How many meters is the runway for an airplane. Airfield runway

Fear of travel by air is quite common. Passengers who try to fight it by studying air travel statistics know that most accidents happen during takeoff and landing.

Princess Juliana Airport, Saint Martin

However, there are airports where not only the most cold-blooded passengers, but also highly professional pilots, are afraid to land and take off.

Paro, Bhutan

The runway is located between the five-thousander Himalayan peaks. The airport is considered one of the most difficult to land. To accomplish it, the pilots have to lay turns between the mountains, which is possible only during daylight hours.

Matekane Airstrip, Lesotho

A strip 400 meters long ends with a cliff 600 meters high. A rare aircraft manages to accelerate to climb before reaching the end of the runway. According to the idea of ​​the airport designers, the aircraft must make a free fall in order to reach the required flight altitude.

Juancho Irauskin, Saba Island

The airport's runway is the shortest in the world - less than 400 meters long. Landing here is not for the faint of heart: the pilot must steer the ship straight onto the rock, at the last moment before landing, make a sharp turn to the right in order to be on a hill, washed by the ocean on three sides. Three types of aircraft are allowed to land at the airport, and jets are not among them.

Princess Juliana Airport, Saint Martin

The main airport in the Caribbean. When landing, the planes fly directly over the heads (at a height of 10–20 meters) of vacationers on Maho Beach, since the runway is located close to it. During takeoff, the pilot is forced to U-shaped turn, so as not to crash into the rock, which ends the lane.

Tenzing and Hillary Airport, Lukla City, Nepal

The airport, where the pilot has no room for error, was renamed in 2008 in honor of the first conquerors of Everest: Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary. After a long maneuvering among the rocks, the ship must be sharply directed downwards in order to avoid collision with the rock, which ends with a short, 537 meters long runway. By the way, the strip begins immediately after the cliff and is located under a slope. Takeoffs and landings are carried out at the airport exclusively according to the rules of visual flights, without the use of modern navigation systems.

Madeira Airport, Portugal

Madeira's main airport was once even scarier than it is today. However, it was reconstructed after the disaster in 1977, which claimed the lives of 131 passengers. Today, two runways located on the cliff have a length of 1.8 kilometers. However, a significant part of the canvas is a flyover, supported by 180 pillars with a diameter of 3 meters and a height of up to 50 meters. Due to the mountains and the sea, the airport found itself in a zone of increased turbulence.

Barra, Scotland

The operation of the airport located on the beach is periodically interrupted in a natural way - during high tides, washing away the runway on the sand. Landings (almost splashdowns) at night are also impossible here.

Gibraltar International Airport

The airport belongs to the UK. Pilots landing here need to be good with brakes so as not to drown the plane in the strait that ends the runway. In addition, you need to monitor the movement of cars following the road crossing the lane.

Wellington, New Zealand

The extremely busy airport has only one runway, and that one is relatively short - just over 1.8 kilometers. This circumstance, as well as the need to maneuver among the hills, makes it impossible to land. large aircraft. As for small ships, their pilots' lives are overshadowed by incredibly strong air currents.

Alexandros Papadiamantis, Skiathos island, Greece

Landing at Skiathos airport is far from ideal and is able to provide thrill even the most cold-blooded pilots. The relatively short (1.6 kilometers) and narrow runway ends in the ocean. Vacationers on the coast. Therefore, pilots need the will and the ability to press hard on the brakes. Takeoff tickles the nerves no less.

Congonhas, Brazil

Located a few kilometers from downtown Sao Paulo, the airport is a gift for passengers, but not for pilots who have to maneuver between high-rise buildings. There are also problems with the coverage of the runway - it is often slippery due to rain. So, in 2007, for this reason, an airplane crashed during landing, as a result of the crash, 187 passengers died in the cabin, 12 on the ground.

Gustav III Airport, Saint Barthélemy Island, French Overseas Community

Located on an island in the Caribbean, the airport has a runway of just 650 meters. It is also very narrow, so with every landing in the immediate vicinity of the slopes, the plane runs the risk of falling into the ocean.

Narsarsuaq, Greenland

The most beautiful landscapes outside the window do not give pilots a reason to relax - the area is famous for its high turbulence, which is why only well-trained pilots who know the area are allowed to fly here.

Toncontin International Airport, Honduras

No landing here since 2008 large aircraft. The reason for the veto was an accident, as a result of which the plane ran off the runway and crashed into the embankment, crushing several cars. 65 people were injured, 5 died.

Courchevel Airport, French Alps

Only certified pilots are allowed to land an aircraft on the 525-meter runway, which has a slope of 18.5%, located among the mountains.

Quito Mariscal Sucre, Ecuador

Located in the center of the densely populated capital of Ecuador. Pilots have to land the plane on a bumpy, fog-shrouded runway among the mountains.

Kai Tak, Hong Kong (now closed)

Serving aircraft from 1925 to 1998, the airport provided for landing over a busy port and densely populated areas. In these conditions and with a strong changeable wind, the pilots had to turn the ship 47 ° at an altitude of 200 meters before landing.

Ice Runway, Antarctica

The runway on Ross Island is built here every year, the airport has been operating since December. The main difficulty is in weather conditions. For landing to be possible, the ice must support the plane. Therefore, pilots and dispatchers carefully monitor the air temperature and the melting of ice and snow. Permissible immersion of the vessel in the ice during landing is approximately 25 centimeters.

Photos: Ywchow, Scott Wylie (CC-BY), MartinPUTZ (CC-BY-SA), Konstantin von Wedelstaedt (GNU FDL), Peter Forster (CC-BY-SA), Indrik myneur (CC-BY), Photo courtesy of Tom Claytor- www.claytor.com , Andrew Cooper (CC-BY), Fyodor Borisov (CC-BY-SA), Mariordo (CC-BY-SA), iStock (x2), Timo Breidenstein (GNU FDL)

2.1. At each aerodrome, its class must be defined, and at a multi-lane aerodrome, also the class of each runway.

The runway class is determined by the length of the runway under standard conditions according to Table. 2.1.

Table 2.1

2.2. The class of the aerodrome should be determined by:

a) on single-lane aerodromes - runway class;

b) at multi-lane aerodromes - a runway class with greatest length under standard conditions.

Chapter 3. Physical characteristics of aerodromes

3.1. Geometric dimensions of airfield elements

3.1.1. The following take-off and landing distances must be established at the aerodrome for each direction of take-off and landing:

Available takeoff distance;

Available take-off distance;

Rejected takeoff distance available;

available landing distance.

Note. The procedure for determining the available distances is given in section 3 of the Appendix.

3.1.2. The width of the runway must be constant along the entire length and not less than that given in Table. 3.1.

Table 3.1

Note. For class A runways, the minimum width of the runway may be assumed to be 45 m. In this case, reinforced shoulders should be provided so wide that the distance from the runway axis to the outer edges of each of the shoulders is at least 30 m.

3.1.3. In the absence of taxiways at the end sections of the runway, widening of the runway should be provided for the aircraft to turn. The width of the runway in places of broadening should be at least as given in Table. 3.2.

Table 3.2

3.1.4. Longitudinal and transverse slopes of the runways at aerodromes should be no more than those given in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3

Notes:

1. The length of the extreme sections of the runway is taken equal to 1/6 of the runway length for all aerodromes.

2. This requirement applies only to the design and construction of new runways.

3.1.5. At operating aerodromes, the longitudinal profile of the runway should be included in the Flight Operations Instructions, indicating the actual slopes.

3.1.6. The length of the runway (LL) - the runway must extend beyond each end of the runway or stopway, if provided, for a distance of at least 150 m for runways of classes A, B, C, D, D and 120 m for runways class E.

Note. If these distances cannot be ensured due to difficult terrain or obstacles, the available distances must be reduced to meet this requirement.

Explanations on the application of this provision are given in Section 3 of the Annex.

3.1.7. The runway, including the equipped runway, should extend in the transverse direction on both sides of the runway axis (along the entire length of the runway) for a distance of at least:

150 m - for runways of classes A, B, C, D and

75 m - for runways of classes D, E.

3.1.8. The portion of the runway (which includes an instrument runway) located on either side of the runway centerline must be planned and prepared to minimize the risk of damage to an aircraft during an undershoot or overrun of the runway within:

80 m - for runways of classes A and B,

70 m - for class B runways,

65 m - for class G runways,

55 m - for class D runway,

40 m - for class E runways.

3.1.9. The ground surface of the planned part of the LP at the points of interface with artificial surfaces (runways, shoulders, taxiways, control points, etc.) should be located on the same level with them.

3.1.10. The part of the strip located in front of the runway threshold must be reinforced for the entire width of the runway in order to prevent erosion from gas jets aircraft and protection of landing aircraft from impact with the end of the runway at a distance of not less than:

75 m - for class A runways,

50 m - for runways of classes B and C,

30 m - for runways of classes G and D.

Note. The requirement for a constant (equal to the runway) width of the reinforcement applies to the construction and reconstruction of the runway. Existing runways may be reinforced with a width reduced to 2/3 of the runway width at the end of the reinforcement.

3.1.11. There should be no objects within the planned part of the LP, with the exception of those that, according to their functional purpose, should be located there and have a light and fragile structure (for example, a localizer control antenna, corner reflectors of the PRL, etc.).

3.1.12. It is recommended to eliminate mobile and immovable objects located within the boundaries of the planned part to the LP boundary, except for those whose functional purpose requires placement near the runway.

Within these limits, no new or expansion of existing objects shall be placed, unless the placement of a new or increase in the size of an existing object:

a) necessary to ensure the takeoff and landing of aircraft; or

b) will not adversely affect the safety or efficiency of aircraft operations.

Note. Examples of objects, the functional purpose of which requires placement near the runway and is necessary to ensure take-offs and landings of aircraft, are: timing, PRL, SDP, visibility meters, wind parameters, etc.

3.1.13. On the runways, including precision approach runways of categories I, II and III, within 60 m on each side of the runway center line, there should not be fixed objects, except for visual aids and corner reflectors of the PRL, which have a light and fragile design. This area should be clear of moving objects (eg snowplows) while the runway is being used for takeoff and landing.

3.1.14. The stopway (STSL) must have the same width as the runway to which it is adjacent.

3.1.15. The stopway must be prepared in such a way that, in the event of a take-off, it can withstand the load created by the airplane for which it is intended, without causing damage to its structure.

3.1.16. Length free zone must not exceed half of the available takeoff run.

3.1.17. The clear zone must extend at least 75 m on each side of the extended runway center line.

3.1.18. The surface of the free zone must not protrude above a plane having an upward slope of 1.25%, while the lower boundary of this plane is a horizontal line:

a) perpendicular to the vertical plane containing the runway center line, and

b) passing through a point located on the runway center line at the end of the available runway distance.

Note. In some cases where, for certain transverse or longitudinal slopes of a runway, shoulder or strip, the lower boundary of the clear zone plane may be below the surface of the runway, shoulder or strip, grading of these surfaces is not required. Objects or terrain that are located behind the end of the LS above the NW plane, but below the level of the LS, do not need to be eliminated.

3.1.19. The slope characteristics of that part of the free zone which is at least as wide as the width of the runway to which it is adjacent should be comparable to the slopes of the runway if the average free zone slope is slight or upward. With a slight or ascending average slope of the NW, abrupt changes in the upward slopes of the free zone are not allowed. Individual depressions in the terrain, such as ditches crossing the NW, are not excluded.

3.1.20. Objects located in the free zone, which may pose a threat to the safety of aircraft in the air, must be eliminated.

3.1.21. In order to determine the minimum parameters - the width of taxiway pavements, hardened shoulders of taxiways, taxiway curvature radii, distance of taxiways from obstacles and other taxiways - indexes of aircraft operating on these taxiways of the aerodrome should be established for each taxiway. The aircraft index must be set according to the wing span and landing gear wheels on external aircraft tires, in accordance with Table. 3.4.

The requirements for aircraft of index 6 also apply to aircraft with a wingspan of 65 to 75 m and a chassis track on external tires up to 10.5 m, with the exception of clause 3.1.25 (Table 3.8) and clause 3.1.26 (Table 3.9). ).

Table 3.4

*Distance between the outer edges of the outer wheels of the main landing gear of the aircraft.

Note. If the indices of the aircraft in terms of wing span and landing gear are different, then the larger of the indices is taken.

3.1.22. The width of the artificial pavement of the taxiway must be at least as given in Table. 3.5.

Table 3.5

Note. For aircraft with index 4, with a landing gear track on external tires up to 7.5 m, a taxiway width of 14 m is allowed. For aircraft with index 6, with a landing gear track on external tires up to 9.5 m, a taxiway width of 18 m is allowed, chassis track on external aircraft tires up to 12.5 m, a taxiway width of 21 m is allowed.

3.1.23. On both sides of taxiways intended for taxiing aircraft with an index of 4.5 or 6, reinforced shoulders must be provided. The total width of the taxiway and reinforced shoulders must be at least as given in Table. 3.6.

Table 3.6

Notes:

1. For airplanes with index 6, with a distance between the axles of external engines of up to 27 m, the total width of the taxiway and two reinforced shoulders is allowed, equal to 31 m.

2. For aircraft with an index of 6, with a chassis track on external tires up to 12.5 m, a total width on the taxiway and two reinforced shoulders is allowed, equal to 39 m.

3.1.24. The radius of curvature of the taxiway along the inner edge of the pavement at the junction with the runway must be not less than that given in Table. 3.7.

Table 3.7

Note. In the event that airplanes turn from a taxiway to one side only, rounding on the other side of the taxiway may not be provided.

3.1.25. The distance between the center line of the taxiway and fixed obstacles must not be less than that given in Table. 3.8.

Table 3.8

*55 m for aircraft with a wingspan of 65 to 75 m and a landing gear track on external aircraft tires up to 10.5 m.

Note. The distances indicated in Table 3.8 do not apply to aircraft taxiing paths on the apron.

3.1.26. The distance between the center lines of parallel taxiways must not be less than that given in Table. 3.9.

Table 3.9

*95 m for aircraft with a wingspan of 65 to 75 m and a landing gear track on external aircraft tires up to 10.5 m.

Notes:

1. The distances indicated in Table 3.11 do not apply to aircraft taxiing paths on the apron.

2. Guidance material on the possibility and procedure for performing temporary work on the airfield is given in section 1 of the Appendix.

3.1.27. The airfield must have a fence around the entire perimeter.

3.2. Limitation and consideration of obstacles

3.2.1. At the aerodrome, data must be obtained on the height and location of obstacles that may pose a hazard to flight operations.

The technical result of the invention is aimed at improving the safety conditions for takeoff and landing of heavy aircraft by ensuring the joint operation of the reinforced concrete pavement of the existing part of the runway and the expansion strip, as well as natural and artificial bases. The technical result is achieved by the fact that the airfield runway, containing a natural soil base, a cement concrete base, a reinforced concrete pavement with top and bottom reinforcement, additionally contains expansion strips on each side, the base of which is made of polymer concrete with a thickness not exceeding the thickness of the compacted under the existing part runway layer of natural subgrade. A layer of cement concrete is laid on the polymer concrete surface with a thickness not exceeding the thickness of the base layer of cement concrete of the existing part of the runway, while the upper reinforcement of the reinforced concrete coating of the expansion strip is connected to the upper reinforcement of the reinforced concrete coating of the existing part of the runway, the lower reinforcement of the reinforced concrete coating of the expansion strip is connected to longitudinal reinforcing bars of piles installed vertically along the area of ​​the expansion strip and at an angle not less than the angle of repose of the soil of the natural base at the edge of the existing part of the runway in the direction of its axis. 1 ill.

Drawings to the RF patent 2477767

The invention relates to the field of construction and can be used in the reconstruction of airfield runways.

With the increase in the dimensions of heavy aircraft, the existing dimensions of the width of the runways no longer provide safe conditions for their operation. In addition, the use of heavy aircraft requires very precise guidance to the runway during landing. This circumstance is due to the fact that, in contrast to light aircraft if the approach is inaccurate, the pilot may not be able to maneuver or retry. Significant deviation is possible due to inaccurate approach or due to crosswind forces. aircraft from the center of the runway, which could lead to an accident.

A known method for the reconstruction of the runways (runways) of the airfield (1), which consists in their lengthening, which is produced for the first runway, located along the existing first apron and having a large length, on its short section, located beyond the point of intersection of the longitudinal axes of the runways lanes with the transfer of the waiting area for the start of aircraft not outside the runway of the second, shorter runway, the extension of which is carried out to a shorter length than the extension of the first runway, and such an extension is performed on its section greater length from the side opposite to the waiting area for the start of aircraft on it, created on it outside the runway of the first runway, which is reported by the taxiway with the waiting area for the start of the first runway. At the same time, when the longitudinal axes of these runways intersect at an acute angle of 36°, the first runway 289 m long is extended in a short section by 510 m to 3400 m, and the second runway 2230 m long is extended in a longer section by 150 m and additionally by 80 m from the side of the waiting area for the start of aircraft along it to a length of 2430 m, and along the runway of the first runway on the side opposite the first apron, a second apron is being erected, and the first runway is connected by high-speed taxiways to the main taxiway, made along the second apron outside the runway the first runway, and additional high-speed taxiways to the first apron.

This method cannot be used to expand the runways during their reconstruction, because only increases the length of the runway.

Known technical solution for the design of pavement using reinforced monolithic cement concrete (2). This design includes a sandy underlying layer with a hydrophobic roll material laid on it and a monolithic cement concrete layer. The pavement is equipped with a geogrid located on the underlying layer with fibers working in tension in the longitudinal and transverse directions to form the lower monolithic layer, as well as a three-dimensional honeycomb geogrid located on the geogrid, the cells of which are filled with monolithic cement concrete to form the middle layer, and randomly located and evenly distributed fiber fibers throughout the volume to form a middle layer. The technical result of the invention is to reduce moisture permeability and to increase the wear resistance and bending strength of the road structure so that it can work without a rigid base.

The specified design of pavement cannot be used to expand the runways of airfields during their reconstruction, because it does not provide for the technical possibility of joint operation of this pavement with clothing (covering) and the foundation of the existing runway.

A known method for the construction of pavement (3), which consists in driving piles into the subgrade through a pre-laid layer with the location of their upper ends above the level of the underlying layer to a height equal to ¼-¾ of the thickness of the coatings, use piles with horizontal reinforcement outlets in the upper part or horizontal the reinforcement is attached to the side surface of the piles protruding above the underlying layer.

The disadvantage of this technical solution is the impossibility of ensuring joint operation of the reinforced concrete pavement of the existing runway and the expansion strip, because it only provides for a more complete use of the natural foundation by driving piles.

The prototype of the proposed technical solution is the runway (4), consisting of a natural soil base, artificial base, reinforced concrete pavement with top and bottom reinforcement.

The disadvantage of the prototype lies in the fact that its technical solution does not provide for the possibility of expanding the runway to ensure joint operation of the natural soil base, artificial base and reinforced concrete pavement.

The expansion of the runway of the airfield is associated with the need to ensure the joint work of the natural foundation both under the existing part and under the extension strips. In addition, it is necessary to ensure the joint work of the reinforced concrete pavement of the existing runway and expansion strips. Otherwise, uneven runway surface may be formed, which will lead to further deterioration of its operating conditions.

The technical result of the invention is aimed at improving the safety conditions for takeoff and landing of heavy aircraft by ensuring the joint operation of the reinforced concrete pavement of the existing part of the runway and the expansion strip, as well as natural and artificial bases.

The technical result is achieved by the fact that the airfield runway, containing a natural soil base, a cement concrete base, a reinforced concrete pavement with top and bottom reinforcement, additionally contains expansion strips on each side, the base of which is made of polymer concrete with a thickness not exceeding the thickness of the compacted under the existing part runway of a natural soil base layer, a layer of cement concrete is laid on the polymer concrete surface with a thickness not exceeding the thickness of the cement concrete base layer of the existing part of the runway, while the upper reinforcement of the reinforced concrete pavement of the expansion strip is connected to the upper reinforcement of the reinforced concrete pavement of the existing part of the runway , the lower reinforcement of the reinforced concrete pavement of the expansion strip is connected to the longitudinal reinforcing bars of piles installed vertically over the area of ​​the expansion strip and at an angle not less than the angle of repose of the soil in nature base at the edge of the existing part of the runway in the direction of its axis.

The scheme of the runway is shown in Fig.1.

The runway consists of a natural soil base 1 on which the cement concrete base 2 of the existing part of the runway is laid. During the operation of the runway under it, the soil layer 3 of the natural base 1 became compacted. On the basis of cement concrete 2 laid reinforced concrete coating 4, including the top 5 and bottom 6 reinforcement. The expansion strip consists of a base made of polymer concrete 7 with a thickness not exceeding the compacted layer 3 of natural base 1. A layer of cement concrete 8 is laid on the surface of polymer concrete 7 with a thickness not exceeding the thickness of the base layer of cement concrete 2 of the existing part of the runway. This is necessary to ensure joint operation of the base under the existing part of the runway and under the expansion strip when transferring to the natural soil base the loads that occur on the surfaces of the reinforced concrete pavement of the existing runway 4 and 10 of the expansion strip during landing and movement of the aircraft. The thickness of the polymer concrete layer 7 is not less than the thickness of the compacted soil layer 3, which makes it possible to provide the same operating conditions for the reinforced concrete pavement 4 of the existing runway and the reinforced concrete pavement 10 of the expansion strip. The thickness of the layer of polymer concrete 7 is more than the thickness of the compacted layer 3 of the natural soil base 1 is not appropriate, because this will not lead to an improvement in the working conditions of the structure when additional expense building materials. The minimum thickness of the cement concrete layer 8 is determined by calculation when designing according to known methods. The maximum thickness of the cement concrete layer 8 does not exceed the thickness of the base layer of cement concrete 2 under the reinforced concrete pavement slab 4 of the existing part of the runway, because otherwise it is possible to reduce the thickness of the reinforced concrete pavement slab 10 of the expansion strip, which is associated with a decrease in its bearing capacity. If the thickness of the reinforced concrete pavement 10 of the expansion strip is equal to the thickness of the reinforced concrete pavement 4 of the existing part of the runway, then the excess of the thickness of the cement concrete layer 8 over the thickness of the cement concrete base 2 under the existing part of the runway will lead to the fact that the levels of the outer surfaces of the reinforced concrete pavements 4 and 10 do not match, and the operation of the runway will be impossible. The top reinforcement 9 of the concrete pavement 10 is connected to the top reinforcement 5 of the reinforced concrete pavement 4 of the existing part of the runway. To do this, the upper reinforcement 5 of the reinforced concrete pavement 4 is opened at a distance of at least twenty-five of its diameters. This size of the opening of the upper reinforcement 5 is due to the need to prevent the effect of pulling out the reinforcing bars 9 of the reinforced concrete pavement 10 of the expansion strip. In addition, such a distance allows for proper connection of the top reinforcement 5 of the reinforced concrete pavement 4 of the existing part of the runway with the reinforcement 9 of the pavement 10 of the extension strip. The cement concrete base 8 rests on piles 12 and 13, while the piles 13 are set at an angle not less than the angle of repose of the soil of the natural base 1. This installation of the piles allows the most complete use of the bearing capacity of the soil of the natural base and ensure its joint work with the artificial base of the expansion strip. The longitudinal reinforcement 14 of the piles 12 and 13 is connected to the lower reinforcement 11 of the cover 10 of the expansion strip and is bent in a horizontal plane, which makes it possible to unite the base and cover of the expansion strip. Bends of reinforcing bars 14 of piles 12 and 13 are necessary to prevent displacement of the reinforced concrete pavement of the expansion strip away from the axis of the runway under the action of forces arising from the landing of the aircraft. The bent longitudinal rods of the piles do not go beyond the upper reinforcement, which allows not to violate the protective layer of concrete of the coating.

The combination of new elements makes it possible to expand the runways of airfields during their reconstruction, ensuring the joint operation of natural and artificial bases and covering the existing part of the runway and expansion strips.

The runway works as follows. Reinforced concrete pavements 4 and 10 perceive the loads that occur during landing and movement of the aircraft. At the same time, the upper reinforcement 6 of the coating 4 of the existing part of the runway and the reinforcement 11 of the coating 10 of the expansion strip perceive the tensile forces that occur in the reinforced concrete coating at the time of landing and movement of the aircraft. After the displacement of the aircraft from the landing site and its movement along the strip, the resulting forces are perceived by the upper reinforcement 5 of the coating 4 of the existing part of the runway and the upper reinforcement 9 of the coating 10 of the expansion strip. The load from the aircraft, perceived by the reinforced concrete pavement 4 of the existing part of the runway, is transferred to the base of cement concrete 2 of the existing part of the runway, from where it is further to the natural base 1. At the same time, under the base of cement concrete 2, the natural soil base 3 is compacted in the process operation of the existing part of the runway. The load from the aircraft attributable to the expansion strip is transferred to an artificial base, consisting of a layer of polymer concrete 7, and to a base of cement concrete 8, then to a natural soil base 1. In this case, the load is also transferred to piles 12 and 13 with subsequent transfer to a natural soil foundation 1. Reinforcing bars 14 of piles 12 and 13 perceive the load from the aircraft transmitted through the reinforced concrete coating 10 of the extension strip and the lower reinforcement 11, and transmit it through piles 12 and 13 to the natural soil foundation 1. Pile 13 perceives lateral loads and prevents displacement of the expansion strip in the transverse direction relative to the axis of the runway.

The runway of the airfield is arranged as follows. For a size not less than the expansion strip on both sides of the existing part of the runway, the soil is removed to the depth of the compacted layer 3 of the natural soil base 1. Vertical piles 12 are driven into the bottom of the formed recess. On each side of the existing part of the runway, at its edge, they are hammered piles 13 at an angle not less than the angle of repose of the soil of the natural base 1. A layer of polymer concrete 7 is laid with a thickness not less than the thickness of the compacted soil layer 3. A layer 8 of cement concrete is laid on the surface of the polymer concrete layer 7. On both sides of the reinforced concrete pavement 4 of the existing part of the runway, the upper reinforcement 5 is opened at a distance of at least twenty-five of its diameters from the edge in the direction of the runway axis. The reinforcing bars 14 of the driven piles 12 and 13 are opened. The lower reinforcement 11 of the reinforced concrete coating of the expansion strip 10 is laid on the surface of the cement concrete layer 8. The reinforcing bars 14 of the piles 12 and 13 are connected to the lower reinforcement 11 of the reinforced concrete coating of the expansion strip. After binding the reinforcing bars 14 with the lower reinforcement 11, they are bent to a horizontal position. The formed reinforcing cage is poured with cement concrete and kept until it reaches its design strength. The remaining elements of the runway, which are not the subject of consideration in the proposed technical solution, suit in accordance with the reconstruction project.

Information sources

1. The method of reconstruction of the runways of the airfield. / Patent of the Russian Federation No. 2378164. Е01С 1/02. 01/10/2010.

2. Construction of pavement using reinforced monolithic cement concrete. / RF Patent No. 2248425. Е01С 3/00. 03/20/2005.

3. Method of construction of pavement. / Patent of the Russian Federation No. 2027822. Е01С 5/00. 01/27/1995.

4. G. I. Glushkov, V. F. Babkov, and V. E. Trigoni, Acoust. etc. Surveys and design of airfields. / Ed. G.I. Glushkova. - M.: Transport, 1992. - S. 172, 285.

CLAIM

An airfield runway containing a natural soil base, a cement concrete base, a reinforced concrete pavement with top and bottom reinforcement, characterized in that the runway additionally contains expansion strips on each side, the base of which is made of polymer concrete with a thickness not exceeding the thickness of the compacted under existing part of the runway of the natural soil base layer, a layer of cement concrete is laid on the polymer concrete surface with a thickness not exceeding the thickness of the cement concrete base layer of the existing part of the runway, while the upper reinforcement of the reinforced concrete pavement of the expansion strip is connected to the upper reinforcement of the reinforced concrete pavement of the existing part of the runway. landing strip, the lower reinforcement of the reinforced concrete pavement of the expansion strip is connected to the longitudinal reinforcing bars of piles installed vertically over the area of ​​the expansion strip and at an angle not less than the angle of repose of the soil natural base at the edge of the existing part of the runway in the direction of its axis.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Runway (Runway)- a certain rectangular section of a land aerodrome, prepared for the landing and take-off of aircraft.

There are runways with artificial (runway) and unpaved (GWPP) coating.

Designation and dimensions

The runways are marked number usually according to the magnetic course on which they are located. IN North America Runways are often numbered according to true heading. The value of the exchange rate is rounded to the nearest tens. The zero heading is replaced by a 360° heading. For example, at the Novosibirsk airport Tolmachevo runway-1 has magnetic course 72°, its designation - runway 07. Any strip is "directed" simultaneously in two directions, the difference between which is equal to 180 °. Therefore, the opposite course is 252°. Thus, the first lane in Tolmachevo will have the designation WFP 07/25. Often at airports with two or more lanes, they are located in parallel - that is, on the same course. In such cases, the letter is added to the numerical designation - L (left), C (central) and R (right). For example, at Chicago Midway Airport, three lanes are located on the same course at once - 136 ° / 316 °. Accordingly, they have the following designations: runway 13L/31R, runway 13C/31C and runway 13R/31L. At the Krasnoyarsk Yemelyanovo airport, the runway is located in close proximity to the Cheremshanka airport runway, so the runway designates runway 29L/11R and runway 29R/11L, respectively. At Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, all four runways follow the same course and are designated as: 8L/26R, 8R/26L, 9L/27R, 9R/27L to avoid confusion.

In the air of radio traffic between pilots and controllers, the runway is called, for example, "Runway Zero Two" or "Runway One Three Center".

The dimensions of the runways can be very different, from very small ones - 300 meters long and 10 meters wide, to huge ones - 5500 meters long (Bamda, Zhukovsky) and up to 80 meters wide. The smallest ones are used for light and ultralight (SLA) aviation. So for example, for a hang glider (motorized hang glider), one hundred meters of takeoff run is enough and the same amount for landing run. The largest runways are being built at major international airports and aircraft factories.

Coating

The coverage for runways (also for taxiways, parking lots) is also used differently. There are unpaved, gravel, asphalt and reinforced concrete strips, and in the latter case, the runways can be both solid-cast and lined with ready-made standard corrugated airfield pavement slabs such as PAG-14, PAG-18, PAG-20 (which differ in load density).
A paved runway is abbreviated "RWY".

Unpaved airfields “limp” in bad weather, which makes it impossible to operate them. During the Second World War and after, an easily assembled coating of steel profiled strips fastened to each other and assembled forming a canvas laid directly on the ground (“Marston mat” made in the USA and K1D made in the USSR) was widely used. Such coverage can still be found at small airfields and especially at heliports.

Lighting equipment

The main task of the lighting equipment (SSO) of the runway is to ensure the safe landing and take-off of aircraft at night and at dusk, as well as in conditions of limited visibility.

The main types of SSOs are low-intensity lights (LI) used for non-categorized landing approaches, and high-intensity lights (HVI) used for I, II, III landing approaches.

JVI is a light strip, most often white - strobes - 500-700 meters long. When landing, the pilot uses strobes to visually control the position of the aircraft relative to the runway heading. The threshold (end) of the band is indicated by an almost continuous line of green lights, located perpendicular to the strobe band. The center line of the runway itself is also marked with white lights. The edges of the runway are yellow. The lighting equipment of the aerodrome can be divided into groups of lights, located in a certain sequence and easily distinguishable when installed. visual contact pilot with the ground.

Groups of signal lights:

1. Constant and pulsed approach lights set along the line of continuation of the axis of the runway. They are intended to indicate to the pilot the direction to the axis of the runway and are used to mark the area between the TUs (see Fig. marker beacon ) and the beginning of the runway. Although pulsed approach lights are recommended in all JVI systems, as practice shows, their use is advisable only during the day in fog, when there is no blinding effect. Proximity lights emit white light.
2. lights of light horizons located perpendicular to the line of continuation of the axis of the runway, creating an artificial horizon. Light horizons provide information to the pilot about the aircraft's lateral roll relative to the runway surface. Light horizon lights emit white light.
3. entrance lights installed at the threshold of the runway. They are designed to indicate the beginning of the runway (its end) and emit green light.
4. Landing sign lights set at a distance of 150-300 m from the runway threshold perpendicular to the runway axis in the form of a small light horizon outside the runway. Landing sign lights emit white light.
5. Restriction lights mark the end of the runway and emit a red light.
6. Touchdown zone lights are used to mark a touchdown area on a runway to facilitate landings in conditions of poor visibility. The lights are installed in two rows parallel to the runway axis at a section of 900 m from the runway threshold. They emit white light.
7. Side lights KPB and the lights of the touchdown zone, located in one row, form a light corridor, by which the pilot easily determines the correctness of the approach to the runway axis.
8. Glide path lights are intended to indicate the visual glide path of planning. The type, number and arrangement of glide path lights are determined by the assignment for the design of the aerodrome. There are several standard layouts for glide slope lights. So, for example, one of the standard schemes for visual indication of the planning glide path includes 12 glide slope lights placed according to the following scheme: two pairs of flank horizons (near and far), three lights in each horizon. The near horizon is located at a distance of 150 m from the runway threshold, the far one - at a distance of 210 m from the near one. Each glide path light emits white light at the top and red at the bottom. The angles of distribution of light beams and the installation of glide path lights must be such that the pilot, when approaching for landing, sees:
   • all glide path lights are red when the aircraft is below the normal glide path and all lights are white when the aircraft is above the normal glide path;
   • near-horizon lights are white, and far-horizon lights are red when the aircraft is on a normal glide path.
9. landing lights are placed on both sides along the runway and designate the lateral longitudinal sides of the runway. With the help of landing lights, 600-meter sections along the ends of the runway are marked. In these areas, the landing lights emit yellow light, in the rest - white.
10. Lights of an end lane of braking (KPT)- axial, central row and side - installed only in the OVI-P, OVI-P1 lighting systems before the start of the runway on a section 300 m long. They are designed to indicate the direction to the runway axis, give information to the pilot about the width of the touchdown zone, the moment the leveling starts. The axial and central lights of the KPB emit white light, and the side lights of the KPB emit red.
11. Axial lights The runways are designed to indicate to the pilot the longitudinal axis of the runway during landing and takeoff of the aircraft. To code runway segments, centerline lights mounted on the last 300 m of the runway for each direction of landing shall emit a red light in the direction of the aircraft moving on the runway. In the section 900-300 m from the end of the runway, the center line lights emit red and white light alternately, and in the rest of the section to the threshold of the runway - white. Centerline lights are used when operating aircraft with high landing speeds, as well as with a runway width of more than 50 m.
12. Quick exit lights from the runway are located on high-speed exit taxiways and are designed for taxiing at high speed (60 km/h or more) when exiting the runway in order to increase runway capacity. The lights emit green light. Runway exit lights are installed on exit taxiways with a large rounding angle. They are intended for use during runway exits. The lights also emit green light. Runway exit lights and rapid exit lights must be shielded so that they are only visible in the intended direction.
13. Side and axle taxiing lights serve respectively to indicate the longitudinal boundaries and the center line of the taxiways. Side taxiing lights emit blue light, while centerline lights emit green.
14. stop lights designed to prohibit aircraft movement at taxiway intersections, taxiway junctions with the runway, or taxi-holding areas. They complement traffic lights or replace daytime markings with high-intensity lights in poor visibility conditions. Stop lights are unidirectional and emit red light.
15. warning lights are designed to warn the pilot of the nearest intersection of taxiways. The lights are installed in the form of a light horizon perpendicular to the taxiway axis. They emit yellow light.
16. Obstruction lights are intended for light marking of obstacles in the area of ​​the aerodrome, emit red light and must be installed in accordance with the “Manual on the Civil Aviation Aerodrome Service”.
17. Aerodrome light indicators make it easier for the crew to orient themselves at the airfield when taxiing, as well as when the aircraft is moving along the airfield. There are two types of lights - controlled and uncontrolled. Managed include traffic lights and pointers. Traffic lights that prohibit movement should emit red light, allowing - green, and arrows (light indicators of the direction of movement) - yellow light. The color design of uncontrolled light-signal signs is determined by their purpose. On the working field of a rectangular sign, as a rule, there is only one symbol in the form of a letter, number or arrow. The shapes and sizes of symbols comply with ICAO recommendations.

Runway markings

Marking is necessary for accurate and safe landing of the aircraft on the runway. Runway markings are very different from road markings.

From left to right:

• End safety lane, KPB(yellow chevrons). Designed to protect the earth's surface from being blown by powerful jets of jet engine exhaust (so as not to destroy the surface, not to raise dust, etc.), as well as for cases of overrunning the runway. Aircraft are prohibited from being on the PBC, because its surface is not designed for their weight.
• Moved Threshold(or offset end, white arrows) - a runway area where taxiing, takeoff and run of aircraft are allowed, but not landing.
• Threshold(or butt, white stripes in the form of a "zebra") - the beginning of the runway, indicates the beginning of the place where you can land. The threshold is made so in order to be visible from afar. The number of lines depends on the width of the runway.
• Marked number and, if necessary, a letter (L / L - left, R / R - right C / C - central)
• landing zone(double parallel rectangles, starting 300 m from the runway threshold).
• Fixed Distance Marks(large rectangles are located after 150 m). With an ideal landing, the pilot “holds” the landing zone with his eyes, and the touch occurs directly in the landing zone.

A necessary markup attribute is also the center line and sometimes the side lines. The diagram does not show the aerodrome fix (ACP), which is indicated on the geometric center of the runway as a white circle. If an aerodrome has more than one runway, then the CTA is drawn only on the main (largest) runway of the aerodrome.

Active (working) band

Active band ( working strip) is a runway used for takeoffs and/or landings of aircraft in this moment time.

The main factor in choosing a runway for landing or takeoff is the direction of the wind. It follows from the laws of aerodynamics that with a headwind, the ground speed of an aircraft decreases, which in practice means a decrease in the length of the takeoff run and landing run, which, in turn, has a positive effect on flight safety. In this regard, preference is given to the strip on which the component of the headwind is the largest, and the side wind is the smallest. In practice, an operating runway can be determined even with a tailwind component. Repair work, malfunction of landing equipment, ornithological conditions, and even aviation accident- those factors that may influence the choice of runway.

At airports with one or more parallel runways, pilots often have to land aircraft with crosswinds up to 90°. But in major airports the strips are often placed at an angle to each other. For example, there are four runways at the San Francisco airport - one pair of runways parallel to each other is almost perpendicularly intersected by another pair of parallel runways. At Las Vegas Airport, which also has four runways, the angle between two pairs of parallel runways is 60°. And at Chicago's largest airport, O'Hare, there are six runways in three different directions. This lane configuration often makes life easier for pilots and controllers. But even here there are drawbacks - the very fact of crossing lanes already carries a certain danger.

Airports with two or more lanes often use one lane for takeoff and the other for landing. So, in Moscow Sheremetyevo runway 06R / 24L is mainly used only for take-off, and 06L / 24R - for landing. However, due to the proximity of the lanes, it is not allowed to perform these operations simultaneously (one of the conditions for permitting the joint operation of parallel runways is the fulfillment of the requirement: the distance between the lanes must be more than 1.5-2 km).

The longest runways in the world

The shortest runways in the world

Additionally

• At Gibraltar Airport, which is located in a very confined space, the runway crosses a road where there is a crossing ( 36°09′05″ s. sh. 5°20′55″ W d. /  36.1512777° N. sh. 5.3487217° W d. / 36.1512777; -5.3487217(G) (I)), similar to the railway.
• At the airport of the New Zealand city of Gisborne ( 38°39′57″ S sh. 177°58′40″ E d. /  38.6658545°S sh. 177.9776868° E d. / -38.6658545; 177.9776868(G) (I)) and at the Dzyomgi experimental airfield ( 50°36′50″ s. sh. 137°04′53″ E d. /  50.6139264° N sh. 137.0812708° E d. / 50.6139264; 137.0812708(G) (I)) (Russia) there are railway crossings at the intersection of the runway and railway lines.
• The only airport in the world without a runway is Barra Airport ( 57°01′31″ s. sh. 7°26′57″ W d. /  57.0252062° N. sh. 7.4491382° W d. / 57.0252062; -7.4491382(G) (I)), located on the Isle of Barra in Scotland (UK). The plane lands right on the sand at low tide, at places marked with wooden signs. Since the airport is located directly on the beach, a wind indicator rises before the aircraft is received or departed, which is not only an indicator of the strength and direction of the wind for the aircraft crew, but also a requirement for vacationers to vacate the airport area. Accordingly, the airport does not operate at high tide, as its territory is flooded.
• One of the most original runways is the runway of the Portuguese Airport on the island of Madeira (Funchal Airport or Santa Catarina Airport), part of which is a flyover. In addition, a highway passes under the runway.

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An excerpt characterizing the runway

Meanwhile, the city itself was empty. There was hardly anyone on the streets. The gates and shops were all locked; in some places, near the taverns, lonely cries or drunken singing were heard. No one traveled the streets, and footsteps of pedestrians were rarely heard. On Povarskaya it was completely quiet and deserted. In the huge yard of the Rostovs' house, there were scraps of hay, droppings of a convoy that had left, and not a single person was visible. In the Rostovs' house, which was left with all its goodness, two people were in a large living room. They were the janitor Ignat and the Cossack Mishka, Vasilyich's grandson, who remained in Moscow with his grandfather. Mishka opened the clavichords and played them with one finger. The janitor, akimbo and smiling joyfully, stood in front of a large mirror.
- That's clever! A? Uncle Ignat! said the boy, suddenly clapping both hands on the keys.
- Look you! answered Ignat, marveling at how his face was smiling more and more in the mirror.
- Shameless! Right, shameless! - the voice of Mavra Kuzminishna, who quietly entered, spoke from behind them. - Eka, fat watchman, he bares his teeth. To take you! Everything is not tidied up there, Vasilyich is knocked off his feet. Give it time!
Ignat, straightening his belt, ceasing to smile and meekly lowering his eyes, went out of the room.
“Aunty, I’ll take it easy,” said the boy.
- I'll give you a little. Shooter! shouted Mavra Kuzminishna, waving her hand at him. - Go build a samovar for your grandfather.
Mavra Kuzminishna, brushing off the dust, closed the clavichords and, with a heavy sigh, went out of the drawing room and locked the front door.
Going out into the yard, Mavra Kuzminishna thought about where she should go now: should I drink tea with Vasilyich in the wing or tidy up everything that had not yet been tidied up in the pantry?
Footsteps were heard in the quiet street. The steps stopped at the gate; the latch began to knock under the hand that tried to unlock it.
Mavra Kuzminishna went up to the gate.
- Who do you need?
- Count, Count Ilya Andreevich Rostov.
- Who are you?
- I'm an officer. I would like to see, - said a Russian pleasant and lordly voice.
Mavra Kuzminishna unlocked the gate. And a round-faced officer, about eighteen years old, with a type of face similar to the Rostovs, entered the yard.
- Let's go, father. They deigned to leave at Vespers yesterday,” said Mavra Kuzmipisna affectionately.
The young officer, standing at the gate, as if hesitant to enter or not to enter, clicked his tongue.
“Oh, what a shame!” he said. - I wish yesterday ... Oh, what a pity! ..
Mavra Kuzminishna, meanwhile, carefully and sympathetically examined the familiar features of the Rostov breed in the face young man, and the torn overcoat, and the worn boots that were on him.
Why did you need a count? she asked.
– Yeah… what to do! - the officer said with annoyance and took hold of the gate, as if intending to leave. He again hesitated.
– Do you see? he suddenly said. “I am related to the count, and he has always been very kind to me. So, you see (he looked at his cloak and boots with a kind and cheerful smile), and he wore himself, and there was nothing; so I wanted to ask the count ...
Mavra Kuzminishna did not let him finish.
- You could wait a minute, father. One minute, she said. And as soon as the officer released his hand from the gate, Mavra Kuzminishna turned and with a quick old woman's step went to the backyard to her outbuilding.
While Mavra Kuzminishna was running towards her, the officer, lowering his head and looking at his torn boots, smiling slightly, walked around the yard. “What a pity that I did not find my uncle. What a nice old lady! Where did she run? And how can I find out which streets are closer for me to catch up with the regiment, which should now approach Rogozhskaya? thought the young officer at that time. Mavra Kuzminishna, with a frightened and at the same time resolute face, carrying a folded checkered handkerchief in her hands, came out around the corner. Before reaching a few steps, she, unfolding her handkerchief, took out of it a white twenty-five-ruble note and hastily gave it to the officer.
- If their excellencies were at home, it would be known, they would, for sure, by kindred, but maybe ... now ... - Mavra Kuzminishna became shy and confused. But the officer, without refusing and without haste, took the paper and thanked Mavra Kuzminishna. “As if the count were at home,” Mavra Kuzminishna kept saying apologetically. - Christ be with you, father! God save you, - said Mavra Kuzminishna, bowing and seeing him off. The officer, as if laughing at himself, smiling and shaking his head, ran almost at a trot through the empty streets to catch up with his regiment to the Yauzsky bridge.
And Mavra Kuzminishna stood for a long time with wet eyes in front of the closed gate, shaking her head thoughtfully and feeling an unexpected surge of maternal tenderness and pity for the unknown officer.

In the unfinished house on Varvarka, at the bottom of which there was a drinking house, drunken screams and songs were heard. There were about ten factory workers sitting on benches by the tables in a small, dirty room. All of them, drunk, sweaty, with cloudy eyes, tensing up and opening their mouths wide, sang some kind of song. They sang apart, with difficulty, with an effort, obviously not because they wanted to sing, but only to prove that they were drunk and walking. One of them, a tall blond fellow in a clean blue coat, stood over them. His face, with a thin, straight nose, would have been beautiful, if not for thin, pursed, constantly moving lips and cloudy, frowning, motionless eyes. He stood over those who were singing, and, apparently imagining something, solemnly and angularly waved over their heads a white hand rolled up to the elbow, whose dirty fingers he unnaturally tried to spread out. The sleeve of his chuyka was constantly going down, and the fellow diligently rolled it up again with his left hand, as if there was something especially important in the fact that this white sinewy waving arm was always naked. In the middle of the song, shouts of a fight and blows were heard in the hallway and on the porch. The tall fellow waved his hand.
- Sabbat! he shouted commandingly. - Fight, guys! - And he, without ceasing to roll up his sleeve, went out onto the porch.
The factory workers followed him. The factory workers, who were drinking in the tavern that morning, led by a tall fellow, brought leather from the factory to the kisser, and for this they were given wine. The blacksmiths from the neighboring smithies, having heard the revelry in the tavern and believing that the tavern was broken, wanted to break into it by force. A fight broke out on the porch.
The kisser was fighting the blacksmith at the door, and while the factory workers were leaving, the blacksmith broke away from the kisser and fell face down on the pavement.
Another blacksmith rushed through the door, leaning on the kisser with his chest.
The fellow with his sleeve rolled up on the move still hit the blacksmith, who was rushing through the door, in the face and shouted wildly:
- Guys! ours are being beaten!
At this time, the first blacksmith rose from the ground and, scratching the blood on his broken face, shouted in a weeping voice:
- Guard! Killed!.. They killed a man! Brothers!..
- Oh, fathers, killed to death, killed a man! screeched the woman who came out of the next gate. A crowd of people gathered around the bloodied blacksmith.
“It wasn’t enough that you robbed the people, took off your shirts,” said a voice, turning to the kisser, “why did you kill a man? Robber!
The tall fellow, standing on the porch, with cloudy eyes led first to the kisser, then to the blacksmiths, as if thinking with whom he should now fight.
- Soulbreaker! he suddenly shouted at the kisser. - Knit it, guys!
- How, I tied one such and such! the kisser shouted, brushing aside the people who had attacked him, and tearing off his hat, he threw it on the ground. As if this action had some mysteriously menacing significance, the factory workers, who surrounded the kisser, stopped in indecision.
- I know the order, brother, very well. I'll go private. Do you think I won't? No one is ordered to rob anyone! shouted the kisser, raising his hat.
- And let's go, you go! And let's go ... oh you! the kisser and the tall fellow repeated one after another, and together they moved forward along the street. The bloodied blacksmith walked beside them. Factory workers and strangers followed them with a voice and a cry.
At the corner of Maroseyka, opposite a large house with locked shutters, on which there was a sign for a shoemaker, about twenty shoemakers, thin, weary people in dressing gowns and tattered chuikki, stood with sad faces.
"He's got the people right!" said a thin artisan with a thin beard and furrowed brows. - Well, he sucked our blood - and quit. He drove us, drove us - all week. And now he brought it to the last end, and he left.
Seeing the people and the bloody man, the artisan who spoke fell silent, and all the shoemakers joined the moving crowd with hasty curiosity.
– Where does it go the people then?
- It is known where, to the authorities goes.
- Well, did our strength really not take it?
- How did you think? Look what the people are saying.
There were questions and answers. The kisser, taking advantage of the increase in the crowd, lagged behind the people and returned to his tavern.
The tall fellow, not noticing the disappearance of his enemy the kisser, waving his bare hand, did not stop talking, thus drawing everyone's attention to himself. The people mainly pressed against him, assuming from him to obtain permission from all the questions that occupied them.
- He show the order, show the law, the authorities have been put on that! Is that what I say, Orthodox? said the tall fellow, smiling slightly.
- He thinks, and there are no bosses? Is it possible without a boss? And then rob it is not enough of them.
- What an empty talk! - echoed in the crowd. - Well, they will leave Moscow then! They told you to laugh, and you believed. How many of our troops are coming. So they let him in! For that boss. There, listen to what the people are doing, - they said, pointing to a tall fellow.
At the wall of China Town, another small group of people surrounded a man in a frieze overcoat, holding paper in his hands.
- Decree, decree read! Decree read! - was heard in the crowd, and the people rushed to the reader.
A man in a frieze overcoat was reading a poster dated August 31st. When the crowd surrounded him, he seemed to be embarrassed, but at the demand of the tall fellow who squeezed his way up to him, with a slight trembling in his voice, he began to read the poster from the beginning.
“Tomorrow I’m going early to the most serene prince,” he read (brightening! - solemnly, smiling with his mouth and frowning his eyebrows, repeated the tall fellow), “to talk with him, act and help the troops exterminate the villains; we will also become a spirit from them ... - the reader continued and stopped (“Did you see it?” - the small one shouted triumphantly. - He will unleash the whole distance for you ...”) ... - eradicate and send these guests to hell; I’ll come back for dinner, and we’ll get down to business, we’ll do it, we’ll finish it and finish off the villains. ”
The last words were read by the reader in perfect silence. The tall fellow lowered his head sadly. It was obvious that no one understood these last words. In particular, the words: "I'll arrive tomorrow at dinner," apparently even upset both the reader and the listeners. The understanding of the people was tuned to a high tune, and this was too simple and needlessly understandable; it was the very thing that each of them could have said, and that therefore a decree from a higher authority could not speak.
Everyone stood in gloomy silence. The tall fellow moved his lips and staggered.
“I should have asked him!.. Is that himself?.. Why, he asked! two mounted dragoons.
The police chief, who went that morning on the count's order to burn the barges and, on the occasion of this order, rescued a large sum of money that was in his pocket at that moment, seeing a crowd of people advancing towards him, ordered the coachman to stop.
- What kind of people? he shouted at the people, who were approaching the droshky, scattered and timid. - What kind of people? I'm asking you? repeated the chief of police, who received no answer.
“They, your honor,” said the clerk in a frieze overcoat, “they, your honor, at the announcement of the most illustrious count, not sparing their stomachs, wanted to serve, and not just some kind of rebellion, as it was said from the most illustrious count ...
“The count has not left, he is here, and there will be an order about you,” said the chief of police. – Went! he said to the coachman. The crowd stopped, crowding around those who had heard what the authorities said, and looking at the departing droshky.
The police chief at this time looked around in fright, said something to the coachman, and his horses went faster.
- Cheating, guys! Lead to yourself! shouted the voice of the tall fellow. - Don't let go, guys! Let him submit a report! Hold on! shouted the voices, and the people ran after the droshky.
The crowd behind the police chief with a noisy conversation headed for the Lubyanka.
“Well, gentlemen and merchants have left, and that’s why we’re disappearing?” Well, we are dogs, eh! – was heard more often in the crowd.

On the evening of September 1, after his meeting with Kutuzov, Count Rastopchin, upset and offended that he was not invited to the military council, that Kutuzov did not pay any attention to his proposal to take part in the defense of the capital, and surprised by the new look that opened to him in the camp , in which the question of the calmness of the capital and its patriotic mood turned out to be not only secondary, but completely unnecessary and insignificant - upset, offended and surprised by all this, Count Rostopchin returned to Moscow. After supper, the count, without undressing, lay down on the couch and at one o'clock was awakened by a courier who brought him a letter from Kutuzov. The letter said that since the troops were retreating to the Ryazan road beyond Moscow, would it please the count to send police officials to lead the troops through the city. This news was not news to Rostopchin. Not only from yesterday’s meeting with Kutuzov on Poklonnaya Gora, but also from the Battle of Borodino itself, when all the generals who came to Moscow unanimously said that it was impossible to give another battle, and when, with the permission of the count, state property and up to half of the inhabitants were already taken out every night. we left, - Count Rostopchin knew that Moscow would be abandoned; but nevertheless this news, reported in the form of a simple note with an order from Kutuzov and received at night, during the first dream, surprised and annoyed the count.
Subsequently, explaining his activities during this time, Count Rostopchin wrote several times in his notes that he then had two important goals: De maintenir la tranquillite a Moscou et d "en faire partir les habitants. [Keep calm in Moscow and expel from If we admit this dual purpose, any action of Rostopchin turns out to be irreproachable. Why weren’t the Moscow shrines, weapons, cartridges, gunpowder, grain supplies taken out, why were thousands of residents deceived by the fact that Moscow would not be surrendered, and ruined? in order to keep calm in the capital, answers the explanation of Count Rostopchin. Why were piles of unnecessary papers taken out of government offices and Leppich's ball and other objects? - In order to leave the city empty, the explanation of Count Rostopchin answers. One has only to assume that something threatened people's peace, and every action becomes justified.
All the horrors of terror were based only on concern for the people's peace.
What was the basis of Count Rostopchin's fear of public peace in Moscow in 1812? What reason was there to suppose a tendency to rebellion in the city? Residents were leaving, the troops, retreating, filled Moscow. Why should the people revolt as a result of this?
Not only in Moscow, but throughout Russia, when the enemy entered, there was nothing resembling indignation. On the 1st and 2nd of September, more than ten thousand people remained in Moscow, and, apart from the crowd that had gathered in the courtyard of the commander-in-chief and attracted by him, there was nothing. It is obvious that even less one should have expected unrest among the people if, after the Battle of Borodino, when the abandonment of Moscow became obvious, or at least probably, if then, instead of disturbing the people with the distribution of weapons and posters, Rostopchin took measures to the removal of all sacred things, gunpowder, charges and money, and would directly announce to the people that the city was being abandoned.
Rostopchin, an ardent, sanguine man, who always moved in the highest circles of the administration, although with a patriotic feeling, had not the slightest idea about the people he thought to rule. From the very beginning of the enemy's entry into Smolensk, Rastopchin in his imagination formed for himself the role of the leader of the people's feelings - the heart of Russia. It not only seemed to him (as it seems to every administrator) that he controlled the external actions of the inhabitants of Moscow, but it seemed to him that he directed their mood through his appeals and posters, written in that jarring language, which in its midst despises the people and whom he does not understands when he hears it from above. Rastopchin liked the beautiful role of the leader of popular feeling so much, he got used to it so much that the need to get out of this role, the need to leave Moscow without any heroic effect took him by surprise, and he suddenly lost the ground on which he stood from under his feet, in resolutely did not know what to do. Although he knew, he did not believe with all his heart until the last minute in leaving Moscow and did nothing to this end. Residents moved out against his will. If government offices were taken out, then only at the request of officials, with whom the count reluctantly agreed. He himself was busy only with the role that he had made for himself. As is often the case with people endowed with ardent imagination, he had known for a long time that Moscow would be abandoned, but he knew only by reasoning, but he did not believe in it with all his heart, he was not transported by his imagination to this new position.

All runways (runways) of aerodromes must have end faces - a marked number that is associated with the magnetic heading of the runway (Magnetic Heading). In the US and some countries subject to US influence, airfields use a true heading that corresponds to the magnetic +/- correction for magnetic declination in the area.

The runway heading varies from 1° to 360° (there is no zero runway heading, instead the heading is 360°). Relative to the runway heading, all instrumental and visual approach procedures (Approach) and exit procedures (SID) are built at each aerodrome.



Consider, for example, the German international Airport Dresden: ICAO code - EDDC, IATA code - DRS. This aerodrome has one runway 04/22 with headings (magnetic) 039° and 219° respectively. The difference between runway headings is always 180. 04 and 22 are runway endpoint identifiers. Runway endpoint identifiers depend on the magnetic heading of the runway and are determined according to the following table:

When the Earth's magnetic field changes (specifically, the magnetic declination at the place where the airfield is located), the runway magnetic heading may change by 1-2 degrees over time. In this case, the airfield checks the correctness of its identifier and, if necessary, determines a new one, so runway 01/19 in a few years may turn into either runway 02/20 or runway 18/36.


Large airports may have two or more runways and, depending on the wind pattern, often have 2 or 3 runways parallel to each other. In this case, the runway headings for all of these two or three runways are the same, and the runway endpoint identifiers are also the same. To designate each runway individually, different from the others, a letter is added to the numerical designation of runway identifiers:

L- left runway (LEFT);

R- right runway (RIGHT);

C- medium runway (CENTER);

As an example, Moscow Domodedovo Airport has two parallel runways. Accordingly, they have the following designations: runway 14L/32R and runway 14R/32L.

But what about, in the case of a particularly large airfield with more than three runways, for example, 4? After all, an airport cannot have two left runways, or two middle ones. Which one is more average? :)

There are not many such airfields, but they exist, and in order to avoid confusion, they get out of this situation like this: extra runways (fourth and next, and sometimes third) are given other identifiers, even if all runways have a magnetic heading the same.



For example, Denver Airport (USA) has runways: 16R / 34L, 16L / 34R and 17R / 35L, 17L / 35R, and all these four runways have a magnetic heading of 173 ° and 353 °.

Or, for example, Houston Airport (USA) has runways: 08L / 26R, 08R / 26L and 09/27, and all these three lanes have a magnetic heading of 087 ° and 267 °.