Air transport - a type of transport that transports goods and passengers by air using aircraft: - presentation. Air Transport. Types of air transport. Air transport development

AIR TRANSPORT, transportation of passengers, mail and cargo on aircraft - airplanes and controlled balloons. Scheduled air transport is carried out between certain points according to a set schedule, while occasional flights are made without a schedule.

Currently, in countries that own an air fleet, passenger air transport predominates, which also serves for postal transportation. Cargo air transport still does not exist at all, and it is only partly carried out on mail-passenger aircraft. The main advantage of air transport is speed, the main disadvantage is high cost. When comparing air transport with land and sea transport, the following points should be noted: 1) the ability to move in a direct direction (at long distances - along a great circle arc), 2) the ability to cross land and water areas without changing vehicles, and 3) flexibility in changing routes.

Average air transport speed: on airplanes 130-160 km / h, 1200-1600 km per day without night flights, 2500-3000 km per day with night flights; on controlled balloons 80-110 km / h, 1800-2500 km per day (according to projects). The maximum speed of transport aircraft reaches 215 km/h, and special racing aircraft - 512 km/h. Walkable distance without descent: on airplanes on average 500-700 km, on controlled balloons (according to projects of transoceanic lines) - up to 3-5 thousand km. However, air transport gains time only at distances over a certain length: on short lines, the gain is completely absorbed by the delivery of passengers from the city to the airfield and back. For overhead lines competing with the railway, the minimum length is about 300-400 km. On lines exceeding 1500 km, time savings compared to railways can only be obtained by night flights; otherwise, a flight break for the night can reduce the winnings to zero. The problem of night flights is of great importance for air transport, especially in the countries of Western Europe and North America with a dense railway network. In recent years, a number of lines have been equipped for night flights. Tab. 1 shows the comparative gain in time on different air transport lines.

The regularity of air transport suffers greatly from meteorological causes (fog, blizzard, poor visibility) and from mechanical defects (damage to the motor and equipment). IN summer season irregularity due to meteorological reasons is only 1-2% of all flights, in the autumn and winter months it greatly increases, and for the winter a significant part of the air lines are completely closed. Violation of the regularity for mechanical reasons gives from 1 to 5%, on average - 2.5% of the number of flights started, i.e. for every 20-100 (average 40) flights, depending on the nature of the line, its length and qualities material part, there is one flight interruption or forced landing. Application multi-engine aircraft increases the regularity of air transport, although in this case the possibility forced landings en route is not excluded, and it is still necessary to have a certain number of alternate landing sites along the overhead line.

Air network development. The first regular air lines appeared in 1918 in the USA (an experimental New York-Washington postal line) and Germany (military postal lines in the occupied territory of Ukraine). In 1919, a number of lines of postal passenger traffic in France, Germany and England. So far, all lines are operating on aircraft. A pilot line operated in Germany in 1919 on controlled balloons of the Zeppelin type. In the USSR, after several experiments of air communication on aircraft of old military types in 1918-1921, from May 1, 1922, the mail-passenger and cargo communication Moscow- Koenigsberg (1200 km) of the mixed Russian-German Air Communications Society, abbreviated as Deruluft. In August and September of the same year, the Moscow-Nizhny-Novgorod line of the Aviaculture society worked during the All-Union Fair. At the beginning of 1923, Dobrolet joint-stock companies were formed (All-Union Society for Voluntary air fleet) and “Ukrvozdukhput (Ukrainian Society of Air Communications). Both societies developed a significant network of overhead lines. The third company "Zakavia" (Transcaucasian Society of Civil Aviation), which arose in the same year, was liquidated in 1925. At present (beginning of 1928), the network of overhead lines in the USSR is 7400 km and is operated by three companies: Dobrolet, Deruluft and Ukrvozdukhput .

World network of air lines in 1927 it reached a length of about 65,000 km; of these, about 40,000 km are in Europe (Fig. 1).

Germany has the most extensive network, united by the German Air Hansa (Deutsche Luft-Hansa), about 20,000 km, France (1927) has about 11,000 km of air lines; the most important of them are: Paris-London (Air-Union society), Paris-Berlin (Farman society, in parallel with the German Air Hansa), Paris-Vienna-Constantinople with a branch Prague-Warsaw ("International Air Communications Company ”, with the participation of Romanian and Hungarian capital) and colonial lines: Toulouse-Casablanca-Dakkar with a branch to Algeria and Tunisia and a planned continuation to South America (Latekoer society), England has only about 1500 km of air lines in Europe connecting London with the main capitals of the continent. In the colonies, England is doing a lot of work to prepare a network of "imperial" air routes, both on airplanes and on controlled balloons. Of the projected London-India-Australia air route, only the Cairo-Baghdad-Basra section (Imperial Airways Society) is currently operating regularly. The remaining countries of Europe have partly national, partly mixed air services societies, usually subsidized by the state and operating relatively small lines local importance. In the USA, since 1920, the air mail line New York-San Francisco (4300 km) began to work, crossing the whole country (see Fig. 2).

Since 1924, it has been operating day and night and has been electrified for over 2,200 km. In addition to the one named, 17 more air lines operate here under a contract with the postal department. The length of the entire US network by the end of 1927 reached 15,600 km. Most American lines operate all year round. Among other non-European lines, Belgian lines in the Congo, German seaplane lines in Colombia (South America) and Australian lines, which reached over 4000 km in 1927, should be noted.

Air lines of the USSR. 1) Dobrolet, after experiments with air communication on the Moscow-Nizhny-Kazan and Sevastopol-Yalta lines, from 1925 concentrated his efforts on outlying lines, which give a very large gain in time, in areas deprived of normal mechanical transport. In 1927, Dobrolet maintained lines in Central Asia: Tashkent-Samarkand-Termez-Dushambe, 930 km, and Chardzhui-Khiva-Tashauz-Chimbay, 480 km (Fig. 3).

At the end of 1927, regular flights were opened along the lines Frunze-Alma-Ata, 240 km, and Tashkent-Termez-Kabul, 1140 km. In Transbaikalia, a line of the same company operates: Verkhneudinsk-Urga (in Mongolia), 600 km away, with a planned extension to Beijing. About the enormous savings of time given by these lines, the concept of Table. 1. 2) Ukrvozdukhput in 1927 operated the daily line Moscow-Baku, 2510 km, through Kharkov-Rostov-Mineralnye Vody-Grozny. An extension of this line to Pahlavi (Anzeli, Northern Persia) was opened to connect with the Persian-German Junkers Pahlavi-Tehran line. 3) Deruluft in 1927 worked on the Moscow-Kenigsberg-Berlin line, 1800 km long. The listed lines, except for Asian ones, work only in summer time, Asian lines operate almost the whole year, with short breaks in the winter months.

Current state. Air transport means. In addition to a small number of adapted military aircraft, three categories of postal and passenger aircraft operate on modern air lines: a) exclusively postal, small in size, with engines of 150-400 hp. s., without a passenger cabin (main arr. on American lines); b) passenger aircraft and seaplanes of medium power, single-engine, 200-500 hp. With.; c) large passenger aircraft and seaplanes with 2, 3 and 4 engines, with a total power of 600 to 1300 hp. S.: The most used types are given in Table. 2.

Aircraft of low power, below 70 hp. s., are not used in regular air transport and so far serve only for sports. Aircraft from 70 to 150 hp. With. in some cases, they are used on short lines (access roads), as well as on individual flights for hire (taxi). Controlled balloons (airships) for overhead lines are under construction in England and Germany and belong to the rigid type (Zeppelin system). Their volume is from 100 to 150 thousand m 3; number of motors 5-7; their total power is up to 3000 liters. With.; speed 110-120 km/h; seats for passengers 100, full commercial load 20-30 tons.

Air transport statistics. The work of overhead lines in the main countries of Western Europe is characterized by the data in Table. 3 and 4.

The volume of work of the overhead lines of the USSR, although still inferior to the scale of Western Europe, has shown rapid and regular growth in recent years (see Table 5).

Air transport security . As can be seen from Table. 6, the number of accidents in air transport is still high compared to railways, and the degree of safety is insufficient. However, a strictly objective comparison based on statistics cannot be given, since air transport has not yet reached such a scale and is not of a mass character. According to the statistics of Russian railways for 1913, 1 passenger was killed per 1,300,000 passengers transported, or per 825,000 train-kilometers travelled. That. in relation to the number of kilometers traveled, air transport for passengers can already now be equal in safety to railways, but in relation to the number of passengers transported, the number of accidents in air transport is many times greater than in land transport.

Overhead line design. The organization of overhead lines is preceded by the preparation of a technical project, organizational and operational estimates. IN technical project includes: 1) establishing a route, determining stages and drawing up a traffic schedule; 2) calculation of the number of aircraft and engines; 3) establishment of types of technical equipment; 4) calculation of flight personnel (pilots, on-board mechanics and on-board radio telegraph operators); 5) location and equipment of airfields and landing sites; 6) projects of buildings at airfields and sites; 7) design of lighting equipment for night flights; 8) organization of the meteorological service; 9) organization of radio-telephone and other types of communication along the line; 10) organizing the supply of materials and spare parts. The route is chosen, if possible, allowing a safe landing en route. The length of stages passed without descent is determined in relation to the qualities of the selected aircraft, taking into account adverse winds and the length of the day at different times of the year. At the same time, a reserve of about 100 km per stage is necessarily provided; the length of stages rarely exceeds 800 km. Landing sites in case of a forced descent are planned every 50-70 km and are provided with distinctive signs visible from above. The traffic schedule is based on the average cruising speed this aircraft, which is verified by experience (usually 15-20% lower top speed). The number of aircraft on the line is determined by the allowable flight load and is equal to the number of kilometers flown on the line per month divided by the allowable flight load per month per aircraft, plus the number of spare aircraft. The latter are usually available 1 per end points plus 1 for every 1000-1500 km of travel. The flight load on the aircraft is normally 8000-12000 km per month. The pilot is usually attached to a specific aircraft and has the same flight load as him, i.e. 60-90 hours of flight per month.

Example: line length - 2000 km, number of flights - 6 per week in each direction, a total of 52 flights per month; speed, on average, 150 km / h, the number of pilots and working aircraft 2000x52 / (90x150) ≈ 7or 8,spareaircraft 3;Totalaircraft 10-11. NumbermotorsVreserveacceptedusuallyin 100%fromnumbersestablishedonairplanes.Termdepreciationmotors 700-1000 hourswork;Foraircraft 2000-3000 hoursflight, or an average of 3-4 years.

Price air transportation on airplanes is higher than all other modes of transport (see Table 7).

On a single-engine aircraft, with a capacity of 200-400 hp. With. (4-6 passengers), 1 km of flight costs 1 r.-1 r. 70 k. With daily flights all year round, the cost is closer to the lowest limit, with rare flights, it increases greatly. Large aircraft give relatively more cheap transport, but only when provided with a sufficiently large load, which is still rare. For controlled balloons, there are still no cost figures tested in practice, and for large controlled balloons of 100,000-150,000 m 3 under construction, a cost of 5-10 k. per passenger-kilometer and 50 k.-1 r. with tkm. Causes high cost transport to existing aircraft: a) relatively low carrying capacity (2-3 pass, for every 100 hp); b) the high cost of aircraft and engines, which are still produced in small numbers; c) short depreciation periods for aircraft and engines; d) high cost of fuel; e) high insurance; f) a large percentage of overhead costs due to the poor use of the material part in time (partial year and a small part of the day). Comparison of the cost of air transport with the size of the accepted tariffs shows that air transport is still unprofitable everywhere. The unprofitability is still increasing due to the underload that occurs on many lines. The deficit in all states is covered by government subsidies. Their sizes for 1926: in France - about 5 million rubles, in Germany - about 9 million rubles, in England - about 2.3 million rubles; in addition, the states provide ground equipment for air transport free of charge (airfields, lighting, etc.). The most cost-effective cargo is mail, paid for 4-7 rubles. for 1 T km, but its quantity is still not enough to load overhead lines. The development of air mail is now the surest way to break even air transport. Passengers and cargo can only recover costs on lines that run in roadless areas, such as the Central Asian Dobrolet lines and some colonial lines, where, in fact, already now most of operating costs are covered by income; in the near future, such lines will become profitable. Technical progress aircraft and airship construction promises in the coming decades a significant reduction in the cost of air transport, the achievement of its full profitability and the reduction of tariffs for passengers and mail approximately to the level of the railway. In parallel with this, an increase in the regularity, speed and comfort of air transport is foreseen and, as a result, a huge expansion of its scope.

Air Transport. Air transport occupies a significant share in the noise regime of many cities. The fleet of civil aviation aircraft is constantly being updated; new turbojet and turboprop aircraft (TU-134, TU-154, IL.-62, Yak-40) have appeared on the airlines. Passenger and cargo transportation is increasing, a large number of airfields and airports are being built, and existing ones are being reconstructed. Often, civil aviation airports are located in close proximity to residential areas, and air routes pass over numerous settlements.[ ...]

Air Transport. For modern aviation There are two determinants of aircraft impact - aircraft noise and aircraft engine emissions of pollutants. Although aircraft have recently appeared in Russia, the noise from which is significantly lower than that of those currently in operation, aircraft that meet only the minimum requirements of the international noise standard have the greatest environmental impact.[ ...]

Air transport is currently developing primarily as a passenger transport. It ranks second (after the railway) in the total passenger turnover of all types of transport in intercity traffic.[ ...]

In recent years, air transport has become one of the most important means of passenger communication over medium distances as well.[ ...]

Fuel economy in air transport is also possible by improving its aerodynamic characteristics (design of bearing surfaces that provide ultra-fast air flow around the upper planes of the wings, which predetermines an increase in lift and a decrease in drag, etc.). Reducing the weight of the wing, increasing the lift, reducing drag means fuel savings of 15%.[ ...]

Taking into account the rapid development of air transport and the constant increase in the industry's need for specialists of this profile, we can assume that graduates of the institute in this specialty will have many different job offers and interesting job.[ ...]

In addition to transportation work, air transport performs a significant amount of other work in the national economy: agricultural (fertilization, weed control), forest protection and forest engineering (extinguishing forest fires, forest pest control, determining the forest reserve, etc.), assembly and construction, and is also used in the provision of urgent medical care to the population.[ ...]

The steady growth in the volume of air transport leads to an increase in air pollution by exhaust gases from aircraft engines. It has been calculated that, on average, a jet aircraft engine, consuming 15 tons of fuel and 625 tons of air in one hour, emits 46.8 tons into the atmosphere. carbon dioxide, 18 tons of water vapor, 635 kg of carbon monoxide, 635 kg of nitrogen oxides, 15 kg of sulfur oxide, 2.2 kg of solid particles. At the same time, the average residence time of these particles in the atmosphere is about 2 years. The greatest pollution environment takes place near airports. The harmful effect of air transport on the environment also lies in the fact that nitrogen oxides emitted by the engines of supersonic aircraft during their flight in the lower layers of the stratosphere intensively oxidize ozone, which, as already noted, plays a very important role in preserving life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet radiation and thereby protecting living organisms from death.[ ...]

The atmosphere is the medium for the movement of air transport and birds, the medium for the propagation of radio waves and sound vibrations (providing radio, various devices, etc.). It is a natural resource for obtaining oxygen, nitrogen, neon, argon and other inert gases. However, the atmosphere is exposed to anthropogenic influences, such as oxides, soot, fumes. The consequences of exposure to, for example, sulfur oxides are detrimental to the natural environment.[ ...]

The ozone layer of the atmosphere is also being destroyed. Air transport is a way to deplete ozone reserves where it is absolutely needed. The ozone shield attenuates the lethal ultraviolet solar radiation in the atmospheric layer between 40 and 15 km above the earth's surface by about 6500 times. Destruction of the ozone screen by 50% increases 10 times / ultraviolet radiation, which affects the vision of animals and humans, and leads to an effect on living organisms similar to ionizing radiation. The ozone content in the atmosphere over the Antarctic is decreasing.[ ...]

On a way further development energy and air transport recently more and more clearly emerges an obstacle, which, by analogy with the sound and thermal barrier, is called the erosion barrier. This barrier is caused by the smallest particles - drops of moisture or grains of dust, the size of which is hundreds and thousands of times. smaller sizes aircraft or power plants and which turn into a formidable weapon when the speed of their collision with the surface of the product exceeds hundreds of meters per second.[ ...]

Means of external rail, water, air transport, along with urban vehicles, can be a source of intense carbon monoxide emissions. Thus, the main engines of ships in the forced mode of operation emit gases containing carbon monoxide: the motor ship of the Belomorskles type - 70-80 mg / m3, the diesel-electric ship of the Amguema type - about 270 mg / m3. Ship auxiliary engine emissions contain carbon monoxide at an average concentration of 77.7 mg/m3 and 345.9 mg/m3, respectively. The authors of these data (L. E. Bespalko et al., 1974) rightly conclude that the exhaust gases of ships in the port can be a significant source of air pollution, especially since engines consume up to 1-2 tons of fuel per hour .[ ...]

As for air pollution by other modes of transport, the problem is less acute here, since vehicles of these types are not concentrated directly in cities. So, in the largest railway junctions, all traffic has been switched to electric traction, and diesel locomotives are used only for shunting work. River and sea ports, as a rule, are located outside the residential areas of cities, and the movement of ships in the port areas is almost negligible. Airports, as a rule, are 20-40 km away from cities. In addition, large open spaces over airfields, as well as over river and seaports, do not pose a risk of high concentrations of toxic impurities emitted by engines. It should be noted that carburetor gasoline engines are almost never used in railway, sea, river and modern air transport.[ ...]

Eels are transported by road and air in rigid oxygen-aerated containers (stocking density is one fish weighing 500-800 g per 10 liters of water) or in plastic bags (water volume is 1.5-2 liters) filled with water and oxygen. After planting the fish, the water needs to be changed 3-4 times to remove mucus. Water temperature should not exceed 12-14°С, transportation time - 6-8 hours.[ ...]

The main sources of noise in the city are vehicles, rail and air transport, industrial enterprises.[ ...]

Along with motor transport, air transport is becoming a serious air pollutant. Thus, a jet plane crossing the Atlantic Ocean consumes as much oxygen in 8 hours of flight as 25 thousand hectares of forest produce it in the same time. According to the National Aviation Administration, planes taking off and landing at the Washington airport emit 35 tons of various pollutants into the surrounding space in just one day.[ ...]

It should be noted that the main sources of noise in cities are: motor transport (up to 80), rail and air transport. Noise in TPP conditions has a major impact on people in the working area.[ ...]

Shapovalov C.JL, Milyavskaya T.I. Functional characteristics of myopia in civil aviation pilots. M.: Air transport, 1990. 185 p.[ ...]

We will introduce the reader to the fascinating story of the birth and heyday of the struggle for blue ribbon. We will tell how, under the onslaught of air transport, the fight for the Blue Ribbon came to an end. But it turns out that the Blue Ribbon, just like the ship itself, has an amazing ability to be born again after death. Yes, indeed, the Blue Ribbon in its old sense, that is, as a prize in the struggle for speed, died, but it arose in new forms, symbolizing the beginning of a new, higher stage in the competitive battles for the Passenger. And now we are witnessing the initial period of no less sharp and heated battles for the transformed and rethought Blue Ribbon.[ ...]

City air is poisoned not only by industrial gases, dust and car exhaust. Air transport also makes a significant contribution. For example, a jet aircraft with four turbines during takeoff (and airfields in most countries of Western Europe and the United States are usually located within the city) leaves behind a poisonous plume saturated with such an amount of exhaust gases that 6850 flat cars simultaneously emit .[ . ..]

In addition to the listed rules, there are also rules for regulating emissions from interregional sources - mainly land and air transport, the regulation and control of which is carried out directly by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).[ ...]

When extinguishing fires, water or solutions of fire-extinguishing chemicals are most often used. Sometimes it is required to lay temporary conduits, deliver water containers by air and anneal (early launch of oncoming fire on the ground cover). Annealing is carried out by trained firefighters. They start from support bands (rivers, roads, streams) or artificially created mineralized bands.[ ...]

Vehicle noise is generated by the motors, wheels, brakes and aerodynamics of vehicles. Noise generated by work road transport(buses, cars and trucks) is 75-85 dB. Railway transport is capable of increasing the noise level up to 90-100 dB. The strongest noise - aviation - is created by the operation of the engine and the aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft - up to 100-105 dB over the air transport route. In airport areas, the number of stillbirths and congenital anomalies is statistically significantly increased. Aircraft noise also leads to an increase in mental disorders. The maximum allowable level of this noise at the earth's surface is defined as 50 dB.[ ...]

Thus, everything that we used to call the weather is an external manifestation of very complex physical processes occurring near the earth's surface or in those layers where air transport operates.[ ...]

Water objects are allocated for use for: drinking, domestic and other needs of the population; medical, resort and health purposes; the needs of agriculture and industrial purposes (including for the needs of hydropower); needs of water and air transport and timber rafting; needs of fish and hunting economy; needs of nature reserves and wastewater discharges.[ ...]

In the structure of passenger rail transportation, 30-90% of the total number of passengers is transported in suburban and local communications. Transportation of passengers by rail for more than long distance reduced due to the development of air transport.[ ...]

Millions of viewers, people of different professions and ages, are waiting with interest every day for the announcer's messages - what is the weather expected tomorrow? The weather is of interest to everyone, since it affects the harvest, the catch of fish, the timely delivery of goods by sea, river and air transport, a successful trip to the forest for mushrooms, the transition of climbers in the mountains, the condition of the patient and, of course, our good mood.[ .. .]

The main hazard of atmospheric pollution in the past was considered to be reduced visibility due to the black smoke cover that often hung over industrial areas. In recent times, this reduction in visibility has been a significant hindrance to commercial traffic, especially air transport, and sometimes, in extreme pollution, road traffic. However, visibility cannot be a direct indicator of the overall pollution of the atmosphere, since reduced visibility is only caused by particulate contaminants such as soot and fly ash, which are large enough to obstruct and scatter visible light. ¡ Gaseous as well as radioactive releases can create significantly higher atmospheric pollution without any loss of visibility. However, changes in visibility can be used to assess a sudden increase in air pollution or to assess the effectiveness of pollution control measures. Observations on visibility in Los Angeles (Neiburger, 1955) found that over the past few decades, average visibility has decreased less significantly than would be expected based on the rapid development of industry in the area over the same period of time. Conversely, the increase in visibility in the areas of Saint-Louis and Pittsburgh (E1y, 1955) after the introduction of anti-smoke measures was an indicator of the effectiveness of the measures taken.[ ...]

These probabilities are calculated by dividing the number of deaths observed each year by the number of inhabitants in the country. It can be seen that the vast majority of all deaths are explained by “internal” causes, while “external” causes are two orders of magnitude smaller than them. At the same time, traffic accidents dominate among external causes. Air transport accidents are characterized by the same risk as natural disasters.[ ...]

Emissions of the seven most massive harmful substances were assessed: carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen dioxide, soot, sulfur dioxide, lead compounds and solids. On average, the total mass of pollutants entering the atmosphere from mobile sources is about 12 million tons per year, including from vehicles - 95%, air transport - 2.5%, sea and river transport --2,8%.[ ...]

The overhaul of the ship cost three million pounds, but even this desperate effort did not save the “queens”. In the face of fierce competition with other ships and air transport huge liners lost more and more passengers, emptying the company's cash desk. The rest of the company's liners have already been decommissioned or sold.[ ...]

It is known that in a neutral environment, the content of hydrogen ions (H +) corresponds to pH = 7. Acid precipitation is called rain, fog, snow, which have pH [ ...]

An impressive negative example of the growth of chronic bronchitis among Muscovites (Fig. 1) with the increase in the vehicle fleet since the 90s. But no less impressive is another example (positive) - the drop in the level of lead in the blood of the US population (Fig. 2) and, consequently, the corresponding diseases. The latter occurs synchronously with a decrease in the use of leaded gasoline for vehicles up to its complete ban. A significant reduction in the volume of air transport (after 1992) in Russia led to a decrease in the total amount of emissions into the atmospheric air to 280 thousand tons per year (of which only 20% of all waste substances are neutralized).[ ...]

Historically, industrial horticulture originated near large population centers. The rapid deterioration of most horticultural products created certain advantages of proximity to markets due to the monopoly on quality. As transport and storage conditions improved, the advantages of proximity to markets gradually waned. Fast long-distance transportation in refrigerators leveled the quality of products sold. Combining railway and freight transport led to further improvements in transportation efficiency. With the recent use of air transport to transport valuable horticultural products such as flowers and strawberries, the advantages of markets being close to the farms growing these perishable, high-value commodities have diminished.[ ...]

Studies conducted in various regions have shown that NO concentrations in surface air vary from levels below the detection limit of the analysis methods used to around 50 ppm (about 1.2 1012 cm3) in urban air. Recent measurements have revealed a strong anisotropy in the latitudinal distribution of nitrogen monoxide in the upper troposphere. Presented in fig. 5.2, the results of measurements indicate an anomalously high content of NO over the middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. The formation of such a "cap" is associated mainly with heavy air traffic and the rapid vertical transport of pollutants from ground sources as a result of deep convection.[ ...]

An isolation of 800-500 m is considered sufficient for this purpose. To illustrate the possibility of wind blowing over long distances, the fact that a large amount of oak pollen was brought to Heligoland from the neighboring mainland at a distance of about 00-70 km from the nearest oak plantations is usually given. Cases are known of the deposition of tree pollen into the Arctic for many hundreds of kilometers. Facts:> but subject to doubt. However, the biological significance of long-range aerial transport of pollen is highly questionable for the purpose of pollination. Pollen, being in the air, will quickly lose viability, as has been established for cereals. Effective cross-stunning with the help of the wind is carried out at a small distance, between the nearest individuals, separated from each other by at most a few tens or hundreds of meters.[ ...]

Thanks to all this, man has acquired an exceptional position on Earth: he has become its master. He was already immeasurably less dependent on the conditions of the environment and was able to gradually subjugate it, remake it in his own interests. Man has learned to protect himself from adverse environmental conditions. From the cold, he first took refuge in caves, and then built dwellings; he mastered the fire, covered his body with animal skins, and then with specially made clothes. Gathering and hunting for food were replaced by animal husbandry and agriculture. And the achievements of science and technology have given new types of energy: electrical and atomic. A person was able to move quickly over long distances using land and air transport. A refrigerator has appeared in the apartment of a modern person, which protects food from spoilage, and an air conditioner, which creates a comfortable microclimate. Preventive and curative medicine has become the guardian of human health. At the same time, domestic animals also won a lot, which man provided with warm stables, complete food and all the achievements of zootechnics and veterinary medicine. But, be that as it may, neither a person nor an animal (especially a wild one) can escape the adverse influences of the conditions of existence.[ ...]

Most fruits can be consumed fresh when they contain a large amount of water. After they have menopause, they usually spoil quickly. Thus, the stage of good condition for consumption can be extremely short and fleeting. For this reason, some tastier tropical fruits, such as anona, are not actually known outside of their growing area. As a result, most marketed fruits are either firm enough to be transported fresh (apples, citrus fruits) or can be preserved by drying (dates and figs), processing into jellies and jams, canning (pineapples) or freezing (strawberries). The development of air transport, refrigeration and new packaging techniques have made it possible to supply the largest settlements fruit products of the world assortment throughout the year. At the same time, ordinary seasonal fruits, such as raspberries, which were abundant in small towns, are actually disappearing and are already considered a luxury item.

Main characteristics of air transport

Air Transport, being universal, it is used mainly for the transportation of passengers over medium and long distances and certain types of cargo. Air transport accounts for approximately 40% of intercity passenger traffic. Such a significant role of air transport is associated with the large size of the territory of our country and the insufficient provision of certain regions with other modes of transport. The growth of material well-being, the expansion of cultural, business and scientific ties lead to an increase in the mobility of the population, which leads to the need for high-speed travel - aviation.

The volume of cargo transported by air is insignificant. The range of goods is limited: valuable goods (for example, works of art, antiques, precious metals and stones, furs, etc.); goods requiring urgent delivery, including perishable goods; humanitarian aid; medicines; mail; food and industrial goods for remote regions; cargo for emergencies.

Air transport in a single transport system occupies a special place, as it is able to carry out a number of works necessary for the sectors of the country's economy that cannot be performed by other modes of transport.

The specific areas of air transport activities include: installation of building high-rise structures, main gas and oil pipelines, power lines; inspection traffic; agricultural work (watering, fertilizing, spraying pesticides to control weeds, pre-harvest removal of cotton leaves, aerial seeding of grasses, rice, etc.); firefighting, especially in forest areas; communication with remote and hard-to-reach areas; emergency medical care, including the transfer of specialists of a narrow medical profile to emergency cases in their absence or shortage in the area; mail transportation; maintenance of the polar regions; exploration; aerial photography; exploration of oil deposits; ice reconnaissance and pilotage of ships in the areas Far North and the Northern Sea Route; delivery of workers to offshore oil fields with a rotational method of work, etc.

Recently, there has been a tendency to unite small companies into 10–12 large airlines (following the model of foreign airlines). If air transport enterprises are privatized (corporated), then management systems air traffic They are not subject to privatization, not so much because of their high initial cost and operating costs, but because of the responsibility of the state for flight safety and people's lives.

In addition, the operational activities of airports are separated from ownership and operational activities airlines. At the same time, equal access of all airlines to the infrastructure of any airport and the free choice of the airport for equal conditions for the competitive struggle of airlines are ensured.

In corporatization, the state owns a part of the shares; Abroad, almost all airlines are private. However, in large foreign airlines (such as Air France, Lufthansa, etc.) there is also state participation.

Main technical and operational features and advantages air transport:

high speed of delivery of passengers and cargo;

maneuverability and efficiency, especially when organizing new routes;

the possibility of rapid redeployment of rolling stock in case of changes in passenger traffic, including due to accidents on other modes of transport;

large non-stop flights (about 10,000 km);

shortest way following;

saving public time due to faster delivery;

unlimited carrying capacity (today they are limited only by the capacity of the airfield);

relatively small capital investments (about 30 times less per 1 km of the air route than per 1 km of the railway).

Relative disadvantages air transport:

high cost of transportation, so air transport is not freight;

dependence on weather and climatic conditions.

The high speed of aircraft makes it possible to overcome, for example, the distance from Moscow to Vladivostok in 8–9 hours on the main types of aircraft and in 4 hours on supersonic ones (by rail, this distance is overcome in 7–8 days).

Work technology air transport has its own characteristics. Movement is carried out:

strictly on schedule, which is associated with the complexity of organizing take-off and landing at the airfield;

according to the system of allocating to each unit of the rolling stock its own traffic corridor, which depends primarily on the speed and carrying capacity of the aircraft.

Traffic corridor - this is the estimated flight altitude and the coordinate system in the longitudinal and horizontal flight planes. The corridor system makes it possible to disperse aircraft in the air to exclude the possibility of their collision. Aircraft are equipped with appropriate systems for measuring and maintaining flight altitude.

A new trend is emerging abroad - the transportation of small consignments of cargo (the so-called parcel cargo) by air. The cost of transportation can be reduced by reducing insurance (theft, loss and damage to goods in air transport are much less common than on land modes of transport), simplifying packaging and packaging due to the absence of external influence.

Problems and development trends air transport are multifaceted. The main problem is to increase the speed of movement (to date, a speed of 2500 km / h has been reached). It is important to create aircraft with increased passenger capacity (the so-called airbuses) and carrying capacity, especially for long-distance routes (for example, Il-86 can accommodate up to 350 people, and Boeings - up to 530 people; cargo aircraft maximum lift 250 tons (An-225 "Mriya"). In order to reduce the area of ​​airports, it is necessary to create short and vertical takeoff and landing aircraft for civil aviation (they have existed in military aviation since 1969).

Fig.8.2. Air transport rolling stock classification

Strength increase runways also remains a big problem due to significant loads and temperatures. An-22 aircraft can operate on dirt roads, but not always. Creation of aircraft with automatic means for taking off and landing in any weather in various conditions visibility (the so-called all-weather) will expand the competitive opportunities of air transport and improve the quality of passenger service. Improvement in fuel efficiency is required due to the increase in mass and speed. The solution of this problem will allow not to increase the tariff for transportation. It is necessary to develop fundamentally new flight systems and air transport control systems in the airport area; it is required to create an aircraft maintenance system at the airport; it is necessary to improve the level of passenger service, including the introduction of automated systems sales of tickets and baggage transportation, and most importantly, an increase in traffic safety, which will create more opportunities for passenger service, allow it to compete with other modes of transport and help reduce travel time.

Technical equipment includes rolling stock and airports, including airfields.

Rolling stock classification air transport is presented in fig. 8.2. Planes take off and land on aerodrome- a specially adapted land plot with a complex of structures and equipment for take-off, landing, parking and maintenance. Airfields are the main, alternate and base. To ensure the regularity and safety of flights, airfields are equipped with a set of radio and lighting equipment. Helicopters require small areas to take off and land.

The airport is included in the broader concept of "airport". Airport is a transport company that receives and sends passengers, baggage, cargo and mail, organizes and maintains rolling stock flights. The airport is a complex engineering complex of structures, buildings, technical facilities and equipment, occupying up to several thousand hectares of territory.

Since ancient times, all the peoples inhabiting our planet have played an important role in transport. As for the modern stage, the importance of means of transportation has grown disproportionately. Today, the existence of any country cannot be imagined without powerful transport.

New achievements of science and technology

The twentieth century was marked by gigantic transformations that took place in all spheres of human activity. Air transport is no exception. Its development was facilitated by the growth of the world's population, an increase in the amount of consumed material resources, urbanization, social, political and many other factors.

The scientific and technological revolution that has taken place has made it possible to change air transport not only quantitatively, but also qualitatively. It is worth saying that at all times, human vehicles have been a special dynamic system. It was the transport system that practically served as the first consumer of various discoveries and achievements in the scientific field. In many cases, it was she who acted as the direct customer of advanced developments.

It is difficult to name any area of ​​research that would not relate to the improvement of vehicles. For their progress, the results of physical and thermodynamic developments are used. Physicists and mathematicians take a considerable part in the development of transport. Mechanics and chemists, astronomers and geologists, biologists and many other scientists are involved in solving this problem. The development of transport, including air transport, is facilitated by the results of applied research carried out in the field of mechanical engineering and metallurgy, structural mechanics and automation, astronautics and electronics.

Need for further development

In modern conditions, air transport is one of the most dynamically developing means of transportation. It plays an important role in the main directions of development of the national economy and civil aviation. The development of air transport for the country is simply necessary.
The main goal pursued in this case is to increase the volume of transportation of goods and passengers over long distances and to hard-to-reach areas. At the same time, the requirements for air transport are increasing. It should become more economical and regular, comfortable and safe. To achieve these goals, new in-depth studies of various scientific branches will be required, as well as more serious experimental design.

Features of air transport

Aviation is the youngest and fastest direction, designed to carry out communication links between different regions. At the same time, it is the most expensive industry.

Air transport in Russia is an important part of the country's national economy. With its help, medicines and mail, industrial and food products are delivered to the most inaccessible corners.

It is worth saying that aviation is the most advanced mode of transport. She does not need roads and is not afraid of various obstacles. It was thanks to aviation that humanity got the opportunity to go into space.

Air transport has a number of undeniable advantages. First of all, it is high speed. At the same time, important maneuverability is achieved in the organization of passenger transportation. In addition, modern airlines provide non-stop flights over considerable distances.

What aircraft are used in modern aviation?

The types of air transport that are used in the national economy of the country are not so diverse. In modern aviation, aircraft are used, which are represented by various models of aircraft and helicopters. All of them are widely used for various tasks.

In the national economy, a lot of work is given to helicopters. These are aircraft that rise into the airspace with the help of rotating blades located on a vertical shaft. Helicopters use:

During construction and installation works;
- in the sanitary and medical service;
- in agriculture;
- during the construction of pipelines;
- to fight forest fires that have arisen;
- for the carriage of mail;
- to assist in geological exploration;
- as a means of monitoring traffic on the roads;
- to communicate with meteorological stations located in high mountainous areas.

Transportation of goods by air, represented by a fleet of helicopters, is carried out over short distances.

The principle of aircraft flight lies in the interaction of the traction force of the engine and the lifting force of the wing.

Differences in application

In modern aviation, the following types of air transport are distinguished:

For the implementation of passenger transportation;
- for the movement of goods;
- cargo-passenger (combined):
- educational and training;
- special purpose (sanitary, agricultural, fire, etc.).

This gradation is applied depending on the industry of application, as well as on the purpose of the aircraft.

The difference in technical and operational parameters

For passenger air transport, such a characteristic as capacity is used. For cargo aircraft, their carrying capacity is important. For combined air transport, the technical and operational parameter is the flight range without landing, as well as speed. According to the latter indicator, certain types of aircraft are also distinguished. The speed of the aircraft may be less than the speed of sound. There are also supersonic aircraft.

Government

Transportation by air of passengers and cargo is in Russia under the direct control of the state. There are linear departments and departments in the country that oversee the work of this industry. At the same time, each airline pays a tax on the service of dispatchers.

The main executive body that exercises control over air transport is the Federal Agency for Air Transportation. Its main tasks:

Provision of services that ensure the uninterrupted operation of air transport;
- issuance of licenses for admission to flights on international and domestic routes;
- certification of companies providing aircraft flights;
- supervising the work of educational institutions of the aviation industry.

Flight personnel

Air traffic management is not an easy task. The flight crew includes navigators and pilots, as well as cadets of flight schools who are fit for this work according to the conclusion of the medical commission and can perform their functional duties.

Each crew member during the flight must unquestioningly comply with all instructions given by the flight control authority. It is possible to deviate from the route only in case of a threat to the safety and life of people who are on board the aircraft.

Navigators and pilots must be issued permits:

For training flights that are carried out during the day or at night;
- to flights on a new modification of the aircraft;
- to special flights.

In this case, all tolerances must be entered in the flight book. Regardless of the position held, each of the crew members is required to undergo an annual check according to various types flight preparation. At the same time, its results must also be entered in the flight book.

There are certain norms for the rest and flight time of the aircraft crew. So, you can stay in the air for no more than twelve hours a day. Such a norm is established for the flight crew of air airliners. Helicopter crews must have a daily flight time of no more than eight hours.

Safety

In air transport, all measures must be taken to ensure that the flight does not pose a danger to passengers. In this regard, the Federal Air Transport Agency implemented a ban on carrying liquids on board the aircraft. This restriction applies to all airports in the country.

The Air Transport Administration - Rosaviatsia - notes that the threat of terrorist attacks on air transport has not been eliminated. In connection with this situation, a directive was sent to all organizations related to civil aviation, as well as to all airports, indicating the need to implement all measures to ensure flight safety. According to this document, the passenger does not have the right to carry in hand luggage any liquid. This ban also applies to personal hygiene products. They must be checked in as baggage, which is checked with the use of technical devices for screening. Only then can the liquid be placed on board the aircraft.

In the event that a passenger needs to carry medicines with him during the flight, they can be carried as part of hand luggage only after they have been inspected by the airport security services.

Passengers should treat such measures with understanding, because they are taken to ensure the safety of the flight.

Air transport.

Aviation transport - a type of transport that transports goods and passengers by air using aircraft: airplanes, helicopters, etc.; contributes to the internationalization and globalization of all aspects of human activity. Air transport is the fastest and most expensive mode of transport.

Advantages: message speed; maneuverability and efficiency (especially in the organization of new routes); huge coverage of territories and water areas; the shortest route; the possibility of quick relocation of rolling stock in case of changes in passenger flows, incl. due to accidents on other modes of transport; saving public time due to faster delivery; unlimited carrying capacity (limited only by the capacity of the airfield); relatively small investments (about 30 times less for 1 km of air route than for 1 km of railway). The functions of air transport are close to those of telecommunications. Air transportation provides the most valuable (works of art, antiques, precious metals ...) and urgent cargo.

Flaws: high cost of transportation (in this regard, it is not freight); dependence on weather conditions.

Initially, air transport developed as a specialized means of passenger transportation. Today, the share of cargo transportation by air is increasing. It has to do with the advent of airplanes. higher load capacity. There has been a tendency to transport small consignments of goods. The cost of transportation should be reduced by reducing insurance, simplifying packaging and packaging due to the absence of external influences. At the same time, the share of air cargo turnover in the total volume is small. The functions of this type of transport are expanding based on the implementation of the achievements of scientific and technical progress. The process of formation of personal aircraft is gradually taking place.

The specific areas of air transport activity include: installation of building high-rise structures, main gas and oil pipelines, power lines; traffic inspection; agricultural work; firefighting; communication with remote and hard-to-reach areas; ambulance med. help; mail transportation; exploration; aerial photography…

The movement of air transport is carried out:

1. strictly on schedule, which is associated with the complexity of organizing takeoff and landing on the runway;

2. according to the system of allocation to each unit of the rolling stock of its own traffic corridor, depending on the speed and carrying capacity of the aircraft.

traffic corridor- ϶ᴛᴏ estimated flight altitude and coordinate system in the longitudinal and horizontal flight planes. The corridor system makes it possible to disperse aircraft in the air. Aircraft are equipped with appropriate systems for measuring and maintaining flight altitude.

The rolling stock of air transport includes:

1. devices lighter than air (airships, Balloons, balloons, gliders);

2. apparatuses of heavier air (airplanes, helicopters).

The safe operation of air transport requires a complex infrastructure (maintenance personnel, radar, telecommunications, sophisticated ground equipment). The infrastructure of the industry is a network of airports. Airport - ϶ᴛᴏ a transport company that receives and sends passengers, baggage, cargo and mail, organizes and maintains rolling stock flights. Airports are international, republican and local. Aerodrome - ϶ᴛᴏ a specially adapted land plot with a complex of facilities and equipment for take-off, landing, parking and maintenance. Airfields are the main, alternate and base.

Air transport enterprises are corporatized, but air traffic control systems are not subject to privatization. This is largely due to the fact that the state is responsible for flight safety and people's lives.

The operations of airports are also separate from the ownership and operations of airlines. At the same time, equal access of airlines to the infrastructure of any airport and the free choice of an airport for equal conditions for the competitive struggle of airlines are ensured.

In the Soviet Union, air transport developed very actively. In the 80s. Aeroflot was largest airline peace. In addition to serving domestic routes, he maintained ties with many foreign countries. Today, Russia is also one of the largest aviation powers. At the same time, with the collapse of the USSR and the separation of a number of small independent airlines from it, Aeroflot lost its leading position. In the 70s - early 80s. Aeroflot was equipped with modern aircraft, technically quite comparable with the best foreign analogues. However, starting from the second half of the 80s. the pace of renewal of the domestic fleet has slowed down sharply. During the years of the economic crisis, this process almost completely stopped, in connection with this, the main and urgent task of Russian air transport is to replace obsolete liners with new aircraft.

Russia has the longest air routes in the world (800 thousand km). First of all, these are routes connecting Moscow and St. Petersburg with the cities Far East:

Moscow - Yekaterinburg - Novosibirsk - Irkutsk - Khabarovsk - Vladivostok;

Moscow - Novosibirsk - Irkutsk - Yakutsk - Magadan - Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky;

St. Petersburg - Yekaterinburg - Novosibirsk - Irkutsk - Khabarovsk - Vladivostok;

St. Petersburg - Perm - Omsk - Novosibirsk - Irkutsk - Yakutsk - Magadan - Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

The main centers of air traffic, where many air routes intersect, are the largest cities of the country: Moscow and St. North Caucasus, as well as all big cities on the air route Moscow - Vladivostok. In the regions of the Far North and territories equated to it, helicopters play an important role in the transportation of goods and passengers. Οʜᴎ deliver cargo and passengers to oil fields and other production facilities, geological parties to their place of work, provide emergency medical care, etc.

Today Russia has over 1.3 million km of airlines. On its territory in the state register of airports for 2010, 232 airports were registered, 71 of which are international. Cargo turnover of air transport is 0.1%, passenger turnover - 30%. In our country, there are 46 airlines of various forms of ownership, of which 11 companies are large, with the volume of transportation of more than 1 million passengers a year. The largest airports in terms of passenger traffic are: in Moscow - Domodedovo, Vnukovo, Sheremetyevo; in St. Petersburg - Pulkovo; in Yekaterinburg - Koltsovo; in Novosibirsk - Tolmachevo; in Krasnodar - Pashkovsky; in Sochi - Adler.
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Their passenger turnover was over 2 million passenger-km in 2011 ᴦ.

LITERATURE

2, 3, 4, 6, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16.

Aviation transport. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Air transport." 2017, 2018.