–1933) collected a unique collection of Georgian folk songs and composed music for operas Abesalom and Eteri And Daisi based on Georgian folklore. Meliton Balanchivadze (1862–1973) – author of the first Georgian romances (1888) and the first Georgian opera insidious Tamara(in the last setting Darejan Insidious). Composer, musicologist and ethnographer Dimitri Arakishvili (1873–1953) became famous for his lyric opera The legend of Shota Rustaveli, which in 1919 was staged at the Tbilisi Opera House. In the same year, the legendary epic opera appeared in the repertoire of the theatre. Abessalom and Eteri Zakharia Paliashvili and comic opera Keto and Kote Victor Dolidze. Giya Kancheli (b.1935) is known among modern composers - the author of the opera Let there be music, several symphonies and concertos, as well as music for a large number of films and performances ( Caucasian chalk circle according to Brecht Richard III according to Shakespeare); Bidzina Kvernadze (b. 1928) is the author of symphonic, piano, choral music, romances, as well as music for opera, ballet and drama performances and films.

Museums, libraries and scientific institutes.

There are 110 museums in Georgia, there are more than 20 in Tbilisi alone. Simon Janashia, converted in 1919 from Caucasian Museum, is the largest treasury of monuments of Georgian culture. Here are objects of material culture dating back to the Lower Paleolithic era, demonstrating the development of civilization on the territory of Georgia and the Caucasus as a whole; handicrafts from different regions of Georgia; a collection of coins from both Georgian and Middle Eastern countries. There are geological, biological, zoological departments, as well as a department on the modern and recent history of Georgia. State Museum of Arts of Georgia Sh.Amiranashvili contains the richest collection of ancient Georgian, Russian, Soviet, Western European and Oriental art. In addition, museums such as the National Art Gallery, State Museum of Contemporary visual arts, State Museum of Folk and Applied Arts, Museum of Georgian Literature, Tbilisi Historical Museum. I. Grishashvili, State Museum of Music, Theater and Cinema, State House-Museum of N. Pirosmani. Kutaisi Historical and Ethnographic Museum. N. Berdzenishvili collected residential buildings from different parts of Georgia.

The largest libraries in Georgia are the National Library, founded in 1846, with a fund of more than 7 million items; library of Tbilisi State University and the Central Scientific Library of the Academy of Sciences of Georgia, as well as the central libraries of Abkhazia and Adjara.

The country's leading scientific institution is the Georgian Academy of Sciences, which separated in 1941 from the USSR Academy of Sciences. The structure of the Academy includes departments of mathematics and physics; earth sciences; applied mechanics and mechanical engineering; chemistry and chemical technologies; biology; physiology and experimental medicine; agricultural problems; social sciences; language and literature with 53 institutes and a number of research centers.

Georgia has brought up a galaxy of world famous scientists. Nikoloz Berdzenishvili (1894–1965) published the first Georgian history textbook; Mose Janashvili (1855-1934) - author of many scientific and popular works on history, ethnography and linguistics, most of which are devoted to Russian-Georgian relations; Nikoloz Muskhelishvili (1891–1976), mechanic and founder of the Georgian school of mathematics, president of the Georgian Academy of Sciences 1941–1972; Alexander Tsagareli (1844–1929), the first Georgian professor of philology, member of the scientific societies of Russia, Norway, Italy, France, one of the founders of the State University of Georgia; Ilya Vekua (1907–1977), mathematician and mechanic, president of the Georgian Academy of Sciences 1972–1977

Mass media.

Many magazines and newspapers are published in Georgia, mainly in the Georgian language. The largest among them are the daily newspaper Rezonansi (leading among the independent press), Sakartvelos Respublika (Georgian Republic, reflecting the official point of view of the government), Free Georgia (daily newspaper in Russian), Vecherniy Tbilisi, Kavkasioni", "Droni", "Iveria-express", "7 days". Among other newspapers, the Georgian Times stands out (on English language) and the monthly independent "Adamianis Uplebebi" ("Human Rights").

Regular radio broadcasting began in 1927, and television broadcasting in 1956. The main sources of information in Georgia are the State Corporation of Television and Radio Broadcasting, the national information agency Sakinform, the agencies Iprinda, BS Press, BGI, as well as private TV campaigns "Kavkasioni" and "Ibervision". There are local radio stations in Tbilisi and other cities. Cable television broadcasts in different districts of Tbilisi. State radio stations broadcast mainly in Georgian.

Holidays.

Officially celebrated: New Year - January 1, Christmas - January 7, Epiphany - January 19, Mother's Day - March 3, International Women's Day - March 8, Memorial Day - April 9, Victory Day - May 9, Independence Day - May 26 , Assumption of the Virgin - August 28, St. George on November 23, as well as Easter and the Georgian Orthodox holiday Svetitskhovloba on October 14.

STORY

The first traces of the presence of primitive man on the territory of Georgia date back to the Middle Paleolithic. The age of the remains of the most ancient person in the territory of Eurasia - "Homo erectus georgicus", is about 1.8 million years old.

In the Early Eneolithic, a large center of agriculture arose in the east of Georgia. The oldest monuments of the Bronze Age in the Akhaltsikhe region appeared c. 5000 years ago. In the middle of the Bronze Age, the largest cultural center existed in the Trialeti region. At the end of the Bronze Age (about 3,000 years ago), Kurgan cultures spread, with which the migration of Proto-Georgian tribes (Diaukhs, Tabalis, Muskhs and Kolkhs) from the south is associated. They knew how to smelt iron and process metal, and their exploits were reflected in the Greek myths of the Golden Fleece and Prometheus. According to the stories of the Greeks, these symbols of wealth and knowledge were located in the Caucasus. The Assyrians, who invaded the Caucasus and pushed the ancient Georgian tribes to the north, reigned in the 8th-7th centuries. BC. Herodotus noted that the Assyrian king Sargon II moved to Colchis with part of the Israelite population, which he removed from Palestine in 722 BC. The Western Georgian Colchis kingdom was formed around the 6th century. BC, and the eastern Kartli (Iberian) kingdom - in the 4th century. BC. Both of them had political and economic ties with the Greeks, the Achaemenid and Parthian states. According to the instructions of Strabo and Pliny the Elder, both states prospered. From the 4th c. BC. Georgians call themselves Kartveli, and their country Sakartvelo ("land of the Kartvelians").

In the 1st century BC. Roman legions under the command of Pompey the Great established Roman power in Colchis and forced Kartli to sign treaties with Rome. Around 330 AD Christianity was introduced in Kartli, in Western Georgia and Abkhazia - in the 6th century. In 523 the Kartli kingdom was conquered by the Sassanids, in 562 AD. The Kingdom of Colchis was annexed to the Byzantine Empire. At the beginning of the 7th c. Byzantium established its power over Kartli as well. From the middle of the 7th to the 9th c. a significant part of the Georgian lands was captured by the Arabs. Several feudal states were formed on the territory of Georgia: the Abkhazian kingdom in the west (including Abkhazia and Western Georgia), Tao-Klardzhet in the south, Kakheti and Hereti in the east, Kartli in the central part.

Middle Ages.

At the end of the 10th c. King Bagrat III united the eastern and western parts of Georgia into a single state (his descendants, the Bagratids, ruled in Georgia until 1801). The monarchy and united Georgia were finally strengthened under David IV the Builder (ruled 1089-1125) and his granddaughter Queen Tamara (ruled 1184-1213). The 12th century was the "golden age" of the country's cultural and political development. This was the era of prosperity of the large Georgian academies in Gelati and Ikalto, at which time the bright talent of the poet Shota Rustaveli (who dedicated an epic poem to Queen Tamara Knight in tiger skin), were made by goldsmiths Beka and Beshken Opizari. Many temples were built. Georgian warriors participated in the crusades, and Georgian scientists were known in the monasteries of Palestine and Greece. By the beginning of the 13th century. The Georgian kingdom, stretching from the Black to the Caspian Sea, became one of the most powerful states in the region and had trade ties with Europe and the East. The period of his greatness ended in the 13th century, when the Mongol-Tatars invaded the country. It especially suffered from the invasion of Timur's troops at the very beginning of the 15th century. The Georgian kings and aristocracy were unable to preserve the integrity of the country, except for the short period of the reign of George V the Brilliant (1314–1346). After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Georgia was cut off from the Christian world and subsequently subjected to Turkish and Persian conquests. Even under such great kings as Vakhtang VI (1703-1712 and 1719-1724) and Heraclius II (1744-1798), the country was unable to defend itself against the raids of hill tribes from the north and Muslims from the south.

Russian rule.

In 1783, Heraclius II concluded an agreement with the Russian Empress Catherine II (Treaty of St. George), according to which Russia established a protectorate over the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom. In 1801, Russia annulled the treaty and included Eastern Georgia in Russia. Shortly before that, in 1800, the last king of the Bagration dynasty, George XII of Kartli-Kakheti, died. Western Georgia during 1803–1864 was partly incorporated into the Russian Empire. This process was especially facilitated by Russia's victories in the Russian-Persian (1804-1813 and 1826-1828) and Russian-Turkish (1806-1812 and 1828-1829) wars. Periodically flaring up anti-Russian uprisings were quickly and brutally suppressed.

In the 19th century great changes took place in the social and political life of Georgia. The abolition of serfdom, the growth of cities, the improvement of the education system and the development of industry had a strong influence on the formation of the Georgian nation. Tbilisi (Tiflis) became the administrative and commercial center of the entire Caucasus. In 1872, a railway connection was opened between the port city of Poti and Tiflis. Communication with the Black Sea ports has been established. By rail, peasants came to the cities to look for work.

By 1905, the Georgian section of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) proved to be the strongest socialist organization in the Russian Empire. After the RSDLP broke up in 1903 into factions of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, the majority of Georgian Marxists joined the Menshevik faction. After the overthrow of the tsarist autocracy in 1917, power passed into the hands of the Provisional Government of Russia and the Georgian soviets, in which the Mensheviks predominated. Shortly after the resignation of the Provisional Government, the Mensheviks seized power in Georgia. After a short period of federalism with neighboring Armenia and Azerbaijan, the Georgian government, led by the Mensheviks, on May 26, 1918, declared the country's independence. With the consent of the Mensheviks, in June 1918 Georgia was occupied by German and Turkish troops; in December they were replaced by British troops, who remained here until July 1920. In February 1921, the Bolsheviks raised an armed uprising and, with the help of the Red Army, overthrew the Menshevik government.

In 1921 Georgia became a Soviet republic, and in December 1922 it was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (TSFSR) as part of the USSR (formed on December 30, 1922). In 1936, the TSFSR was abolished, and Georgia became one of the union republics of the USSR.

Hopes for the political autonomy of Georgia were destroyed by the policy of I.V. Stalin. In order to eliminate the opposition, Stalin in 1931 appointed L.P. Beria as the first secretary of the Communist Party of Georgia, who held this post until 1938. Under Beria, collectivization in rural areas was carried out especially cruelly, tens of thousands of people died in the process of mass purges (party activists, intellectuals, experts and all those who were suspected of dissatisfaction with the Stalinist regime).

In 1944, approximately 100,000 Meskhetians (a mixed group of Muslim Georgians and Turks) were deported from South Georgia to Central Asia.

Under N.S. Khrushchev, Georgia gained greater independence in managing the economy and cultural life.

In the 1970s, a dissident movement emerged in Georgia led by Zviad Gamsakhurdia and Merab Kostava. The course towards perestroika, proclaimed in the late 1980s by M.S. Gorbachev, led to a rapid change of leaders of the Communist Party of Georgia.

In September 1990, an unofficial parliament was elected, competing with the current one, which was called the National Congress (more than half of the electorate participated in the elections). It was dominated by members of the National Independence Party, led by Irakli Tsereteli, and the National Democratic Party, led by Giorgi Chanturia (until January 1992, the National Congress played the role of extra-parliamentary opposition to the Supreme Council and President Gamsakhaurdiya).

On October 28, 1990, the coalition of Zviad Gamsakhurdia "Round Table - Free Georgia" won the multi-party elections to the Supreme Council of Georgia on October 28, 1990. This bloc received 54% of voters and won 155 out of 250 seats in parliament. The Communist Party of Georgia won 30% of the vote (64 seats). The All-Georgian Union of National Accord and Revival won 3.4% of the vote and did not receive a single seat in parliament. Gamsakhurdia was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council in November 1990.

Gamsakhurdia proclaimed a course towards a unitary state without autonomies. Abkhazians and residents of South Ossetia did not agree with such a policy. On September 20, 1990, the South Ossetian Regional Council proclaimed the South Ossetian Soviet Democratic Republic, and on October 26 approved its constitution. At the first meeting on December 11, the Supreme Council of Georgia decided to liquidate the autonomy of South Ossetia, declared the conscription of Georgians into the Soviet armed forces illegal and established an independent National Guard.

In March 1991, the Georgian government refused to hold a referendum on the territory of the country on the future of the USSR and instead held a referendum on the independence of Georgia. The referendum was attended by 95% of the electorate, 93% voted in favor of granting independence. On April 9, 1991, the Supreme Council adopted the Act on the Restoration of the State Independence of Georgia and recognized the Act of Independence of 1918 and the Constitution of 1921 as valid.

Independent Georgia.

At the end of April 1991, the Supreme Council of Georgia adopted a new constitution and elected Zviad Gamsakhurdia as president. In direct presidential elections on May 26, Gamsakhurdia received almost 87% of the vote. However, already in December 1991, a struggle broke out between the president's supporters and the opposition, which was joined by the National Guard. After several weeks of fighting in the central part of Tbilisi, in January 1992 Gamsakhurdia was removed from his post and fled the country. The Military Council headed by Tengiz Kitovani came to power. In March 1992, the Military Council announced its dissolution and the creation of the State Council, which consisted of approximately 70 representatives of 36 opposition parties. EA Shevardnadze became the Chairman of the State Council.

In July 1992, Shevardnadze stopped the 18-month war with South Ossetia, on whose territory the Mixed Peacekeeping Forces were introduced as part of the Russian, Georgian and Ossetian battalions. However, the war with the Abkhazians, which broke out suddenly in August 1992, could not be stopped.

In October 1992, elections were held for a new parliament. Shevardnadze, who received 96% of the votes, was elected its chairman. The cabinet appointed by Shevardnadze in late 1992 reflected the balance of political power in the new parliament. The parliamentary factions soon merged into a majority group, i.e. supporters of Shevardnadze, and an opposition group of opponents of Shevardnadze. The majority united in a broad coalition, the Union of Citizens of Georgia, headed by Zurab Zhvania. The opposition was led by the Popular Front, the National Democratic Party, Charter-91 and the Ilya Chavchavadze Society. The All-Georgian Revival Union represented the political forces of Adzharia in Tbilisi. New political parties were formed: the Christian Democratic Union led by Irakli Shengelaya, the Democratic Georgian Union (Avtandil Margiani), the National Independence Party (Irakli Tsereteli), the Georgian Monarchist Party (Timur Zhorzholiani) and the United Communist Party of Georgia (Panteleimon Georgadze).

Gamsakhurdia's supporters launched a partisan struggle immediately after his dismissal. During 1992–1993 they carried out attacks on state leaders and economic facilities. of strategic importance. In the fall of 1993, Gamsakhurdia tried to return to power, initiating a short but bitter civil war. In January 1994, Gamsakhurdia was killed under unclear circumstances.

The November 1995 parliamentary elections were held on the basis of a mixed system based on party lists and single-mandate constituencies. There were 10 parties represented in the parliament that overcame the 5% barrier, but three were the most influential: the Union of Citizens of Georgia, the National Democratic Party and the All-Georgian Union of Revival.

After 1995, Georgia entered a period of stabilization. Significant progress has been achieved in the negotiations on the Ossetian-Georgian conflict. The Georgian parliament is pursuing economic reforms in cooperation with the IMF and the World Bank and is betting on the restoration of the Ancient Silk Road - the Eurasian Corridor, using Georgia's geographical position as a bridge for the transit of goods between Europe and Asia.

Currently, Russian peacekeepers and UN observers are stationed in Abkhazia. Recently, 20,000 refugees have returned to the Gali region. Since 1996, there have been no large-scale armed clashes in South Ossetia and Abkhazia.

In the 1999 parliamentary elections, held in two rounds, on October 31 and November 14, three parties overcame the 7% threshold: the Union of Citizens of Georgia, the Revival of Georgia bloc and the Industry Will Save Georgia bloc. In addition, the parliament included 12 deputies from Abkhazia and 17 independent deputies.

In 2000, Shevardnadze was elected president of the country for another five-year term. Opposition to the ruling CUG party is gaining strength in the country, as evidenced by the convincing victory in the 2002 local elections of the Georgian Labor Party, the National Movement - Democratic Front bloc and the New Rights party.

The crisis of the Shevardnadze administration and its overthrow.

After 2000, the position of President Shevardnadze steadily worsened. By July 2003, Georgia's external debt had grown to $1.75 billion, and the state was on the verge of insolvency. The country twice sought to delay the payment of debts to foreign creditors from the "Paris Club", and after the failure of an attempt to pass through parliament in August 2003 a decision to radically reduce the budget deficit, the IMF announced a freeze on further assistance to Georgia. The chronic financial crisis, massive unemployment, increasing poverty and an inefficient tax system caused increasing discontent among the population. OK. 52% of the country's residents lived below the poverty line . At the same time, corruption reached a high level. Emigration grew (since 1991, 950 thousand people left the country, of which 600 thousand went to Russia). The number of internal refugees reached almost 300,000.

The opposition and international organizations accused the government of human rights violations, the persecution of opponents of the regime and national minorities, as well as significant violations during the 2002 local elections.

The country was shaken by numerous political and ethnic problems. Shevardnadze failed to secure the return of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which had declared their secession from Georgia. In Adzharia and Samchkho-Javakhetia, demands for autonomy were heard more and more loudly.

In the field of foreign policy, Shevardnadze tried to maintain a balance between the US and Russia, but he was getting worse at it. Relations with Russia grew tense due to the war in Chechnya and the situation in Abkhazia. The Russian authorities accused the Georgian leadership of harboring Chechen separatists and threatened to attack "terrorist bases" on Georgian territory, in the Pankisi Gorge. In an effort to counterbalance Russian influence, Shevardnadze asked the US for more military and economic assistance, signed a strategic partnership agreement with NATO, and announced Georgia's aspirations to become a member of NATO and the European Union. He gave permission for the construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline, which is strategically important for the United States, through Georgian territory. In 2002, the US sent hundreds of special troops to assist the Georgian army in "anti-terrorist operations" in the Pankisi Gorge.

Rapprochement with the United States caused a further deterioration in relations with Russia. American politicians were also increasingly dissatisfied with the Shevardnadze administration. In the spring of 2003, the State Department in Washington warned that financial aid to Georgia could be cut and the country categorized as not making "necessary" economic and political reforms.

In 2003, President Shevardnadze found himself in political isolation. The ruling bloc (the Union of Citizens of Georgia) began to disintegrate. The opposition was led by Parliament Speaker Nino Burjanadze, who since April 2003 openly accused the government of dictatorial policies and corruption. In August, the former leader of the Union of Citizens of Georgia, Zurab Zhvania, joined the bloc with her. They formed the Burjanadze-Democrats coalition. Shevardnadze was strongly opposed by the right-wing National Movement led by Mikheil Saakashvili.

On November 2, 2003 parliamentary elections were held in the country. The authorities announced the victory of the government list "For New Georgia", which received 21% of the vote. According to official data, 19% of the vote went to the Union of Democratic Revival, headed by Aslan Abashidze, the head of the government of autonomous Adjara, who was considered a politician close to Russia. Saakashvili's list got 19%, while Burjanadze and Zhvania's list got 9% of the votes.

The opposition refused to recognize the election results, accusing the government of rigging the results. She organized mass demonstrations in the streets of Tbilisi, which were called the "Rose Revolution". Power structures went over to the side of the opposition politicians, opposition supporters occupied the parliament building. After a two-week standoff, Shevardnadze was forced to announce his resignation on November 23. Burjanadze was proclaimed interim president of Georgia, the results of the parliamentary elections were canceled (except for the results in 75 single-mandate constituencies).

Board of M. Saakashvili.

On January 4, 2004, early presidential elections were held in the country. The candidate of the camp of winners, the leader of the United National Movement party Mikheil Saakashvili, collected 96.3% of the votes, his opponent Teimuraz Shashiashvili - only 1.9%. Adzharia boycotted the elections. Upon assuming the presidency, Saakashvili appointed Zurab Zhvania as prime minister.

The first task of the new regime was the consolidation of power. On March 28, 2004, new elections were held for 150 parliamentary seats, elected by proportional voting. 67% of the votes and 135 seats were won by the ruling group "United Movement - Democrats", 15 mandates were left to the "Right Opposition" (the "New Rights" bloc and the conservative party "Industry will save Georgia"). Opposition forces (Union of Democratic Revival, Laborites, Gamsakhurdia's supporters, national democrats, traditionalists, etc.) did not get a single seat. They sharply criticized the formation of a pro-government parliament, which they described as a path to a one-party system.

The leader of Ajaria, Abashidze, refused to recognize the new government in Tbilisi, and Saakashvili stepped up pressure on the autonomous republic. In response to the movement of government Georgian troops, Adjara closed three bridges over the Choloki River connecting the region with the rest of Georgia. At the same time, the Georgian government provided support to the Adjarian oppositionists, who organized mass demonstrations in Batumi against the head of the autonomy. After brief resistance and Russian pressure, Abashidze was forced to flee Georgia on 5 May; Adzharia submitted to the central Georgian authorities.

Saakashvili's attempts to secure the return of the breakaway regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia in 2004 led to strained relations with Russia. Armed clashes between Georgian and South Ossetian forces took place on the territory of South Ossetia; positions of the Russian peacekeeping forces were fired upon. The Georgian government has demanded the withdrawal of Russian forces from Abkhazia, threatening to use force against the breakaway republic and tourists visiting it. In early 2005, the Georgian parliament demanded the evacuation of Russian military bases on Georgian territory. In foreign policy, the Saakashvili administration is guided by the US and NATO. The government announced its intention to carry out economic reforms in cooperation with the IMF and the World Bank.

On February 3, 2005, Prime Minister Zhvania died under unclear circumstances. According to official version he died as a result of gas poisoning. According to the unofficial version, the prime minister was killed on Saakashvili's orders.

The former Minister of Finance Zurab Noghaideli was appointed as the new head of government.

In January 2006, the president signed a decree on the country's withdrawal from the Council of Defense Ministers of the CIS countries. Georgia's foreign policy has changed, and a new course has been proclaimed to join NATO and the European Union.

On January 5, 2008, early presidential elections were held. They were appointed under pressure from the opposition. Starting from December 2, 2007, rallies of the united opposition were held in Tbilisi with demands to postpone the parliamentary elections from autumn to spring 2008. This was preceded by a speech by Saakashvili's former ally, ex-Minister of Defense I. Okruashvili. He went live on the opposition channel Imedi with sensational revelations about the president and accused him of plotting contract killings and corruption. Okruashvili also announced his transition to tough opposition to official Tbilisi. The next day, the police detained Okruashvili in his office, the Prosecutor General's Office of Georgia filed charges of extortion, money laundering and negligence. The Georgian opposition led people to rallies in connection with the arrest of Okruashvili. He was released on bail, and he left for Germany, where he was soon arrested at the request of Georgia. In January 2008, Okruashvili was taken under escort from Berlin to Paris; the Dublin Convention saved him from extradition to his homeland.

The authorities did not agree to negotiations, and the slogans began to become tougher, one of the demands to M. Saakashvili was the demand to step down from the presidency. The number of demonstrators increased every day. On November 6, speaking on television, the president said that the authorities would not make any concessions. On November 7, the authorities deployed well-trained special forces against the participants of a peaceful rally. Law enforcement officers used rubber batons, tear gas, water cannons and guns with rubber bullets against the protesters. The massacre continued in different parts of the city until late at night and ended with the defeat of the Imedi TV channel, which broadcast the protests live. The channel belonged to businessman Badri Patarkatsishvili. During the dispersal of the rally, it was reported that several hundred people were injured. In the evening of the same day, Saakashvili signed a decree declaring a state of emergency in Tbilisi. “The decree introduces temporary restrictions on holding demonstrations and manifestations, as well as calls in the media for violence, overthrowing the government and organizing riots and overthrowing the government with the use of force.” This was done in connection with the "coup attempt".

On November 8, Saakashvili made a televised address to the people, in which he announced the decision to postpone the presidential elections from autumn 2008 to January 5, 2008.

As it became known later, Patarkatsishvili transferred all the shares of the TV channel to the American company News corporation, which is part of the media empire of Rupert Murdoch. Under pressure from the international community, the Tbilisi City Court granted the request of the Georgian Prosecutor General's Office to lift the arrest on the property of the opposition television company Imedi. The court motivated its decision by the fact that the actions of the channel no longer pose a threat to public order. The National Communications Commission annulled the decision to suspend the channel's broadcasting license. The channel resumed broadcasting for a while, but was soon closed again after several journalists left the channel.

According to the official data of the Georgian CEC, Mikheil Saakashvili won the elections - in the first round he won 53.5% of the vote. His main rival, united opposition candidate Levan Gachechiladze, received 25.6%, oligarch Badri Patarkatsishvili 7.1%, Labor Party leader Shalva Natelashvili 6.5%, New Rights party leader David Gamkrelidze 4.2%. , Giorgi Maisashvili - 0.8%, Irina Sarishvili - less than 0.2%. The final document was signed by 7 members of the CEC, and 6 representatives of the opposition parties refused to sign it, saying that the election results were falsified.

The Georgian opposition insisted on holding a second round of presidential elections. The Prosecutor General's Office of Georgia put Patarkatsishvili on the wanted list.

After the inauguration, Mikhail Saakashvili began to form a cabinet of ministers, Vladimir Gurgenidze was appointed prime minister.

In August 2008, an armed conflict began in South Ossetia, or a five-day war, which ended with the expulsion of the Georgian army from the region. On August 26, 2008, Russia recognized the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, which respectively declared their independence in 1992 and 1994. Subsequently, the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia was recognized by such countries as Nicaragua, Venezuela, Nauru and Tuvalu.

On August 14, 2008, the Georgian Parliament adopted a decision on Georgia's withdrawal from the CIS. On August 18, 2009, the withdrawal procedure was completed, but approximately 75 international treaties remained in force.

In November 2010, President Saakashvili approved the law "On Amendments and Additions to the Constitution of Georgia", previously approved by the country's parliament. According to the changes in the Constitution, the country passed from the presidential form of government of the republic to the parliamentary one. The changes were to take effect after the parliamentary elections in 2012.

Since 2009, new opposition protests began, which were actively supported by the majority of the country's population. The reason for dissatisfaction was the situation with human rights, elitist corruption and lost territories as a result of the conflict in South Ossetia. The opposition also put forward a demand for the president's resignation. Protests swept the whole country. But the climax was the violent dispersal of the protesters on May 26, 2011 with the use of tear gas, water cannons, rubber bullets and batons. As a result, there were dead and wounded. The next day, May 27, a parade was held at the site of the dispersal of the protesters in honor of Georgia's Independence Day, which was hosted by Saakashvili. Opposition moods in the country only intensified, despite Saakashvili's authoritarian regime.

On October 1, 2012, parliamentary elections were held, which were won by the opposition bloc Georgian Dream - Democratic Georgia, headed by billionaire Bidzina Ivanishvili (85 seats), and the United National Movement - 65 seats in parliament.

After Saakashvili

President Saakashvili, who was due to expire, according to the Constitution, in 2013, scheduled the presidential elections for October 27, thus extending his term of office by almost 1 year. On October 27, 2013, presidential elections were held, in which the representative of the Georgian Dream, Giorgi Margvelashvili, won with 62.1% of the votes, in second place was D. Bakradze from the UNM (21.7%), N. Burjanadze received 10.1% of the votes , taking 3rd place.

Literature:

Georgian SSR. Economic and geographical characteristics. M., 1956
Soviet Union. Geographic Description.Georgia. M., 1967
Georgian SSR: Encyclopedic reference book. Tbilisi, 1981
White Book of Abkhazia. M., 1993
Georgia: capital residents. M., 1997
The practice of federalism: the search for alternatives for Georgia and Abkhazia. M., 1999
Post-Soviet South Caucasus. Bibliography and review of publications in the social and political sciences. M., 2002
Eduard Shevardnazde: photo album. M., 2003
Vaiteshvili D.L. Georgia and European countries. In 3 vols. M., 2003
Multiethnic Georgia: XX century. M., 2004
Papaeva V.G., Beridze T.A. Essays on the Political Economy of Post-Communist Capitalism(Experience of Georgia). M., 2005

The main features of the earth's surface of Georgia
Georgian landscape

"Caucasus before me..."- delightful lines of A. S. Pushkin.

And now you, dear tourist, have the opportunity to visit these amazing places, which will undoubtedly inspire you to inspire creativity.

Georgia- predominantly Mountain country. More than 80% of its territory is occupied by ridges and uplands. It owns the highest part of the Greater Caucasus. According to the nature of the relief, Georgia is divided into the following large, significantly different regions. In the north, a mountain system rises like a giant wall Greater Caucasus(Kavkasioni). The steep spurs of the southern slope form echelon-shaped mountain barriers, gradually lowering to the south and turning into a strip of hilly foothills, bordering the mountain plains inside.

Mountain ranges and high plateaus stretch in the south South Caucasian highlands(which within Georgia is called the South Georgian Highlands). Its constituent part in the north is the folded ridges of the Lesser Caucasus, elongated almost in the latitudinal direction, and in the south, highly elevated volcanic plateaus, meridional elongated chains of extinct volcanoes and lava-filled basins of the Javakheti highlands, parts of the Armenian volcanic highlands. Between these powerful mountain structures, from the shores of the Black Sea in the west to the Alazani Valley in the east, intermountain lowlands of Georgia stretch.

The highest part of the Greater Caucasus more than 100 million years ago was a chain of rocky islands in the seas of the Jurassic and Cretaceous. In the Tertiary time (about 30 million years ago), the internal forces of mountain building raised and expanded the land. The islands, composed of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks, merged with each other and gradually began to grow over rising from sea ​​depths more and more land areas. At the same time, in the south, the mountains of the Lesser Caucasus rose from the sea and grew, composed mainly of products of underwater volcanic eruptions. In the second half of the Tertiary, mountain building processes intensified. A bridge between the Greater and Lesser Caucasus was discovered, the sea receded to the east and west, and vast intermountain lowlands dried up. Thus, by the beginning of the Quaternary time (about a million years ago), the Caucasus in its main features acquired modern contours. In the Quaternary, the mountains continued to grow intensively, periodically covered with a solid ice shell. The intermountain depressions sank.

The growth of mountains and the lowering of the bottom of intermountain depressions continues even now. Their immobility is deceptive. The time of human observations is incommensurable with the process of mountain building. Just as a camera can capture only a single moment of movement in a fraction of a second, so a person, even for a hundred years, cannot always catch the changes taking place in the relief. A number of signs eluding the inexperienced eye - the increase in the heights of river terraces in the direction from the plains to the mountains, sawing deep transverse valleys by rivers, folding in young Pliocene and even Quaternary lavas, and much more indicates the ongoing uplift of the mountains of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus. On the other hand, in contrast to this, the presence of peat deposits at different depths from the surface, the swamping of the Colchis lowland, and the ancient river deltas of the Bzybi, Gumista, and Kodori submerged to the seabed testify to the subsidence of the intermountain plains. The ongoing and now active life of the mountains is indicated by the still not completely extinguished activity of underground forces. Just a few thousand years ago, the volcanoes of the South Georgian Highlands and the Central Caucasus stopped erupting.

Zones of six- and eight-magnitude earthquakes are confined to the junction of uplift and subsidence areas. The same seismic activity is shown by the area of ​​volcanic structures in Southern Georgia.

The Georgian part of the Greater Caucasus, with its general orographic integrity, is subdivided, depending on the geological nature and the main features of the relief, into three parts - western, central and eastern.

If you go from west to east along the mountain ranges of the Greater Caucasus, you can notice a gradual increase in both the Main watershed between the rivers of the northern and southern slopes, and its spurs descending to the Black Sea coast and the Colchis lowland. The entire mountainous region, stretching between the Psou valley and the eastern border of the Abkhazian Autonomous Republic, is called the Western Caucasus (Abkhazian Caucasus). The main ridge of the Western Caucasus rises as a grandiose ledge crowned with rocky peaks, between which glaciers rest in deep cirque-like depressions and saddles. The mighty ridge of the Greater Caucasus is almost 1000 meters higher than the line of eternal snows. The passes, through which in most cases only pack trails are laid, lie at an altitude of 2400-3000 m above sea level.

The peaks of the Greater Caucasus are covered with eternal snows. At the foot of the rocky peaks, boulders are piled up - the result of centuries of frost weathering. Sharp fluctuations in daily temperatures contribute to the destruction of even such hard rocks as granites, gneisses and metamorphic shales, which form most of the ridge. Glacial tongues, forming steep icefalls, flow over stone barriers and descend into wide trough-shaped valleys. They feed numerous streams that merge into mountain rivers below. So, for example, the largest rivers of Abkhazia begin - Bzyb and Kodori. At first they flow through wide, very deep valleys, almost parallel to the Main Watershed, separating high frontal ridges from it. Descending from the Greater Caucasus to the flowering foothills of Abkhazia, one has to overcome several mountain barriers, visit deep gorges and again rise to the sky-high heights of snowy passes. On the way to the sea - rocky ridges of Gagra ( Mount Agepsta-3261 m.), Bzybsky and Kodorsky ( mountain Khojaly- 3309 m) ranges, deep gorges of the Bzybi, Kodori and their tributaries. mountain ranges, which must be crossed to reach the sea, are composed of Middle Jurassic volcanic rocks and thick Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary limestone strata.

It is impossible not to dwell on the exceptional originality of nature in the mountains of the Western Caucasus. To the west of the Likhsky (Suramsky) ridge to the very border of the republic, steep spurs of limestone ridges rise above the green hills of the foothills and the coastal plain. Limestones are most widespread in Abkhazia. The peculiarity of the relief of the advanced mountain barriers of the Western Caucasus is determined by the fact that they are composed of carbonate rocks of the Upper Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene. Here we can see classic examples of a wide variety of karst forms. In the watershed spaces, surfaces corroded by karst, dry hollows, depressions and funnels. There are such landforms as cuestas with bizarre peaks and towers; sheer white or pinkish walls of narrow canyons and gorges, at the bottom of which surprisingly clear cold water seethes, passing through unknown paths through underground labyrinths and corridors.

Limestone ridges in the western part of Abkhazia break off into the sea in echelon-shaped spurs, pushing to the east a strip of low hilly foothills, composed mainly of strata of conglomerates, clays and sandstones of the Tertiary period.

Atmospheric waters, abundantly irrigating the mountains of Abkhazia, penetrating deep into the bowels of the earth, meet impervious layers and come to the surface through cracks at the foot of limestone massifs, giving rise to numerous springs and even rivers. Near the resort of Gagra, where the steep slopes of limestone mountains break right into the sea, sources of fresh water are knocked out of the cracks near the beach and on the seabed. On the other hand, solutions saturated with copper, silver, lead, zinc rise into the karst voids from the deep bowels of the earth through the thinnest cracks. For many hundreds of thousands of years, cracks and karst voids are filled with ore. Thus, deposits of polymetals were formed in the limestone massifs of Abkhazia.

In the eastern part of the Western Caucasus, limestone ridges decrease, forming relatively low ridges. One of them is cut through by the stormy river Galidzga. If you climb up its gorge, then steep mountain slopes will again appear in front of you. However, they are no longer made up of limestones, but mostly hard sandstones and ancient volcanic rocks. Galidzga, squeezed in a narrow gorge, boils furiously, rolling huge boulders along the bottom.

Why is the water of this river black? After all, the rest of the rivers of Abkhazia are clean and transparent. The riddle is easily solved. Galidzga crosses coal beds. Here on the steep slopes, which until recently were covered with impenetrable forests, but then one of the large industrial centers of Georgia grew here - the city Tkvarcheli. Coal occurs here in Jurassic sandstones.

Between the two giants - the extinct Quaternary volcanoes Elbrus and Kazbek - stretches the highest central part of the Greater Caucasus with peaks exceeding 4500 m. More than ten peaks, and among them Shkhara(5201 m.), Dzhangitau(5049 m.), gistola(4859 m.), Kazbek(5047 m.), higher than the highest point of the Alps - Mont Blanc. The ridge is dressed in a powerful ice shell. Above the firn fields, naked rocks rise like harsh guards. At their feet stretch "stone seas" - a chaotic heap of granite blocks. The cold, devoid of any vegetation, desert spaces of the high-mountainous zone of the Central Caucasus are distinguished by a peculiar, wild and majestic beauty.

Svaneti occupies the central part of the Greater Caucasus, and high lateral spurs branching off from it form a system of ridges parallel to the Main Watershed. Above the deep gorge of Inguri south of the village of Mestia - the center of Svaneti - the rocky slopes of the Svaneti ridge rise. It runs almost parallel to the Main Divide. Here again is the kingdom of snows and glaciers. The highest point of the ridge - Mount Laila rises above 4000 m.

To the south of the Svaneti ridge are the Lechkhum and Racha ridges. Here are the sources of the Rioni River. These ranges, composed of Mesozoic rocks, are rich in deposits of silver-lead and zinc ores. Some of them are of industrial importance. To the south, on one of the lateral spurs of the Svaneti mountains, barite, a valuable raw material for the chemical industry, occurs in ancient volcanic rocks.

A large barite mine was discovered at the foot of Mount Sirkh-Leberta, in the area of ​​the highland village of Chordi. The deposits of polymetallic ores of industrial importance are also rich in the bowels of the Central Caucasus within the borders of the South Ossetian Autonomous Region neighboring Racha. The Kvaiss deposit of lead-zinc ore supplies the non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises of the North Caucasus with raw materials.

Having passed the foot of the Roksky Pass of the Main Caucasian Range, we climb Erman plateau- a wild high-mountainous area, cut by deep canyons, between which, on flat watershed spaces, there are vast mountain pastures with summer shepherd's koshes scattered everywhere. From one of the ridges that limit the plateau, a view of Lake Keli opens. Even in July, the ice that binds it alpine lake, does not melt completely. Fast ice remains off the coast, and dwarf icebergs float on the azure water surface. Rocky slopes are wild and impregnable, snowfields turn white on stony screes.

Kehl highland plateau- one of the most peculiar corners of the southern slopes of the Central Caucasus. It owes its origin to Quaternary volcanoes. Lava such major volcanoes, like Big Mepiskalo (3694 m), Khorisar (3830 m), Keli (3628 m), flooded the mountain slopes and formed a vast, relatively flat plateau, on the edge of which, thanks to a lava pond, a lake arose. From the conical peak of the Big Mepiskalo in the north, the snow cap of the handsome Kazbek is visible (in Georgian “Mkinvari” or “Mkinvartsveri”, which means “ice peak”). Kazbek, like Elbrus, is an extinct volcano. The world-famous Georgian Military Highway passes by it. Here, on the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus, the Gudis, Kharul, Lomis-Alev and Gudamakar ridges stretch meridionally, separating the upper reaches of the Bolshaya and Malaya Liakhvi, Ksani, White and Black Aragvi rivers; rapidly declining to the south, they merge with the Kartli foothills.

To the east of Kazbek begins the Eastern Caucasus. The mountains take on a slightly different look. Although the Main Watershed and, in particular, the Lateral Range, located to the north of it, retain a high-mountainous alpine character, nevertheless, the heights are somewhat inferior to the Central Caucasus. To the north of the watershed ridge, ridges stretch parallel to it, separated by deep mountain valleys rivers Terek, Assy, Argun And Andean Koisu. highest height reaches the Tusheti, or Pirikitsky, ridge with peaks Tebulos-Mta(4494 m.), Diklos-Mta(4285 m.). To the south of the watershed of the Eastern Caucasus, the meridional Kartli and Kakheti ranges extend, which, descending, pass into the foothills of the Kakheti lowland. Due to the greater dryness of the climate than in the Western and Central Caucasus, the boundary of eternal snows is much higher here - 3500-3600 m above sea level. Glaciers are found only on the slopes of the largest peaks of the Pirikit Range. Glaciers are relatively rare in the Main Watershed. Bare narrow and jagged rocky ridges dominate here.

Particularly steep slopes are characteristic of the Kakhetian part of the Eastern Caucasus, where mountains literally rise like a wall above Alazani. Here, in the monotonous thickness of slates, layers of marble are found. For example, high-quality marble is mined in the Lopota Gorge, which is not inferior to Carrara. Many stations of the Moscow metro are lined with it.

The intermountain lowlands of Georgia in the west begin with the coastal plain of Colchis. The Colchis lowland is covered with a thick layer of river sediments that have been accumulating for hundreds of thousands of years. Escaping from the heights of the Greater Caucasus, Kodori, Inguri and Rioni spread widely over it and slowly carry their waters to the sea.

From the north and northwest, behind a light haze of fog, one can see the outlines of the snowy peaks of the Greater Caucasus. In the east, the Colchis Plain is bordered by the Imereti Upland. It is a mountain jumper between the Greater and Lesser Caucasus. The famous city of manganese is spread on it - Chiatura.

The road leads us to a plateau. Below - a flat area, in some places cut through by deep gorges of the Kvirila, Dziruly and their tributaries. We are as if on the surface of a gigantic dome, cut into separate segments by rivers. In the north, the winding ridge of the Racha Range turns blue.

Imeretian plateau or, as geologists call it, Dziruli crystalline massif,- « ancient theme» Georgia. Several million years ago, in the Sarmatian time, there was a sea here, on the granite bottom of which layers of limestone and sandstone were deposited. Mountain-building forces raised a granite bed from under the sea with sedimentary rocks layered on it. So on the site of the sea plain for many millennia a high plateau was formed, into the surface of which rivers began to crash. Washing away marine sediments, they partially destroyed them, revealing the original crystalline rocks. But between the layers of limestone and sandstone remaining on the plateau, layers of rich manganese ore have been preserved.

Before turning to the intermountain regions of Georgia lying to the east of Colchis, let us dwell on the sea coast of the republic.

The Black Sea coast of Georgia stretches for more than 300 km, located along a wide arc between the mouth of the Psou River and Cape Gonio, which closes the Chorokha delta from the south.

This entire strip is of great importance, primarily as a health resort. Sanatoriums, boarding houses and rest houses are scattered along the Black Sea coast, starting from Leselidze to Ochamchira in Abkhazia and from Ureka to Batumi in the Adjara Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Railways and highways are laid along the coast. Agricultural land, where valuable subtropical crops are grown, stretches along the sea coast in a continuous strip.

However, the transformation of the nature of the coast meets significant difficulties. Long-term observations of scientists - geologists, geographers, geophysicists and archaeologists have established that most of the coast of Georgia, especially Colchis, is slowly sinking, and the sea is advancing along the entire length of the coastline. It is known that 4-5 thousand years ago the level of the Black Sea was 10-15 m lower than the modern one, the water area boundary lay in places more than 1 km to the west. The offensive of the sea began in the III-IV centuries. n. e. and continues to this day. The sinking of land in Colchis averages up to 13 cm per century, and in some places significantly exceeds this figure. If powerful rivers Chorokh, Rioni, Enguri, Kodori And swell If they did not take out a colossal amount of detrital material from the mountains and did not deposit it on the coastal lowland, the sea would flood it, and in place of Colchis the waters of the sea bay would extend.

But the onset of the sea does not manifest itself everywhere in the same way. There are places where the banks, on the contrary, grow over a short distance. This depends not so much on common causes - subsidence of land or rising sea levels, but on along the coastal sediment flow, consisting of pebbles, sand and other products of the destruction of coastal rocks and the removal of rivers. This material forms the beach, which serves as a natural defense against waves breaking the shores.

The direction along the coastal sediment flow depends on the prevailing winds. The sea washes away the beach in one place and washes it in another. Depending on the angle at which the waves approach the shore, either erosion or deposition of transported material predominates. Of course, the growth or destruction of the coast also depends on the amount of bottom sediments carried by the waves. If there are few of them, the growth of the coast does not occur; if the stream is saturated, somewhere the sediment builds up the beach. Therefore, the exploitation of beach accumulations as a building material must be strictly regulated. Uncontrolled, predatory removal of pebbles and sand from beaches leads to their disappearance and, as a result, to catastrophic erosion of the coast in severe storms.

Huge underwater trenches - canyons serve as another obstacle to normal movement along coastal sediments; they are mostly located against the mouths of large rivers and corrode the edge of the coastal shallows, often beginning almost at the very coast. These peculiar underwater valleys (the mouth part of the descending river valleys) absorb the material that forms the beaches. On the Georgian coast, such canyons exist against the mouths of large rivers - Bzybi, Gumists,Kelasuri, Kodori,Enguri,Rioni,Supsa, Natanebi and Chorokha. As a rule, areas of very active erosion are formed not far from underwater pits that are close to the coast.

A serious risk of erosion arises from the improper construction of breakwaters and breakwaters during the construction of ports; it is necessary to carefully study the direction of sediment movement, the source of their entry into the sea, the exposition of the coast and a number of other conditions before blocking off the part of the water area adjacent to the coast with a pier. The pier can serve as an obstacle to the movement of bottom sediments, and the part of the coast where they stop flowing will begin to collapse very quickly.

An example of active coastal erosion in the area of ​​port facilities is a section near the city of Ochamchire with a length of 6 km.

After the construction of the port was completed in 1938, the erosion of the neighboring coasts located to the south increased. Over the past 15 years, the sea has carried away 30-40 m of the coast, and in some places it has moved more than 100 m towards the land. To protect the coast and increase the city beach near Ochamchira, expensive wave protection structures with a length of about 2 km were erected.

The sea on the Georgian coast threatens not only the city of Ochamchira; a storm in 1964 destroyed a breakwater and several residential buildings in New Athos; many sections of the coast in Gagra are systematically destroyed. The railroad overpass in Sukhumi was badly damaged by recent storms; entire tracts of land were swept away by the waves near Batumi in the autumn of 1965.

However, the laws of coastal life that were not previously unraveled, the causes of erosion or growth of coasts, the natural course of processes are now being deciphered by scientists and engineers; people boldly enter into battle with the blind elements and remake nature in accordance with their needs. For this purpose, studies of the coastal part of the continental shelf are being carried out. Armed with underwater vehicles of the latest designs, scuba divers descend to depths exceeding 50 m and make scientific observations in the elements alien to man. Recently, numerous institutes and industrial organizations have taken up the study of the coastal zone in Georgia.

From great depths, geologists raise soil samples. Their research ships

plow the coastal waters of Georgia; tons of colored sand are launched into the sea so that its movement along the bottom sheds light on the laws of bottom currents; vibrating tubes cut into the bottoms of deep underwater canyons; echo sounders buzz on ships; maps of the relief of the seabed are being specified.

All these works will make it possible to understand the interrelationship of the processes that form the shores, and will help to develop effective measures to prevent the harm caused to people by the elements. Behind the Likhi (Surami) ridge lies the eastern wing of the intermountain lowlands of Georgia. There is a completely different nature here. From the south rise the stepped slopes of the Trialeti ridge (the eastern continuation of the Meskheti, or Adjaro-Imereti, ridge). Along its foot is the Kurinskaya Valley, along which the railway runs. The valley in the north is bordered by the low Kvernaki ridge, bare or covered with sparse shrubs, crossed by dry ravines, separating the Kura valley from the vast Tiripon-Mukhran plain. It is a foothill basin, completely covered with loam and pebbles. Behind it rise the spurs of the Greater Caucasus.

As soon as you pass Mtskheta- the ancient capital of Georgia, a conical hill appears, on top of which stands a monastery, once sung by M. Yu. Lermontov in his poem "Mtsyri".

Here, near Mtskheta, concrete masses rise ZAGES- the first hydroelectric station in Georgia. From here it is not far to the capital of Georgia. Tbilisi lies in a wide basin, on the sides of which a series of terraces of the Kura is clearly distinguished. Steep slope on the right Trialeti Range- Mount Mtatsminda, crowned with an openwork spire of a television tower. On the left bank of the Kura - flat Mount Makhata. To the east of Tbilisi there are wide steppe spaces. This is the Samgori Plain, which quite recently was a dry, waterless steppe. Now, thanks to the powerful Samgori irrigation system, the steppe is dressed with gardens. Farther to the southeast, Iora Plateau. On both sides of the Iori valley, one of the left tributaries of the Kura, flat-topped ridges rise, composed of tertiary, clayey rocks and dense conglomerates overlain by layers of yellow loams. The ridges alternate with wide waterless depressions (Big and Small Shirak, Taribana, Ole, Naomari, Chatma). The slopes of the ridges are cut by dry valleys and ravines. The so-called bad lands (badlands) are widespread here.

To the south, on the edge of the plateau, the Iori River in downstream crosses the Eldar lowland with features of a semi-desert landscape. Most of the tributaries of the Iori wander through the hollows of the plateau. The tributaries dry up during the summer months. There are also small hills of mud volcanoes. In places in the steppe you can see drilling rigs. Oil exploration is underway. The bowels of Kakheti and Kartli contain "black gold".

To the northwest of the steppes and hills of the Iora plateau rises Gombori Range. Its height reaches almost 2000 m above sea level ( Mount Tsivi- 1990 m.). The southern slopes of the ridge abruptly end in the direction of the Priori steppes, while the northeastern slopes gently merge into the wide Alazani valley. The Inner Kakhetian Plain, along which Alazani made its way, is a vast intermountain depression filled with river deposits.

South of Tbilisi along the Kura to the very border with Azerbaijan extends Lower Kartli Plain.

Now let's turn to the Lesser Caucasus, in particular to the South Georgian Highlands. The South Georgian Highlands is a part of the mountainous region of the Lesser Caucasus, which lies within Georgia. It consists of two parts, different in relief and geological structure, the northern outlying folded ranges and the Javakheti volcanic highlands. The former stretch from the Black Sea to Tbilisi (the Meskheti and Trialeti Ranges) and are composed mainly of Lower Tertiary volcanic rocks. The volcanic highlands are represented by a layering of young Upper Tertiary and Quaternary lavas forming high plateaus and a chain of extinct volcanic cones and domes.

Starting from Black Sea coast Adzharia, the Meskheti Range forms a mountain arc curved to the north, limiting the Colchis lowland from the south. Some of its peaks reach almost 3000 m. (Mount Mepistskaro- 2850 m.); however, there are no glaciers on their peaks and the outlines of the ridges are much softer than in the Greater Caucasus; the passes lie at altitudes of 1500-2000 m. To the east of the Borjomi gorge, the Trialeti ridge stretches, which ends with low spurs near Tbilisi.

The picturesque Adzharis-Tskali gorge separates the Meskheti Range from the Shavsheti Range bordering Turkey; the Adzharis-Tskali gorge closes in the headwaters with a high meridional Arsian Ridge- the watershed between the basins of the Chorokha and Kura rivers. The eastern slopes of the Arsian ridge descend to the Akhaltsikhe intermountain basin, along the wide and flat bottom of which a large left tributary of the Kura, the Kvabliani, makes its way. In the south, the hollow is closed by the rounded spurs of the Erusheti Highlands, and in the east, the Trialeti Range rises above it.

Another part of the South Georgian mountain system - the Javakheti Highlands is composed mainly of Quaternary lavas. Wide expanses of upland steppes, lying at an altitude of about 2000 m above sea level, open up to the gaze. Chains of comparatively recently extinct volcanoes - the Javakheti and Samsar ranges - separate the Akhalkalaki lava plateau from the high upland Tsalka basin, the Dmanisi and Gomareti plateaus. Here, volcanic cones in the form of truncated pyramids rise more than 1000 m above the plateau, there are numerous closed depressions occupied by lakes, deep canyons cut by rivers in thick lava armor.

From here you can go down to the Kura gorge opposite the famous cave city of Vardzia, along the steppe basin and the picturesque wooded gorge lies the path from Akhaltsikhe to Borjomi. The narrow gauge line leads to Bakuriani- a winter resort of all-Union significance, which is located in a wide basin filled with Quaternary lavas.

The information provided is a unique material for choosing travel in Georgia. A tourist smears at his own discretion to choose an area for recreation and spending time. It can be a trip through the unique caves of Georgia, or a car trip along the Georgian Military Highway, climbing the peaks of the Caucasus and much more.

Please travel around this delightful country, enjoy its beauties and hospitable people.

Welcome to ancient and forever young Georgia!