The birth of architecture. Primitive communal period. Ancient stone structures
As for the lectures, I want to note the following: I don’t just post them here, they are directly related to the topic of this community and can be of some benefit to everyone. It is often believed that after school and institutes, education should be completed, but this is a huge misconception, because the older a person becomes, the more he is able to accommodate and understand if he works in this direction. Now it may seem that this information will never be useful, but everything we read is stored in our minds and is always ready to help when it becomes necessary. I also want to note that people from all over came to our institute to listen to such lectures, what can we say about the fact that new knowledge, especially in the field of art, sets a person up for a good thought, and these moments, in turn, contribute to the nutrition of both body and spirit . Here I do not have the opportunity to give all the information in full, due to the fact that it will be quite difficult to perceive it and all this will take too much time, but in each lecture I tried to put as much as possible of what I managed to write down myself and what I who gave me the books. May it benefit everyone who wants to receive it...
"Of all the unknowns, the most unknown is time." Aristotle
The first dwellings of those, mentions of which are available to modern man, began to be created by Neanderthals around 35 thousand years BC. / this is the official theory, although the true chronology goes much deeper /. These dwellings were parking lots and sheds.
Primitive people preferred to use natural shelters - caves. The device of artificial caves in the rocks became possible only with the advent of metal tools. To prevent collapse of the ceiling during the excavation of weak and layered rocks, the caves were given a lancet shape. Such a shape, more or less correct, is given to a large number of artificial caves. With the transition to a settled way of life, the first buildings appear.
In the Paleolithic era, people have new skills, and dwellings have improved accordingly. The reason for the improvement was also climate change, which required more sustainable housing and tools.
In the first half of 3 thousand BC. matriarchy sets in, in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. patriarchy comes and with it monumental architecture appears, megalithic architecture / menhir- 1 stone; dolmen- 2, covered by a third; cromlech- education, a number of stones. For example, Stonehenge, 17th century BC/.
Nuraghi- tower-like structures of 2-3 thousand BC /about.Sardinia/
According to officially accepted data, it is believed that Homo sapiens / reasonable man / appeared on Earth 40,000 years ago.
5000 - 4000 years - the oldest stone age and the first architectural structure;
4000 - 3000 years - Bronze Age;
2000 years - Iron Age.
Frequently used symbols of that time are circle, vertical, horizontal, right angle.
The main types of megalithic structures.
Menhir is a single, vertical stone. Standing stones are the main element of the monuments of the Neolithic era. Sometimes there is only one stone, resembling a spindle or a rough obelisk in its shape - such a structure is called a menhir. Menhirs appeared at a late stage in the development of primitive society /for example - at the carnac in Brittany/.
Dolmen- two menhirs with a crossbar. Dolmen - tomb, entrance to the village. It consists of stones placed upright and covered from above with one or two stone slabs. May be inside burial mounds. The area of the dolmen varies between 4 and 70 sq.m., and its height is between 1 and 3.5 m. The entrance to it is usually closed with a stone slab, usually movable, sometimes drilled! round hole. Sometimes there are accessory crypts. The room is often preceded by a vestibule or corridor, more or less long and wide, usually straight, but sometimes angulated.
Megaliths. Mega - big, cast - stone. They were divided according to the "gender" sign - a rhomboid meant "feminine", a rectangular pillar - "masculine".
Cromlech - several menhirs forming a circle. Sometimes menhirs stretch in rows, forming alleys called strings. Sometimes two adjacent stones are connected horizontally by a movable monolith. It happens that the entrance to the cromlechs is preceded by short corridors. A structure in the form of two stones placed vertically with a crossbar in the form of a third stone is called a trilith.
Stonehenge /2 thousand BC, England/ - the most famous megalithic structure. Consists of dolmens placed in a circle.
Stonehenge is a structure used for religious and magical purposes.
Only one thing can be said - everything shows and understands that such structures, the true meaning of which is still unknown to scientists, could not be built by rude, stupid people, and it is quite clear that in their development and in their abilities, people of that era were not below us. It is enough that these buildings are still standing, but what will remain of our era? Will the skyscrapers and our beloved P-series anthills stand the test of time? I highly doubt it. But not only is history not being revised and rewritten, although everyone already agrees that there are too many inconsistencies in it, but the meaning of history is being pushed into the background by offering our children only a few free items to choose from. Of course, why do we need such "nonsense" as history, and even more so archeology. And we don't live without it.
Well, a few more examples:
The origins of architecture date back to the Late Neolithic. It was then that stone was already used for the construction of monumental buildings. But the purpose of most of the monuments of that period that have come down to us is not known.
A menhir is usually a free-standing stone with traces of processing, sometimes oriented in some way or marking a certain direction.
Cromlech is a circle of standing stones, varying degrees preservation and with different orientation. The term "henge" has the same meaning. This term is usually used in relation to structures of this type in the UK. However, similar structures existed in the prehistoric era also in Germany (Goloring, Gosek circle) and in other countries.
Dolmen is something like a stone house.
All of them are united by the name "megaliths", which translates simply as " big stones». For the most part they, according to some scholars, served for burials or were associated with a funeral cult. There are other opinions as well. Apparently, megaliths are communal structures with a socializing function. Their construction represented for primitive technology the most difficult task and required the unification of large masses of people. Some megalithic structures, such as the complex of over 3000 stones at Carnac (Brittany) France, were important ceremonial centers associated with the cult of the dead. Other megalithic complexes have been used to determine the timing of astronomical events such as the solstice and equinox. In the area of Nabta Playa in the Nubian desert, a megalithic structure was found that served for astronomical purposes. This building is 1000 years older than Stonehenge.
stonehenge
Stonehenge is a structure of 82 five-ton megaliths, 30 stone blocks weighing 25 tons and 5 huge so-called triliths, stones weighing up to 50 tons. Stacked stone blocks form arches that once served as a flawless indicator of the cardinal directions. Scientists suggest that this monument was built in 3100 BC by the tribes living in the British Isles to observe the Sun and Moon. The ancient monolith is not only sunny and lunar calendar, as previously suggested, but also represents an accurate cross-sectional model of the solar system.
Cromlech Brougar or Temple of the Sun, Orkney. Initially it had 60 elements, but now it consists of 27 rocks. Brougar's cromlech or Brodgar's ring has been dated by archaeologists to 2500 - 2000 BC. The Ring of Brodgar is first mentioned in the 1529 manuscript Description of the Isles of Orcade by a certain Joe Ben, an itinerant monk or pilgrim whose identity has not been precisely established. Not only the Brodgar monument, but also the more ancient one, located here, cromlech Stenness, and in general, everything around them, in this small area - the whole area - ritual, sacred, communicative - is literally crammed with mounds, group and individual burials, even " Cathedral”, as well as the dwellings and villages of the Neolithic people. All these monuments are combined into a single complex protected by UNESCO. Archaeological research is currently underway in the Orkney Islands.
The most famous dolmens are located in Scandinavia, on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Europe and Africa, on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, on the Kuban region, in India. However, most of them are in the Caucasus - about 2.5 thousand! Here along the coast of the Black Sea (megaliths generally gravitate towards the seas) one can find "classic" tiled dolmens, monolithic dolmens, entirely hollowed out in the rock, dolmen structures from a combination of stone slabs and blocks laid in two or more rows. They also talk about the spiritual filling of these amazing structures, their energy charges. Scientists believe that the approximate age of dolmens is 3-10 thousand years.
Log buildings (the second half of the 2nd millennium BC - the beginning of the 1st millennium), in particular mounds, are a common type of memorial structures. Their prototype was residential log houses. During the construction of the barrow, a powerful wooden frame with a wooden floor was constructed in the pit, inside which a burial chamber was arranged. Sometimes the space between the two chambers was filled with stones. The chambers were covered with rolls of logs, which were covered with birch bark. Then they covered it with earth, forming a mound, often of considerable height. A stone was thrown on top of the hill.
Log dwellings became the first step towards the creation of ground chopped wooden buildings. From long horizontally laid logs, multifaceted buildings were obtained, which over time were transformed into one-room rectangular houses. There was a hearth in the middle, the smoke escaping through a hole in the roof above it. This type of building was later called "megaron", the basis Greek architecture
Thus, primitive art is presented in the following main forms: graphics (drawings and silhouettes); painting (images in color, made with mineral paints); sculptures (figures carved from stone or molded from clay); decorative arts (stone and bone carving); reliefs and bas-reliefs.
As you know, in the list of the most famous ancient sights ancient culture There are only seven miracles. But we mustered up the courage to include three more structures that we think are worthy of your attention. So.
Ajanta or the Ajanta caves is a Buddhist temple and monastery complex located near the village of the same name, 100 km northeast of the city of Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India. It was discovered in 1839. It is a rock in the shape of a horseshoe, in which, starting from the II century BC. e. to the 5th century AD e. 30 (according to other sources 29) caves were carved with columns, Buddha statues and world-famous wall paintings reflecting the life of India of that era. This painting, illustrating Buddhist legends and myths, is not only a work of art, but also a valuable historical source of knowledge about those times.
newgrange
Newgrange - ancient building from huge blocks of stone, one of the largest and oldest corridor tombs, built by man between about 3000 BC. e. - 2500 BC e. (older Great Pyramid at Giza and probably Stonehenge). Located 40.2 km north of the city of Dublin, about one kilometer north of the River Boyne, County Meath, Ireland. The mound is 13.5 meters high and 85 meters in diameter. Ancient people erected it from 200,000 tons of stone, wood and earth. It is a large round mound inside, which is a 19-meter stone corridor leading to the burial chamber. Included in the list of the most mysterious sights of the world.
Derinkuyu
Derinkuyu - ancient multi-level underground city, located under the city of the same name in the province of Nevsehir, Turkey. It was built in the II-I millennium BC. e. Discovered in 1963. The underground city reaches a depth of 60 meters and in ancient times could shelter up to 20 thousand people, along with food and livestock. For centuries, people have been hiding here from nomadic raids, religious persecution and other dangers. Although the underground city of Derinkuyu was intended as a temporary shelter, its scale is impressive. It includes numerous wine cellars, stables, cellars, storerooms, refectories, chapels, numerous ventilation ducts, and a complex network of tunnels and corridors.
7 wonders of the ancient world
Alexandrian lighthouse- a lighthouse built according to the project of the architect Sostratus of Cnidus approximately in 279-280. BC e. on the island of Pharos, near Alexandria in Egypt, so that the ships could safely pass the reefs on their way to the bay of Alexandria. According to estimates, its light was visible at a distance of 51 km (according to other sources, up to 83 km). It is assumed that the lighthouse of Alexandria was about 115–120 meters high and at that time was the most tall building in the world. In the XIV century, it was completely destroyed by an earthquake, and in its place, by order of the then Sultan of Egypt, Qaitbey (1416/1418-1496), the Qait-Bey fortress was erected, which today is maritime museum.
Colossus of Rhodes - a bronze statue of the ancient Greek god of the Sun - Helios, built between 292 BC. e. - 280 BC e. in the harbor of the port city of Rhodes on the island of the same name in the Aegean Sea in Greece. It was built according to the project of the architect Hares, a student of Lysippus, in honor of the victory of the inhabitants of Rhodes over the ruler of Cyprus, Antigonus I One-eyed, who, together with his son and an army of 40,000 people, unsuccessfully besieged the city in 305 BC. The height of the statue is about 30 meters. She stood on a 10-meter pedestal and weighed, according to various estimates, from 30 to 70 tons. Compared to other wonders of the world, the Colossus of Rhodes "lived" a short life. Approximately 50 years after its creation, it was completely destroyed by an earthquake and melted down.
In fifth place on the list is the "Mausoleum at Halicarnassus" - a tomb built between 353 and 350 BC. e. in Halicarnassus (modern city of Bodrum, Turkey) for King Mausolus of Caria and his wife-sister Artemisia III. Well-known masters were involved in the construction and decoration of the tomb, including the famous sculptors Skopas, Briaxides, Timofeos and Leohar. The tomb of Mausolus was a majestic and unusually shaped building, built of brick and lined inside and out with white marble. The mausoleum in Halicarnassus, 45 meters high, stood for about 19 centuries, but in the 13th century it collapsed from a strong earthquake.
Zeus statue in Olympia - ancient greek statue Zeus, which was located in the center of the temple of the same name in Olympia on the Peloponnese peninsula. It was erected in the 5th century BC by the ancient Greek sculptor and architect Phidias. The statue of the god reached a height of 12-13 meters and was made of wood (according to some sources, from cedar, according to others - from ebony). Details made of ivory, gold and precious stones were attached to this wooden base with the help of bronze and iron nails, special hooks. The circumstances of the possible destruction of the statue are unknown. According to the Byzantine historian George Kedrin, it was transported to Constantinople, where it burned down in a fire in 476.
Temple of Artemis of Ephesus - a Greek temple located in the city of Ephesus, Asia Minor (not far from modern city Selcuk, Turkey). It was dedicated to Artemis, the Greek goddess of the hunt. The temple was built in the middle of the VI century BC. e, was a rectangular building 105 meters long and 51 meters wide, consisting of marble and wood, and surrounded on all sides by a double row of 127 columns, the height of which was 18 meters. During its entire existence, it was rebuilt three times until July 21, 356 BC. e. was not set on fire by Herostratus - a resident of Ephesus, who dreamed of becoming famous at any cost.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, more correctly called the Hanging Gardens of Amitis, is the only one of the seven wonders of the world whose location has not been definitively established. It is assumed that hanging gardens were built around 575 BC. e. V ancient city Babylon (near the modern city of Hilla, in Iraq), by King Nebuchadnezzar II, for his wife Amitis, who missed the forests of her homeland. They are a pyramid consisting of four tiers-platforms supported by columns up to 25 m high. On these tiers, fertile land lay with a thick carpet, where seeds of various herbs, flowers, shrubs, and trees from Media were planted. The pyramid looked like an evergreen hill. However, after in 331 BC. e. the troops of Alexander the Great captured Babylon, and the great commander himself died, the city gradually fell into decay. The gardens were abandoned and eventually destroyed.
The Pyramid of Cheops is the largest among the Egyptian pyramids, the only one of the "Seven Wonders of the World" that has survived to this day, and also one of the most famous tombs in the world. The pyramid is located on the west bank of the Nile in Egypt on the plateau at Giza, in close proximity to the famous " Great Sphinx". The lion's share of Egyptologists believe that the pyramid was built around 2560 BC. e. and is the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh IV of the Khufu (Cheops) dynasty. It is believed that it was designed by the architect Hemion, the nephew of Cheops. Initially, the pyramid had a height of 146.5 m, but as a result of erosion, today its height is 138.75 m. The total weight of the pyramid is estimated at about 6.25 million tons, the area is ≈ 85,000 m².
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Megalithic buildings are called Stone Age buildings, built of large boulders or slabs of dry masonry. This name combines menhirs, dolmens, alinmans or alleys of stones, covered alleys or dolmen galleries, cromlechs. The most ancient megalithic monuments belong to the Neolithic period. Buildings of this type are found in all areas of the globe, with the exception of Australia.
Menhirs. Menhirs are single large elongated stone blocks dug vertically into the ground in the form of a pillar or obelisk (Plate 7, fig. 1). Their height is very diverse (from 1-2 m to 20 m), the weight of the largest reaches 200-300 tons. Usually these are natural blocks of stone, sometimes they are roughly hewn and have relief images. Menhirs are widespread in France, where more than six thousand of them are registered, in England and Ireland, in Syria, North Africa, South America, and on the territory of the USSR—in the Caucasus and Siberia (Table 7, fig. 4). Sometimes under the menhirs or next to them there are burials that connect them with the cult of the dead. According to the images on them, one can assume a connection with the cult representations of primitive man. Of particular interest are menhir-like stones with relief images of fish, and sometimes the stones themselves have a rough shape of a fish; these are the so-called stones-in and hats, often found in Transcaucasia. A number of menhirs so clearly reflect the cult of ancestral totems (for example, a bull) that they can be put in direct connection with the totem poles of the American Indians and other peoples.
Dolmens. Dolmens are a chamber (usually rectangular) of several vertically placed flat boulders, horizontally covered by one or two or three boulders or huge flat boulders (Plate 7, figs. 2 and 3). The size and weight of the overlapping stone slabs are sometimes very large; so, for example, the overlapping slab of one of the dolmens in La Perotte in Charente (France) weighed 40 tons. A covered gallery arranged in the same way was sometimes attached to the main chamber of the dolmen, sometimes the dolmen itself turned into such a gallery, closed on both sides by large slabs. Drawings were often applied to the walls of the dolmen, usually of an ornamental nature.
In addition to France, where there are about four and a half thousand dolmens, they are found in England, Ireland, southern Scandinavia, Denmark, Holland, northern Germany, Spain, the Mediterranean islands, Italy, North Africa, Syria, Northern Iran, India, Korea, America and the USSR - in the Crimea, the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia. Dolmens are usually considered to be the tombs of the dead, which is proved both by the frequent presence of burials in them, and by the fact that many dolmens are enclosed in a grave mound poured over them.
Dolmens-dwellings. Recent excavations allow, however, to establish that some dolmens served as housing. Dolmen, (excavated in 1938 in Bowlinemon in Ireland, is an ordinary two-chamber building made of monolithic stone slabs placed vertically on a rectangular base (Table 7, fig. b). Previously, it was covered with flat stone slabs, the remains of which were found near the walls of the dolmen. This dolmen was a residential stone house with a well-lined floor, with an entrance formed by two vertically placed stones and a threshold slab between them. The hearth, located on the site in front of the entrance to the dwelling, preserved a layer of coal; apparently, only much later this a dolmen was used for burial.Another similar example is one of the dolmens in Zeeland, in relation to which it was found that its inlet could only be closed from the inside.
Big dolmen in Bagno. One of the largest French Neolithic dolmens at Bagno, near Saumur, is a rectangular structure about 20 m long and 7 m wide, formed by fourteen huge sandstone slabs, three of which form its flat roof (Table 8). The height of vertically placed slabs reaches 3 m. From the narrow front side, where the remains of a stone alley adjoin the dolmen, a wide entrance is arranged between two vertical slabs. This dolmen in size, height and entrance can be considered as a large residential building of the tribal commune.
Dolmens of the North Caucasus. Among the numerous dolmens of the North Caucasus, most are small single-chamber buildings, often closed on all sides, built from whole slabs, or with walls formed from several rows of hewn stone. On one side, a round hole is usually made in the wall. Some dolmens, which stand out both in size and in the arrangement of the entrance and floor, obviously served as dwellings earlier. Such, for example, is a large dolmen in the gorge of the Dzhubga River, built of huge flat slabs and having a wide door opening on the front side of the entire height of the dolmen (a semicircular extension of smaller slabs was made later).
Cromlechs. stonehenge. Cromlechs are ring-shaped fences of one or more rows of vertically placed stones such as menhirs, sometimes occupying a very large area (up to 90 m and even 150 m in diameter (Kerlaskan and Menes cromlechs in Brittany). Large cromlechs usually lead to alleys of stones formed by parallel rows vertically placed stone blocks from 1 to 4 and even up to 7 m high. Of the surviving alleys (in the village; Carnac in Brittany), the largest is about 3 km long. Of the large cromlechs, Stonehenge built in the Bronze Age in England is best preserved (table 7, fig. 5), the original appearance of which can be reconstructed. Outside, it was surrounded by a large annular rampart with a moat about 90 m in diameter. At a distance of 30 m from the rampart was the first circle of thirty vertically placed massive stone blocks in the shape of parallelepipeds and covered from above by a solid ring of thick horizontal slabs.Behind this outer steep, at a distance of 3 m, there was a second circle of 45 - 50 small stones pointed upwards; the third, open circle consisted of five triliths (two vertical blocks covered by a horizontal slab). Inside the third circle there was another horseshoe-shaped row of small pointed stones, and finally, slightly shifted from the center of the circle, lay a flat stone slab 5 m long and 1 m wide.
In large cromlechs, one can assume open sanctuaries, and in the central slabs - altars on which sacrifices were made.
Mounds of North America. Quite a different type primitive structures are the "mounds" of North America. Mounds are earthen structures depicting mostly totem animals: a bear, an elk, a bison, a fox, snakes, turtles, birds, etc. Such mounds are especially common in Wisconsin. The images were probably made in the following way: the outline of the animal was drawn on the surface of the hill, then the rock lying behind the outline was chipped off and thrown back. The dimensions of such mounds often reach a length of 60, 75 and even 150 m. The "mound of the snake" in the state of Ohio (Table 142, fig. 7) had a snake body length of more than 300 m. In the southern regions, such images were made from large fragments of rocks set or placed along the contour of the figure. By the nature of the images and the presence in some cases of an elevation in the form of an altar, and sometimes burials, it can be assumed that the mounds were dedicated to the cult of ancestors - totems.
Architecture of a primitive society
Paleolithic era
The most ancient images are the Paleolithic Venuses. Primitive female figurines. A generalized image of a woman-mother, a symbol of fertility and the keeper of the hearth.
Mesolithic era(Middle Stone Age)
Rock art is dominated by multi-figured compositions.
Neolithic era
Rock painting becomes schematic and conditional.
megaliths- these are huge stone structures
Menhir- this is a free-standing stone, more than 2 meters high
Dolmens- these are several stones dug into the ground, covered with a slab.
Cromlech- This is a complex building in the form of circular fences, with a diameter of up to 100 m.
The most famous cromlech is Stone henge in england built of 120 stone blocks, up to 7 tons each, with a diameter of 30 m.
Architecture of Ancient Egypt
Religion plays a major role in the life of society. 
The burial place of noble people is mastaba- This is a low parallelogram shape. The lower ones form a stepped pyramid. The mother of the Egyptian pyramids is considered Pyramid Zhdoser. The construction of the pyramids reflects 3 main principles: giant size, pyramidal shape and the use of stone as the main building material. The most famous and highest the Pyramid of Cheops, 147 m high, the outside of the pyramid was usually covered with slabs polished to a mirror finish. The impressive size, mirror shine evoke feelings of awe and fear. Feeling of monumentality (a person feels worthless).
Temples of Luxor and Kornak
The temples are connected by a three-meter alley of sphinxes.
The scheme of the temple: an alley of sphinxes approaches the entrance, which is decorated pylons. The entrance leads to an open courtyard surrounded by walls, columns and statues. Through the second entrance we get into hypostyle hall supported by rows of columns. In the hall, more than 120 columns form 16 rows. The height of the columns is 20 m, the diameter is 3.5 m, the capital (the upper part of the columns) is presented in the form of lotus or papyrus flowers. The columns were painted, the ceiling was also dark blue with soaring birds. From the hypostyle hall it was possible to go to a small sanctuary, where only the pharaoh and priests could enter. In front of the entrance to the temple there were usually obelisks symbolizing a ray of light.
Palace of Queen Hatshepsut
The temple stands at the foot of the rocks, which serve as a background and merge with it into a single whole. The temple is located on three terraces connected ramps(inclined platforms)
City of Thebes
The city has served as the capital of Egypt for many centuries. The city is located on two banks of the Nile. On the east coast, where the sun rises, lies city of the living, on the western shore were the tombs of kings and nobles - City of dead.
Architecture of Ancient Western Asia
In the interfluve there was neither stone nor wood suitable for construction. The buildings were built of unbaked bricks. Buildings were built on a rammed clay platform that protected from floods. Here it was developed new form temple called Ziggurat.
A ziggurat is a stepped tomb, a symbol of a stairway to heaven. The number of tiers could be different, the tiers were painted in different colors: the lower tier is black, the middle tier is red, the upper tier is white. At the very top was a sanctuary. At that time it was built Ziggurat Etemenanke, which became the prototype of the Tower of Babel.
Temple in Babylon during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar 2. The palace housed hanging gardens - Babylon, considered one of the 7 wonders of the world. The only thing that has survived to our time is Ishtar Tower Gate, are located in Berlin.
Architecture of Ancient Greece
The Cretan-Mycenaean civilization has become an exemplary art workshop for a large region - from Balkan Greece and islands Aegean Sea to the coast of Asia Minor.
Crete architecture
In Crete, palaces were mainly built, designed for secular and religious needs. The palace could serve simultaneously as the residence of the ruler of the city and as a fortress. Palaces were usually associated with mountain shrines set in caves. Each palace was oriented towards a specific sacred mountain.
sacred gardens.
The sacred garden was usually located in southeast corner palace complex. There was a "theatrical platform" for ritual stage performances and a paved area with stone-lined pits (for storing grain, or sacred trees were planted in them).
The main eras of ancient Greece:
1. Geometrics of the 9th-8th centuries BC e.
2. Archaic 7-6 century BC
3. Classic: early 490-450 BC
High 450 BC
Late 400-323 BC
4. Hellenism 3-1 century BC
geometry, the name of the style according to the decorative paintings of vessels, such patterns as rhombus, square, circle prevailed there ... each vessel had a body, throat, neck, rim, handles, legs. The main thing in the vessel is its extraordinary stability, called tectonics.
Age of the Archaic. The temples repeated the idea of the Cretan megaron- this is a rectangular building with an entrance on a narrow end wall with columns that either framed the entrance, or divided the interior space along, or stood against the walls.
Archaic created a single architectural language - order system. oorprp
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Order - an architectural composition consisting of vertical bearing supports in the form of columns and horizontal bearing parts. The most common in ancient architecture:
1. .Doric- Identified the body of a man. Powerful, minimum decorations, no base. Named after the Dorians. 
2. Ionic- identified a woman, it is more elegant than Doric, has a base, named after the Ionian tribe.
3. 
Corinthian- identifies a girl, more elegant, maximum jewelry.
Later, architects began to choose an order for temples depending on the gender, spirit and Olympic authority of the deity.
Age of the Classics.
Great shrines are being built: Apollo at Delphi, Hera at Olympia. The most famous ensemble is Athens Acropolis, which stood on a high rock above the city. This is a unique architectural complex, which included temples, a pinakothek (art gallery), statues of gods. The main temple is the Parthenon temple. There are 8 columns on the end walls, 17 on the side walls. The outer columns of the Doric order, the walls of the temple itself were crowned with an Ionic frieze. It was designed for perception from the outside.
The most beautiful Temple on the Acropolis - Erechtheion with a portico of caryatids. Figures of a woman – caryatids, men - Atlanteans. An even number of columns is required.
Greek art created a special genre memorial steles- This is a tomb relief. Above the graves, memorial tombstones with high relief were placed, which were placed in aedicules- these are niches framed by two small columns with entablature and a pediment above them.
Architecture ancient rome
By ancient Rome is meant not only the city of Rome, but also all the countries and peoples conquered by it, from british isles to Egypt.
Having adopted from the Etruscans and Greeks the rationally organized strict planning of cities, the Romans improved it. The planning of cities corresponded to the conditions of life: trade on a huge scale, the spirit of military and discipline, the attraction to entertainment and splendor. The Romans first began to build "model" cities, the prototype of which was the Roman military camps. The city had the shape of a square, which was crossed by two perpendicular streets (cardo and decumanum) at the intersection of which the center was erected.
Republican period. Late 6th-mid 1st century BC formation of a world slave-owning power. Common types of structures: amphitheaters (Coliseum), terms(baths), triumphal arches, aqueducts- a bridge with a laid water pipe, palaces, villas, theaters, temples, monuments ...
Passion for Greek art manifested itself in the appeal to the order system, but here it performed mainly a decorative function. The supporting function was performed by the wall. The Romans invented monolithic shell system building a wall. The basis was made up of two narrow brick walls, between which crushed stone with concrete was poured. Outside, the walls were faced with marble or other stone. Magma powder was used instead of cement. A large place belonged to the arch, based on pillars. This made it possible to build multi-storey structures with vaulted and domed ceilings. The main form of the ceiling was the vault, it was made of stone. At the intersection of two cylindrical vaults, a cross vault is obtained. With equal spans, a square. The inner surface of the vaults of the intersection is formed by ribs, in which the pressure of the vault is concentrated. This made it possible to cut through the supporting walls with semicircular arches.
Of all the Roman orders, the Tuscan one is the simplest in decoration and the heaviest in proportion.
Important strategic importance had roads, they were paved with concrete with rubble, lava and tuff slabs. Bridges are being built aqueducts.
Public life proceeded on the market square - forums(similar squares were built in ancient Greece, they were called agoras). All major city events were held at the forum. The architectural ensemble included temples - basilicas- a public building in the form of an elongated rectangle, shops of merchants - taberns, squares were decorated with statues, porticos, rostral columns - columns to which the bows of defeated ships were attached. Also here was the "sacred road". The main type of public buildings was the temple. It was formed as a result of crossing Italian and ancient Roman traditions with Greek ones. Mainly built pseudoperiptory with entrance only from the main facade, as well as monopters consisting of a cylindrical base surrounded by a colonnade with an entrance from the end side.
City of Pompeii. The city had a regular layout. The streets were decorated with the facades of houses, at the bottom of which tavern shops were arranged. The population of Pompeii is 10,000 people, and the amphitheater, built, like the Greeks in a natural depression, accommodated 20 thousand people. Construction of Pompeian houses domus. These were rectangular structures that stretched along the courtyard, and faced the street with blank end walls. The main room was the atrium (from lat. smoky), that is, rooms that performed a sacred function. The atrium repeated the model of the Greek cult pit "mundus". Rectangular hole in the roof compluvium, the pool below it - impluvium. The atrium served as a "pillar of the world", that is, it connected the house with heaven and underworld. The atrium also contained valuables, a chest with family valuables, an altar-type table, and a cupboard for storing ancestral wax masks. The walls inside the house were painted
First Pompeian style. Second end of the 1st century BC this is a geometric ornament that resembled lining the walls with semi-precious stones. The style is named inlaid.
Second Pompeian style. 1st century BC - architectural. The interior turned, as it were, into a semblance of a city landscape. Images of colonnades, porticos, and facades ran along the entire height of the walls.
Third Pompeian style – candelabra, late 1st century BC 50 AD It was distinguished by ornamental architectural motifs, the predominance of light openwork structures.
Fourth Pompeian style 63 AD - 1st century AD - fantastic architecture. Dynamic spatial composition, an abundance of unevenly lit figures, being in motion, variegation of color.
In contrast to the houses with their luxury and comfort were multi-storey houses for the plebeians.
Empire period. It began with the reign of Augustus 27 BC. - 14 AD, the golden age of the Roman state. Rome acquired a look corresponding to the prestige of the world capital. Mausoleum of Augustus. A round building 90 m in diameter, consisting of two concentric walls, raised on an artificial hill. Emperor Neuron erects the famous "golden house", which was a palace and a villa at the same time. The embodiment of power was triumphal arches, which he erected in honor of the victory over the enemy and as a sign of the consecration of new cities.
Example, arch of Titus, in memory of the victory of the Romans in the Jewish war. The height of the arch is 15.4 m, the width is 5.33 m. The arch served as the basis for the sculptural group - the emperor on a chariot. Decorates the arch with an attic dedicated to Emperor Titus. A large place in the life of the Romans is occupied by spectacles. Flavian amphitheater - Colosseum(from lat. rough). Built in 70-80s. AD IN sunny days at the top, a blue canvas canopy was pulled over the pins (velu, velarius) 
. The Colosseum accommodated 50,000 spectators, height 48.5 m. The building is divided into 4 tiers, each of which is decorated with warrants. The lower tier is Doric, the second is Ionic, the third is Corinthian, the fourth is pilasters of the Corinthian order. In each opening stood statues of famous people of Rome. There are several basements where animals and utilities (pipes with water) were housed. The building evoked a sense of rugged energy through its vast scale, generalized forms, and solemn rhythms.
Tuscan order - invented by the Romans, similar to the Doric, but there are no flutes, a minimum of decorations, only a column and a capital.
Age of Emperor Hadrian. Adrian was an adherent of everything Greek. Under him, the most spiritual monument of world architecture was created Pantheon- the temple of all the gods. It was a classic example of a central-domed building. The proportions of the building are perfect - the diameter of the dome is 43.5 m, almost equal to the height of 42.7 m, that is, a ball can be entered into the dome space. Light penetrates through holes in the dome, diameter 9 m (the eye of the pantheon), this is the only source of light, the space is divided into tiers, the walls are lined with colored marble. The interior is dissected by columns of the Corinthian order with niches with statues, the attic floor with false windows and pilasters ends with an entablature. The dome is divided by 5 circular rows of cassettes, decreasing upwards. The building evokes a feeling of peace, tranquility, inner harmony, departure from the earthly at eta to the world of spirituality.
In the 1st century A.D. appears new type buildings - giant baths- This public baths designed for 2-3 thousand people. It was a complex of premises of various purposes, intended for the all-round development of a person. The halls of cold and warm rooms, which form the center, the core of the composition, adjoin numerous rooms for gymnastic exercises and mental exercises. The premises were striking in the luxury of decoration, most The famous Baths of Caracalla.
Byzantine architecture
In place of the old Greek colony Byzantium was founded by the city of Emperor Constantine - Constantinople, which on May 11, 330 was officially declared the capital of the Roman Empire. Subsequently, the empire was divided into 2 parts: western and eastern. The first fell under the onslaught of the Germanic tribes, and the eastern one lasted for another millennium.
The first Christians of the Roman Empire were forced to hide, they gathered in catacombs- labyrinths of caves for the burial of the dead. The catacombs were for them both a church (from lat. meeting) and martyrium- construction over the grave of the martyr, and the cemetery. The walls were whitewashed and decorated with paintings. Christ was portrayed as a young shepherd surrounded by nature. Later, Constantine legalized Christianity as one of the state religions.
Constantinople(Second Rome). The city was not like traditional Roman cities. The city was located on a triangular-shaped peninsula. became the center imperial palace located in the least accessible part of the peninsula. The palace overlooked large area, from which the main street began, framed by rows of arches, through them on main street as if the fan of the side streets was drawn in. Such a layout was determined not only by the shape of the island, but also revealed the exclusive role of the imperial power. Walls protected the city from enemies. The enemy from land was met by a moat filled with water 10 m deep. Behind it rose a wall with a height of 3 human heights, behind it a second wall with towers twice as high as the first, and then a third 6-7 m high with a very deep foundation. A similar wall ran along the seashore. The main exit was a golden gate with three openings.
Christianity inherited 2 types of buildings: 1- centric buildings that served mainly as martiriya and baptismal. They were small, and in plan they represented a square, a circle, an octagon or an equal (Greek) cross. The inner space of the centric temple gathered the worshipers in the middle, where they were at rest.
2 - basilica is an elongated rectangle. The building was divided by longitudinal rows of supports into several rows - naves. The middle nave is usually wider and taller than the rest, most often it ended with a semicircular ledge - apse. The interior of the basilica orients the visitor to action, movement.
The most successful type of church turned out to be a shortened basilica, with the altar oriented to the east and crowned with a dome.
In terms of the basilica, a transverse nave appears - transept. A dome was erected in the center of the resulting cross. This scheme became known as the cross-dome. The Christians decided that the apse should correspond to the Bethlehem cave, where Christ was born and where he was buried.
The largest and most famous Christian temple in Constantinople Church of Hagia Sophia. The main task of the architects was the problem of building a grandiose size. To erect a building of almost 100 meters in length, and even to cover it with a dome, without having raw materials for the production of concrete, was an impossible task. It was decided to make the "skeleton" of the dome from numerous arches and vaults: two large semi-domes adjoined the central dome, and smaller domes, in turn, adjoined them. The thrust force spreads and splits until it is taken over by special column pylons. Due to the light penetrating the arches along the perimeter of the base of the dome, it seems that the dome "floats" in the air.
The height of the building is 54.8m. Dome diameter - 32.6m
Later, when the Turks captured Constantinople, the cathedral was rebuilt as a mosque - 4 minarets were attached to it, mosaics were removed. This cathedral served as a model for the construction of the Hagia Sophia in Kyiv. Served as the basis for the construction of temples in Rus'.
France
Church of St. Paul and Peter in the monastery of Cluny. Length 127m,
Germany.
Basically the so-called. "transitional style", which combined Romanesque and Gothic features.
Italy.
Antique features predominate (architecture of ancient Greece and Rome), an example Cathedral and tower in Pisa.
The Romans considered Gothic art to be barbaric. By the end of the 12th century, cities became the center of culture, politics, and economic life. Cities have significant privileges, they had a body of self-government. In the center of the city, a town hall was formed - the modern city hall. A tower was erected above the town hall, which symbolized the symbol of freedom. Cathedrals were supposed to accommodate more people than before, so the design of the building is changing: the vault now rests on arches, and not on walls, which, in turn, on pillars, lateral pressure is transferred flying buttanam– outdoor semi-arches and buttresses- crutches of the building, pillars. Due to this design, it became possible to reduce the thickness of the walls and cut windows into them. The smooth surface of the walls disappears, stained-glass windows, various sculptures, and so on appear instead. gothic cathedral light and uplifting. The boundaries between the parts of the temple were erased. The space of the cathedral - with numerous decorations, light pouring through stained-glass windows - created an image of the heavenly world, embodying the dream of a miracle.
France. Notre Dame de Paris Or Notre Dame Cathedral. Time of construction 11-14 centuries. 5-aisled basilica on an island in the Seine. Length 129 m. Three entrances - portals, there are niches with statues French kings, called the "Royal Gallery". The western façade is decorated with a “rose” window; chimeras, fantastic creatures, are located on the towers.
Cathedral in Chartres character traits french gothic. Relatively low towers and a rose window is a must.
Most great cathedral- in Amiens, height 42.5 m, length 145 m.
England. Gothic architecture is mainly associated with monasteries. The buildings of the Gothic style have not been preserved.
Germany.
Cathedral in Cologne. Height 46 m, in comparison with France, the towers are taller and pointed, there is no rose window. Lots of lancet windows.
Italy. Doge's Palace in Venice.
Once there was a prison. A striking example"flaming" Gothic - due to decorations in the form of flames.
Asian architecture
Arab countries Iran and Turkey
In the first third of the 7th century in the city of Mecca ( Arabian Peninsula) a new religion arose - Islam, the founder was Mohammed. His sermons were written down and concentrated in the Qur'an. In the 8th century, the state Arab Caliphate was created. The architecture of Islam was formed in accordance with local building traditions. In the campaign, the Muslims outlined the territory on the sand, determining by the shadow of a spear stuck in the ground, the direction to Kaaba(Arabic cube) - sanctuaries in the form of a rectangular stone fence. The Kaaba has become sacred center Islam, and Muslims pray facing her.
The first mosques built appeared in 665-670. AD They are a square courtyard surrounded by galleries on pillars. On the side facing the Kaaba, 5 or more columns were placed, which created a prayer hall.
Over time, mosques began to be distinguished by purpose, a small - masjid served as a place of individual prayer. Jami and Cathedral- for collective prayers on Friday, and the main jami is called (big mosque) Jami il - Kabir. Country mosque - musawa.
The hallmark of the mosque is mihrab - a sacred niche oriented to the Kaaba (flat, conditional or concave). The lancet end of the mihrab means a dot on "sacred axis of Islam", thanks to which the mental connection of the prayer with the earthly Kaaba is carried out, reflecting his spiritual connection with the heavenly Kaaba.
Since the 8th century, mosques have been added minarets- the towers from which they call for prayer, usually there are 4 of them. In the west of the Muslim world they are 4-sided, in the east they are round-barreled, sometimes they are spiral.
An example of Islamic palace architecture - This is the Alhambra Palace in Grenada (Spain). The massive walls of the fortress with towers and bastions, traps and secret entrances hide the "treasure" - the palace, luxurious and comfortable. This is typical Muslim architecture - a pearl hidden in a shell.
Arabesques. This is a complex pattern, characteristic of Arabic art, created on the basis of an accurate mathematical calculation. The arabesque is built on the repetition and / or multiplication of several elements of the pattern. Inscriptions, floral motifs, images of birds and w 
animals or other fantastic creatures. The walls of the mosque were painted with such arabesques.
Architecture of India
3rd century BC In India, Buddhism is spreading as the state religion. The first buildings - memorial columns, on which the decrees of the rulers are carved - stambha, height 10 m. completed with capitals with images of animals. Later, burial monuments appeared - stupa. The stupas are shaped like a hemisphere, which means the symbol of the sky and infinity. The central pole of the stupa is the axis of the universe connecting heaven and earth, a symbol of the world tree of life. "Umbrella" at the end of the pole - this is a stepwise ascent to nirvana, also a symbol of power. The stupa is surrounded by a fence, on 4 cardinal points, in which there are gates decorated with a relief.
Popular in India cave temples – chaityas, that is, carved directly into the rock. Stupas are placed inside in the widest corridor. The only source of light was a large horseshoe-shaped window. Sculptural pairs on the facade personified two principles in nature - male and female, and their union gives rise to all life on earth.
Kandarya Temple. 10-11 centuries. Parts of the building: sanctuary, prayer hall, vestibule, entrance located on the same axis and tightly adjacent to each other. Each part of the building is separated by a tower superstructure, the most high part- sanctuary.
The famous 19th century philosopher Rabindranath Tagore described the art of India as follows: "India has always had one unchanging ideal - merging with the universe."
An example of Muslim architecture in India - the mausoleum of the Taj Mahal.
Asian architecture
There are two main religions in Indochina: Buddhism and Hinduism. In the south- East Asia- Hindu ideas about the center of the universe were identified with Mount Meru - the habitat of the gods. The king acted as the viceroy of God on earth or as the incarnation of God from Mount Meru, therefore temples and royal palaces were built in accordance with this concept, that is, the buildings resembled mountains.
Angor Wat Complex. 12th century AD, on a stepped mountain surrounded by a wall, there were 5 temples - towers, as well as many other superstructures, a patio, stairs, galleries. In plan, the complex was a rectangle 1300 - 1500 m. A canal was laid around it. A road with statues of lions and nagas leads through the canal to the main entrance.
Architectural complex Borobudur. 8th - 9th century. The temple was built on the top of a hill, on a huge stone platform above it tapering pyramidally, 5 terraces with bypass corridors rise. Above there are 3 round terraces, on which 72 stupas are placed. Each stupa has a statue of Buddha. The whole structure is crowned in the center with a large bell-shaped stupa. Steep stairs lead to the top of the temple from each of the four sides.
The symbolism of the temple: the temple personifies Mount Meru, a stepwise ascent upward to truth and enlightenment. The relief depicted the assistants of the Buddha. Buddha statues personified spiritual perfection. The crowning composition - a large stupa symbolized the highest level of knowledge of the world.
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According to the ancient Chinese, the earth is a square. China itself is in the center, the sky has the shape of a circle, so they call themselves the middle kingdom or under heaven. These forms take on symbolism in sacrificial altars. Round altars are for heaven, and square ones for earth. In the 3rd century BC. after the wars, small kingdoms united into a single empire, the city of Sanyang became the capital of the empire.
By order of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi, the most powerful fortification was created from the remains of the defensive structures of the kingdoms - The great Wall of China. Length at that time 750 km, height 10 m, width 5 - 8 m. The wall runs along the tops of the rocks.
Emperor's Tomb. The tomb is surrounded by two rows of walls, forming a square in plan. On top of a cone-shaped hill. The walls of the tomb are lined with marble and jade, a map of the empire is drawn on the stone floor, there was also a sculptural image of 5 sacred mountains, and the ceiling looks like a firmament with stars. In 1974 at a distance of 1.5 km from the tomb, 11 parallel underground tunnels were found with a giant clay army, where each warrior is endowed with individual features, made in full size and painted.
In the 4th - 6th centuries AD. Buddhist monasteries play an important role. Towers in which Buddhist relics have been preserved - pagodas, the number of tiers in the pagoda is necessarily odd.
« iron pagoda" is a 50 m tower with 13 m tiers, lined with rust-colored ceramic plates.
Beijing has been the capital of China since 1421. In plan, the city consisted of two adjoining and walled rectangles with connecting gates. The whole city is crossed by the large Beijing Highway, which ends at the northern wall, where the most important events in the life of the country take place. The highway had rather a symbolic meaning, it was impossible to walk along it, since the path was blocked by artificial hills, up to 60 m high. Such hills are protectors from evil spirits, which, according to legend, could only move in a straight line. The hill belonged to every pagoda, because, according to the ancient Chinese, "a city without a peak is the same as without walls, it was threatened with imminent death."
The roofs of buildings and structures began to be covered with colored tiles. In accordance with the symbolism: golden color - the power of the emperor; blue - sky, peace, rest; green - tree foliage.
In the center of Beijing, the main ensemble is forbidden city. The city is surrounded by red walls 10 m high and a moat with water. There is an imperial palace, consisting of several parts: front rooms, various halls, corridors, living rooms, theaters, gardens, pavilions ... in the northern part there is an imperial garden with an artificial pond, rare tree species and more. Each building has its own poetic name. For example, the hall of higher harmony, the temple of prayers for the harvest, the temple of heaven.
A characteristic feature of the ensemble: simplicity and clarity of forms, combined with elegance, brightness, solemnity.
Tibetan architecture
Religion is Buddhism. The secular and spiritual ruler is the Dalai Lama (the ocean of wisdom).
Tibetan monasteries- these are large architectural ensembles, usually located on the slopes of the mountains and rise in ledge terraces to the peaks, so their silhouette seems to be a natural continuation of the mountains.
The monasteries include: the dwelling of the monks, the repository of manuscripts, temples, workshops, a large area for religious performances.
The roofs of the temples are crowned with gold, bronze symbols of Buddhism zhaptsany- these are cylindrical vessels with lists of prayers inside.
Example, Potala Palace(16 - 17 centuries) - this is the residence of the Dalai - Lama. 
Japanese architecture
Religion - Buddhism came from China.
Traditional Japanese house. The house is made of wood frame. Raised on wooden posts, about 30 cm - this is necessary for ventilation.
The house has one stationary wall with a hearth, and the other three walls can move apart (to merge with nature). The walls are covered with paper or silk. The perimeter of the building is surrounded by a veranda.
The building is low, as the proportions are designed for a seated person. An essential element in every home is tokonama- a niche in a fixed wall where a picture could hang or a flower arrangement could stand – ikebana.
Each house must have a garden or a fragment of nature (with stones, a hill, trees, ponds) or a symbolic “dry garden”. The basis is sand and a composition of stones.
Example , Ryoanji garden in Kyoto(garden of 15 stones) is a platform 19×23 m. The platform is covered with sand, consisting of a composition of stones. When observing from any point, only 14 stones are visible.
Palaces of Italy
Palazzo( hence the Russian "chamber") - the city mansion of the nobility. Characteristic features of the manifestation of tectonics on the facades:
1st tier is processed with a roughly processed stone "rust" (stones with geometrically processed edges - diamond rustication),
2nd tier (in the form of a brick wall) was faced with brick with jointing,
3 tier - the surface is smooth.
Powerful overhanging cornice.
The presence of a courtyard with arches around the perimeter. This type of building served as a model for the buildings of the nobility throughout the world (except America).
Andrea Palladio
The pseudonym arose from the Greek goddess Pallas Athena, because this young man was considered capable of reviving the beauty and wisdom of the ancient Greeks.
Palladio outlined his ideas in the work "Four Books on Architecture". His compositions are distinguished by strict orderliness, naturalness, peace in that his buildings fit into the environment.
Example, Palazzo Rotunda. The building is almost cubic in shape, where porticos are attached from four facades.
