The population of Scotland, its history and language. Scotland is a strange but charming country

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SCOTLAND, country that occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It is separated from England mainly by the Cheviot Hills and the Tweed River. To the west of Scotland, on the other side of the North Channel (St. Patrick's Sound), is Northern Ireland. The southern coast of Scotland faces the Irish Sea and the Solway Firth. Scotland's borders have remained unchanged for almost 500 years.

Scotland is an integral part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. However, the political status of Scotland is not noted in this title. Although Scotland has never been an autonomous or federal unit of Great Britain and is no longer a kingdom, it is not just a geographical or administrative area. Scotland can be seen as separate country. The Scots defend their national identity and retain many institutions that are not found in England and other English-speaking countries. They have their own capital, Edinburgh, their own church, laws and courts, their own banks and banknotes. In Scotland, cities are called burghs (as opposed to boroughs in England), and their mayors are called provosts (in England, mayors), sheriffs there are judges who receive a salary, and not honorary dignitaries, as in England.

Peculiar institutions have been preserved in Scotland since ancient times, when it was a sovereign state. For a long time there have been attempts to unite Scotland and England. Many of them were acts of armed aggression on the part of England. The Scots for a long time successfully repulsed the invaders, which contributed to the strengthening of national identity. In 1603, when, after the death of Elizabeth I, the Scottish king James VI peacefully established himself on the English throne, both countries found themselves under the rule of one monarch, but each retained its own parliament and its own governing bodies. Then, in accordance with the Act of Union 1707, Scotland and England joined the United Kingdom of Great Britain with a single parliament and central government.

However, even after 1707, Scotland retained its identity, as some of its institutions were clearly specified by the Act of Union, and in the most recent years there has been a trend towards decentralization of government, with many government functions transferred to individual Scottish departments.

Although in terms of area (78,772 sq. km) Scotland is more than half the area of ​​England and Wales combined (151,126 thousand sq. km), its population in 1991 totaled only 4,989 thousand people compared to 49,890 thousand in England and Wales . In the 20th century In Scotland, there have been significant changes in the distribution of the population: migration to the cities has increased, where 9 out of every 10 Scots now live. In the mountains and on the islands, the population density does not exceed 12 people per 1 sq. km. km. However, at present, the centers of population growth are not big cities and their suburban areas.

Nature.

The character of the Scottish people and their way of life were largely influenced by the natural environment: due to the predominance of mountains and uplands, only 1/5 of the territory was suitable for agriculture. In the south, the South Scottish Highlands are bordered on almost all sides by coastal lowlands and river valleys. The Mid-Scottish Lowland, which crosses the country between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde, is highly industrialized. To the north of this belt, almost along the entire eastern coast, a wide plain can be traced, and agriculture is developed in several large river valleys. Only in the most fertile lands to the south and east - in the Tweeda Valley, Ayr, Lothian, the county north of the Firth of Tay, partly in Aberdeen and along both banks of the Moray Firth - intensive farming brings very high incomes.

Rocky hills and swamps are widespread in Scotland, and mountains dominate in its central and western regions. Herself high point- Mount Ben Nevis in the Grampian Mountains - reaches only 1343 m, several other peaks rise above 1200 m. However, there are approx. 300 peaks exceeding 900 m and many mountains make an impressive impression, rising almost from the seashore. There are no clearly defined ridges in the mountains of Scotland; when viewed from above, a mass of randomly dispersed peaks opens up, separated by deep narrow valleys called glens, or elongated narrow lochs. The valley of Glen More, containing three lakes (Loch Ness, Loch Loch and Loch Lynn) and continuing in underwater valleys at both ends, is distinguished by its rectilinear outlines; it stretches from the southwest to the northeast and divides the entire highlands of Scotland into two parts. Throughout this dissected territory, outcrops of bedrock are often found, and only in the lower parts of the slopes of the mountains and in the glen there are pastures and arable lands. In the last quarter of the 20th century Scotland carried out extensive afforestation.

The coasts of Scotland are heavily dissected. In the west, sucker bays, which have a fjord-like character, are deeply embedded in central part mountain country. Off the coast of Scotland is approx. 500 islands united in archipelagos. The most significant of them is Hebrides, which includes such large islands as Lewis (1990 sq. Km) and Skye (1417 sq. Km), along with grass-covered rocks suitable for grazing a few sheep. The northern archipelagos - Orkney and Shetland - have 150 islands of various sizes. Both Western and northern islands differ in a variety of landscapes; there are very fertile areas along with completely barren outcrops of bedrock. By contrast, off the east coast of Scotland there is very little major islands. Here, steep ledges come out to the North Sea, alternating with sandy beaches. In the past, in the days of small sailing ships, there were many small ports on the east coast, mainly at the mouths of the rivers. Through these ports, trade relations between Scotland and neighboring countries Northern Europe. In the 18th century, when Scotland began to trade with America, the deep-water estuary of the Clyde River became the main trading artery of the country.

Transport problems have always largely depended on the terrain. Until good roads were built (end of the 18th century), small loads were transported on horseback, and heavy or bulky goods had to be transported by sea from one port to another. Soon the era of railways began, which greatly contributed to transportation to more populated areas located at low altitudes. However, in the highlands in the west and north of Scotland, the construction of railways was difficult, and the main mode of transport remained steamboat traffic along the coast and along the lochs. Currently, road transport is dominant. Many railway lines were dismantled and steamboat services were cancelled. Air communication plays a minor role, it is maintained only between the UK and some islands, but its development is hindered by fogs and strong winds.

The climate of Scotland is typical maritime. The average January temperature is approx. 4° C, July - 14° C. There are differences between the open west coast and the more sheltered east coast, the latter characterized by colder winters and warmer summers. Much falls in the west more precipitation. The average annual rate for the whole of Scotland is 1300 mm per year, but on some exposed western slopes it rises to 3800 mm.

population and lifestyle.

The population of Scotland occurred as a result of mixing of several races. The earliest inhabitants of the country were the Caledonians, or Picts, who inhabited most of the territory north of the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. In the southwest lived the Britons, related to the Welsh. Argyll ca. 500 AD an Irish colony was founded, and at the same time the Angles left the European continent and landed in the southeast of Great Britain. In the 8th-11th centuries. the Scandinavians visited almost the entire coast of Scotland, but settled in the north and west. In the 12th century Normans and Flemings appeared there. Many Irish immigrants arrived in the 19th century. Proceeded in a similar way migration processes between England and Scotland.

Plains dwellers and highlanders.

The main difference is between the plains people, who are of mixed ethnogenesis and have spoken English for centuries, and the highlanders, who are mostly of Celtic origin and who until recently spoke Gaelic. In the 11th century Gaelic was spoken in almost all parts of Scotland, but subsequently the area of ​​​​its distribution narrowed significantly. In the 1960s, there were no more than 80,000 Gaelic speakers, almost all of whom lived in Western mountainous areas and on the islands and also knew English language.

There were more than just linguistic differences between the Highlanders and the Lowland Scots. Important differences persisted between a predominantly agricultural (later predominantly industrial) economy in the plains and a predominantly pastoral economy in the mountains. In addition, the specificity of land use with the concentration of the population in the glen, separated by mountains, apparently favored the cohesion of some clans. As a result, until the 18th century. the highlanders could not be completely turned into law-abiding subjects of the kingdom.

Religion.

Many Scots are Presbyterians and their religious life takes place within the Scottish Church. The adherents of this church make up 2/3 of all believers, it enjoys strong influence almost everywhere. The heresies and schisms that plagued Scottish Presbyterians in the 18th and 19th centuries for the most part overcome. The two surviving Presbyterian minorities, the Free Church and the Free Presbyterian Church, have their adherents predominantly in certain mountainous regions and on the western islands, where their highly conservative teachings retain their appeal to the populace.

The Reformation won over most of the country, and at the end of the 17th century. only about 12 thousand Catholics remained in Scotland, who lived mainly in the mountains, in the west of the main island and on one or two small islands. Until the 19th century The Roman Catholic Church sought only to strengthen its influence in these areas. However, Irish immigration, especially during the famine years of the 1840s, contributed to the growth of the Catholic population in industrial areas, mainly around Glasgow. Currently, there are about 800,000 Catholics in the country. In the 18th century the positions of the Anglican Church were strengthened in the areas located north of the river Tey. Now its role has weakened, with the exception of the petty nobility, whose authority outside the cities is not great.

Culture.

In Scotland, education has long been under the control of the Church. During the Middle Ages, cathedrals or other temples, schools were established, which were managed by city councils. At the same time, the church organized three universities in Scotland - in St. Andrews (1410), Glasgow (1451) and Aberdeen (1494). The University of Edinburgh was founded shortly after the Reformation (1583); four more universities were added in the 1960s - Strathclyde in Glasgow, Heriot-Watt in Edinburgh, Dundee and Stirling. Several parliamentary acts of the 17th century. schools were called for in every parish, but in remote areas this idea was put into practice without much haste. In the 18th - early 19th centuries. in addition to the parish system, schools were established by voluntary societies until the whole country was completely covered by educational institutions. In 1872 the old order was replaced state system and schooling became compulsory. The Scottish tradition did not encourage the establishment of private schools under the direction of school boards, however, schools in the country were very diverse until the late 1800s.

Sport.

The national sport in Scotland is football, but it is played mostly by professionals. Scotland is the birthplace of golf, and the sandy east coast has good golf courses. In the mountains they play children's hockey, similar to the usual one. Highlander costumes give color to sports competitions, which, together with bagpipe competitions, are regularly held in mountainous areas.

Economy.

Scotland is predominantly an industrial country. Businesses are concentrated in the Lowlands between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. In the same strip are the main industrial centers - Edinburgh and Glasgow. Both old (steel, printing and brewing) and relatively new industries (petrochemical, electronics and automotive) are represented here. In addition, shipbuilding and general engineering are developed in the Clydeside area, which includes Glasgow and its suburbs.

Light industry is partly concentrated in the cities of Dundee and Aberdeen, located on the east coast north of the Firth of Forth. Aberdeen refines oil from fields in the North Sea. Industry Dundee specializes in the production of jute, clocks, refrigerators and electronic equipment. Most of the famous whiskey distilleries are located in northeastern Scotland. For many years clothing and fabrics, especially tweed, have been produced in the valleys of the South Scottish Highlands, in the northern highlands and on the islands. There are nuclear power plants on the banks of the Firth of Clyde and the Solway Firth and on the north coast.

Agriculture is predominantly concentrated on the eastern coastal plain. Among the main crops there stand out barley, oats, wheat, potatoes, turnips and sugar beets. 3/4 of the agricultural area of ​​Scotland is used for pasture. Sheep are bred in the hilly regions of the northwest, and cattle are bred in the plains of the northeast. The southwest is an important area for dairy farming.

State structure and politics.

Administratively, Scotland has been subdivided into 12 regions since 1975, including 53 districts and 3 island territories (Western Isles, Orkney and Shetland). Counties usually correspond to the former counties, or shires, that existed before 1975. To govern districts, counties, and island territories elect councils.

The Scottish Parliament is missing some of the laws that are permanently in place throughout the UK. Other laws are partly relevant to Scotland, while others are wholly relevant to Scotland, when they are discussed, differences in legal proceedings, administrative procedures, etc. are taken into account.

Until the 1970s, the idea of ​​local government had little success in Scotland. However, in the early 1970s, the discovery of oil fields in the North Sea stimulated Scottish nationalism, and in the 1974 general election the Scottish National Party won a third of the vote in Scotland and 11 seats in the British House of Commons. In 1978, Parliament passed a bill for direct elections to the Scottish Assembly in Edinburgh, giving it greater powers in domestic affairs. However, in a referendum in 1979, this project did not receive the support of the population.

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Scotland continued to struggle for its place in the overall political context of the United Kingdom. Country saves national characteristics in religion, legal order, language (called Scottish) and the education system. Scotland has its own original culture, a highly developed and recently expanded university system, and its own press.

Despite the existence of the Ministry of Scotland, headed by the Secretary of State for Scotland in Edinburgh, and two reorganizations of local government, in 1973 and 1995, this integral part of the UK leads a rather isolated political life, which, in turn, has internal regional features. First, there is the area of ​​Glasgow and the Clyde Estuary to the southeast. About 40% of the total five million population of Scotland lives in this developed industrial area, a significant part of heavy industry is located and there are quite a lot of social problems associated with lack of housing, rising crime, poverty and unemployment. Trade unions are traditionally developed, Catholics, mainly Irish, form an influential minority in Glasgow and the Strathclyde area. The combination of these socio-demographic features fuels a strong and consistent Labor Party electorate.

The rest of Scotland is politically distinct from this region. In most constituencies three or four parties—Labour, the Conservatives, the Scottish National Party and the Liberal Democrats—are vying for the popular vote, although the Labor Party has traditionally been strong in urban areas such as Edinburgh and Aberdeen.

In London, Scotland is represented by 72 members of the House of Commons, but they are considered to have little influence in the 659-member Parliament. In the May 1997 general election, all major parties, except the Conservatives, were in favor of a significant change in the position of Scotland in the United Kingdom. Labor won 56, the Liberal Democrats 10, the Scottish National Party 6 votes, while the Conservatives won no seats, although 17.5% of the population voted for them.

After that, in a referendum, 70.4% of the Scots voted in favor of the formation of a Scottish Assembly with limited powers, which will be convened in Edinburgh in July 1999. A slightly smaller number of Scots who took part in the referendum (but also a majority) supported the proposal to give the Assembly some rights in tax area.

Labor supported the idea of ​​the Assembly in the hope of putting an end to the discontent of the Scots in connection with the existing constitutional status their countries. The measures put to a referendum were also approved by the Scottish National Party, which regarded them as the first step towards full independence. It should be noted that Scottish nationalists are in favor of continued membership in the European Union and are not as radical in matters of preserving culture and language as their counterparts in Wales.

STORY

Roman period.

For thirty years after 80 AD. and again around 140–180 AD. Roman troops occupied southern Scotland. They defended the line through Fort Clyde against the Caledonians, or Picts, a warlike people who inhabited the northern territories. For this, the Romans built fortifications during the first occupation and a defensive rampart during the second occupation. About 84 and again about 208 they penetrated north to the Moray Firth, but beyond the Firth of Forth they left no military settlements. Having lost control of southern Scotland for the first time, they built the so-called. Hadrian's Wall, built after 120 between the River Tyne and the Solway Firth, which for a long time served as the frontier of the Roman Empire in Britain. However, the rampart could not hold back the Picts, who repeatedly invaded territories in southern Britain. In the 3rd–4th centuries many tribes of southern Scotland became allies of Rome.

Christianization.

St. Ninian began his missionary work in the southwest of the island c. 400; other missionaries are said to have preached among the Picts as far north as the Moray Firth, but the Christianization of Scotland is generally dated to the arrival of St. Columba in 563. The conversion took place during the migration of the Scots from northern ireland, where Christianity dominated from the beginning of the 5th century, to the Hebrides and western part Scotland. Columba himself settled in a monastery on the island of Iona near the southwestern tip of the island of Malla. Not limited to the brothers in faith - the Scots in the west - Columba eventually managed to convert the king of the Picts in Inverness to the Christian faith. Over time, the Irish form of Christianity, with its special rites and organization, came into direct conflict with Roman Christianity, which was spreading north from Kent. At the Synod of Whitby (663 or 664), the King of Northumbria, after hearing the adversarial rites, decided in favor of Rome, and his verdict was later adopted in all the territory north of the Cheviot Hills; Iona eventually capitulated c. 720. The replacement of Irish rites by Roman ones had a profound effect on the history of Scotland, for the country was thus joined to the general stream of the history of European civilization.

Other influences.

With the end of the Roman occupation of Britain, the rampart along the Tyne-Solway line ceased to be an insurmountable obstacle, and eventually two kingdoms were formed, which were located on both sides of the rampart - Strathclyde in the west and Northumbria in the east. To the north lay the kingdoms of the Picts and Scots, the former occupying most of the country north of the Clyde Fort, and the latter part west coast and the Hebrides. The northward expansion of the Anglian kingdom of Northumbria, reaching as far as the River Forth, met with strong resistance from the Picts, who defeated the Northumbrian army in 685 at the Battle of Nechtansmeer. The danger of invasion was somewhat reduced after the place of the Angles was occupied in the 8th century. Scandinavians, as the new settlers in Northumbria were more concerned with expanding south and west than north. However, the capture of the northern territories became the goal of the Scandinavian tribes who arrived by sea. The Normans conquered island after island, first in Shetland and Orkney, and then in the Hebrides; after they spread throughout the north and west of Scotland. Traces of the Norman conquest are still visible, especially in the Orkney, Shetland Islands and Caithness, which served as the center of concentration of the forces of the conquerors. During the 11th and 12th centuries. the power of the Normans gradually decreased, and the power of the kingdom of the Scots increased. Nevertheless, the Normans retained dominance over the western islands until 1266, and only in 1468–1469 Orkney and Shetland were returned to Scotland after the marriage between Princess Margaret and James III.

Scottish kingdom.

Meanwhile, in 844, the Scots and Picts were formally united under King Kenneth MacAlpin. During the 10th century the rulers of this united kingdom tried, and not without success, to retake Lothian from Northumbria and establish complete dominion over Strathclyde. The implementation of these claims fell on the reign of Malcolm II (1005-1034). However, as soon as Malcolm's grandson Duncan I took the throne in 1034, Macbeth of Moray seized the throne and held it until he was put to death in 1057 by Malcolm III. Duncan I's son Malcolm III was in exile in England and later married the Anglo-Saxon Princess Margaret. They and their sons brought the English way of life to Scotland. The system of monasteries and parishes was developed, a feudal system of the Norman type was established. This caused resistance in the Highlands, where opposition forces rallied around Moray. However, time passed, and the kingdom continued to exist, cities grew, trade developed, and England's attempts to subjugate Scotland met with resistance and were successfully repulsed. The period from 1153 to 1286 is called the golden age of Scotland.

Fight with England.

A long and relatively calm and fruitful period came to an abrupt end with the death in 1290 of Margaret, the "Maiden of Norway", who became heir to the Scottish throne. She was to marry the son and heir of Edward I, King of England. To avoid a civil war for the throne, Edward was asked to act as an arbitrator. He chose John Baliol, who was crowned in 1292, but only after he recognized Edward as his overlord. Repentant for what he had done, Baliol, with the help of the French, tried to get rid of his dependence, but the uprising was crushed. In 1297, William Wallace challenged the British at Stirling Bridge, and this time the Scots were victorious. However, Wallace, unable to reconcile conflicting interests, was eventually deceived and handed over to Edward. The banner of rebellion was again raised by Robert I (Bruce) in 1306. For several years he led the policy of exhausting the troops of Edward II, and then, in 1314, at Bannockburn, dealt the most crushing blow ever received by English troops on Scottish soil. In 1320, in a letter to the pope, the Scots stated; "As long as there are at least a hundred Scots left alive, we will not submit to the English king." Despite this declaration of independence, it was only in 1328 that England, by the peace treaty at Northampton, agreed to recognize King Robert, and in 1329 the pope finally recognized the sovereignty of the Scottish kingdom.

instability and war.

The war with England did not stop, and this led to the impoverishment of the population of Scotland. In addition to this, the country suffered from ineffective rule by kings that were either too young or too old, and periods of strong rule did not last too long for stability to be established during this time. The chiefs of the Highlands and the barons of the Lowlands, and the Church, having all the wealth and influence in Scotland, were the enemies of the monarchy. Although the citizens of cities have held seats in parliament since the reign of Robert I, there has been nothing like the English House of Commons in the country to counterbalance the lords and prelates. During the Hundred Years' War, Scotland became an ally of the French. The result was important cultural ties to the Continent, but this involved Scotland in a series of military adventures. The economic, administrative and intellectual development of the country under James IV ended after his invasion of England and his death at the Battle of Flodden in 1513.

The Reformation and the End of the Anglo-Scottish Wars.

One of the lessons of the defeat at Flodden was that traditional ties with France posed no small danger to Scotland. At the same time, the advent of the Reformation added yet another reason for revisiting foreign policy countries. The Scots, influenced by Lutheranism, believed that Scotland should ally with Henry VIII after he rejected papal authority and dissolved the monasteries. James V, however, did not follow Henry's lead. Instead, he took advantage of the situation and received financial benefits in exchange for loyalty to the pope. In addition, he strengthened relations with France by successively marrying two French women, the second of whom was Marie of Guise. The result of his policy was the war with England and the defeat of the Scots in the battle of Solway Moss in 1542, after which Jacob soon died.

Until the coming of age of Mary, who succeeded to the throne at the age of one week, the dominion of Scotland was contested by a Frenchman and an Englishman, each of whom had many supporters among the Scots. Henry VIII supported the Scottish reformers and plotted to assassinate Cardinal David Beaton, who favored an alliance with France. George Wishart, a Protestant preacher associated with the English, was burned at the stake as a heretic by Beaton, who was soon also killed. The British, unable to secure the engagement of the Queen of Scots to Prince Edward (later Edward VI), carried out devastating raids in the south of Scotland and, as a result, ensured that Scotland fell into the hands of the French. Mary was sent to France (1548) and betrothed to the Dauphin. She married him in 1558, and he became king of France under the name of Francis II. In Scotland, Mary of Guise became regent in 1554 and ruled the country, respecting the interests of France and relying on French troops.

The Reformation movement in Scotland was now combined with patriotic resistance to French dominance and the fear that Scotland would henceforth be ruled by a dynasty of French monarchs. In 1559, upon the return of John Knox from Geneva, an uprising broke out, directed both against the French and against Rome. Troops sent by Elizabeth prevented the suppression of the rebels by the French, and the death of Mary of Guise (June 1560) opened the way for a treaty by which English and French soldiers were to leave Scotland.

Mary, Queen of Scots.

The Reformers were in power in 1560, but in August 1561 Queen Mary, who had lost her husband Francis in December 1560, returned to Scotland. As a Catholic, she initially had no animosity towards the reformed church. However, Mary could not be the head of a new church, the leadership of which was mainly in the hands of the governors, or new bishops, and the supreme power was in the General Assembly, which was practically a Protestant parliament. Mary claimed more claim to the English throne than Elizabeth, and after marrying her cousin, Lord Darnley, who followed her in succession to the English throne and whose claims were recognized by the English Catholics, the reformed church ceased to enjoy her favor. After the murder of Darnley, Mary married the Earl of Bothwell, who was believed to be the murderer of her second husband. A rebellion broke out and Mary was deposed. The crown passed to her minor son James VI. Mary fled to England in 1568 under the protection of Elizabeth. She was imprisoned until the Queen of England ordered her execution in 1587.

James VI.

The period before the coming of age of James VI is marked by the civil war waged by his regents against his mother's supporters, and by the intrigues of Rome, supported by the European powers. In addition, a Presbyterian movement arose within the reformed church, demanding the abolition of bishops and the transfer of church government to the elders. The Presbyterians denied any authority over the church to the king and parliament, and argued that high presbyters should determine the policy of the state. Jacob pursued a cunning, flexible and consistent policy in his dealings with rival factions. For some time he had to rely on the Presbyterians and in 1592 agreed to the proclamation of Presbyterianism as the state church. However, after the defeat of the last Catholic uprising in 1594, he began to insist on the preservation and strengthening of the posts of bishops along with church courts. James forced Andrew Melville into exile and established tight control over the church, but did not interfere in the theological issues proper, which had been discussed since the beginning of the Reformation. This compromise was generally accepted, especially after Jacob reconciled the nobles and landowners and found support in the relatively conservative northern territories where Presbyterianism has not yet taken deep roots. When James sat on the English throne in 1603, it did not unify the parliaments or government of the two countries, but strengthened his own position, whereby he made the Scots respect the law and was able to rule more effectively than any of his predecessors.

Charles I.

Charles I lacked the tact that his father had; his actions were not distinguished by patience and flexibility and led to the fact that many subjects turned away from him. Jacob did not dispute the rights to the former church property seized after the beginning of the Reformation. Charles began his reign (1625-1649) by questioning these rights, and in later years nurtured plans to restore income old church. He went even further than his father in manipulating Parliament by means that were considered unconstitutional; established taxes that were considered exorbitant, and gave bishops political functions. Finally, ignoring criticism and opposition, Charles introduced new ecclesiastical canons that threatened to replace the existing compromise with a system identical to that of the Anglicans, and a new liturgical service, which was rejected as Roman Catholic by already inflamed public opinion. As a result, the National Covenant (1638) was signed, which stated that the king acted illegally, and soon the Presbyterian church was again accepted as official.

Civil War and Oliver Cromwell.

Charles resisted the increasing influence of the Scots, but he did not have enough strength to bring them into obedience. Scots Conversion to Arms and Occupation northern England forced him to convene the Long Parliament. After the start of the civil war, the Covenantors, who had power over Scotland, following the Solemn League and Covenant (1643), agreed to help the English Parliament in the fight against the king on the condition that Presbyterianism become the state church not only in Scotland, but also in England. However, when the royal forces were defeated, power in England passed not to Parliament, but to Cromwell and the army, who shared not the Presbyterian, but the Independent views on church government. Then the Scots, or rather some of the Scots, tried to restore the reign of Charles I, and after his execution they put Charles II on their throne on the condition that he sign the covenants. The result was the defeat of the Scots at Dunbar (1650) and Worcester (1651) and the conquest of the country by the British. During the period of the republic and the protectorate, Scotland was united with England, sent deputies to the English parliaments and conducted free trade with England and the English colonies.

Restoration and Glorious Revolution.

The Restoration of the Stuarts (1660) was intended to restore the pre-war system of government and the terms of the religious compromise reached under James VI. There was some political opposition in the country, as Scottish politicians and parliament were no longer as obedient as they had been before 1648. Although the restoration was accepted in the country, serious discontent was brewing in some areas, especially in the southwest, among those strict Presbyterians who advocated the implementation of the National Covenant and the Solemn League. A policy of alternating reconciliation and suppression lessened the degree of discontent, and the rebellion at Bothwell Bridge (1679) was brutally suppressed, but a handful of extremists still survived and eventually refused to recognize the English king.

James VII (James II of England) was mainly occupied with resolving the issue of restoring the status of Roman Catholicism. His principle of religious tolerance extended not only to Catholics, but also to Presbyterians, which undermined the official status of the Episcopal Church, preserved by his predecessors. The policy of toleration was so unpopular that Parliament refused to sanction it, and it had to be carried out solely by the will of the king. The result was a general aversion to royalty. Thus, when the English Revolution of 1688 led to the flight of James and the rise of William of Orange, James had little chance of remaining on the Scottish throne. In 1689 he was declared ineligible for the crown. The campaign of John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee, ended at Killecranky, and William's rule was established in Scotland. The bishops and the majority of the clergy were loyal to Jacob, so William relied on the Presbyterians, whose church was finally declared state (1690). One of the results of William's determination to break the resistance of the Highlanders was the famous massacre at Glencoe in 1692.

Darien.

In the 17th century The country was going through a period of transformation. Since the reign of James VI, Scotland has increasingly become an advanced country with a developed economy and culture; economic projects aroused the enthusiasm of the population, there were new incentives for production and commerce; attempts were made to colonize new lands - in Nova Scotia, in eastern New Jersey and South Carolina. The economic interests of Scotland differed from those of England. The regime of free trade with England ended with the beginning of the Restoration, when, according to the Navigation Act, the Scots were excommunicated from trade with the English colonies. As a result, serious tensions arose between the countries. Up until the revolution of 1688, crises were avoided because the king was able to keep the Scottish parliament under control. After the revolution, Parliament gained independence and showed its freedom-loving character precisely when the power of the English Parliament also increased. Under these conditions, the Scots conceived an ambitious project to establish their own colony in Darien, and this project was widely supported and financed. Darien nominally belonged to Spain, with which at that time Wilhelm was in difficult negotiations. For this reason, he refused to support the idea of ​​a Scottish colony and forbade English subjects to give the Scots any help in this enterprise. The colony venture ended in disaster, partly because of the epidemic, and partly because of the resistance of the Spaniards. The Scots blamed William for everything, and the attitude towards England became even more hostile. It became clear that the only hope for progress in trade lay with Scotland's entry into the markets of England and the English colonies.

Union with England.

William understood that the difficulties that were inevitable under the circumstances could be overcome with the help of the union of the two kingdoms and the creation of a single parliament, but the Scots did not like the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bsubordinating England, and the British did not at all want to give the rights of trade to the Scots. Nevertheless, after 1701, England entered the War of the Spanish Succession with France, and the Scots took advantage of the situation by threatening to pursue an independent foreign policy and even choose their own monarch. Under the threat of the emergence of an independent Scotland with the support of France, the British were forced to yield, and in 1707 an act of union was adopted, according to which the Scots renounced their political independence. Scotland received representation in London - 45 seats in the lower house and 16 peers in the House of Lords; it was also decided that after the death of Queen Anne, the countries would receive a monarch from the House of Hanover. In return, the Scots received equal trading rights with the British, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland was declared inviolable, and Scottish laws and the judiciary remained independent of the English. In practice, appeals in civil cases could be brought, after hearings in the Scottish High Court, to the British House of Lords. In all other cases, the decisions of the Scottish courts were final.

Jacobite uprisings.

For more than 40 years after the conclusion of the union in Scotland, there was a serious dissatisfaction with the state of affairs, it seemed to the Scots that their interests were being ignored by the British Parliament, and the expected economic benefits were not bearing such rich fruits. However, the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745, aimed at restoring the descendants of James VII and James II, cannot in any way be considered a proper Scottish national resistance movement; they received almost no attention from the people of central Scotland, receiving a response only from adherents of the Episcopal Church and Catholics. In the north, where economic and social development was not as vigorous as in other areas, and the situation was determined by the rivalry of the clans and the willingness to join in any occupation that provided an opportunity for robbery, enough a large number of leaders attracted their clans to the side of the Jacobites, who received as a result a replenishment of 5-10 thousand soldiers. The uprising of 1715, led by Count Mar, ended in failure; the "senior pretender" James VIII joined him at the moment when it was already suppressed. During the uprising of 1745, the "junior pretender" Charles Edward landed in Scotland, proclaimed his father king, took Edinburgh and invaded England, reaching Derby. There, however, he did not receive any support and withdrew to the north, where he was finally defeated at Culloden (1746), which put an end to the claims of the Stuarts. The defeat of the Highlanders was applauded by the inhabitants of central Scotland. Dissatisfaction with the union faded, and over the next century it was welcomed by almost the entire population of the country.

Scotland after the union.

Economic development.

Over time, the union brought obvious economic benefits. Scottish ports, especially along the banks of the Clyde, imported tobacco from America; to meet the needs of the colonists in industrial products, enterprises were formed, primarily flax-spinning manufactories. The British monopoly on the tobacco trade ended with the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, but industrial development in Scotland continued. From the end of the 18th century the most important industry in the west of the country was cotton spinning and cotton weaving, which flourished until the American Civil War cut off the supply of raw cotton. Since then, the cotton industry in Scotland has not recovered, but heavy industry began to develop, based on the country's coal and iron reserves. The invention of the hot blast method (1828) revolutionized Scottish metallurgy, and Scotland became the center of engineering, shipbuilding and transport engineering. By the end of the 19th century iron was replaced by steel. Scotland, which throughout the 17th century. was mainly an agricultural country, acquired an industrial belt stretching across the whole country from the southwest to the northeast, where most of the population lived. Agriculture also received significant development after the Union, its level remained high, although in the second half of the 19th century, when Britain began to pursue a policy of free trade, food imports had a very negative impact on local agricultural production. The development of industry, bringing with it employment and prosperity, proceeded so rapidly that housing construction, urban expansion, and health systems lagged behind, and for a time living conditions in some cities remained extremely poor.

The predominant development of heavy industry began to bring losses after the Second World War, when the processes of industrialization in other countries deprived Scottish industry of markets. Within Great Britain itself, production was centralized, and industry moved farther south, leaving Scotland in the position of an industrial outskirts. As a result, the entire interwar period was a time of depression, and the world crisis of 1931 was only its most acute phase. After the Second World War, the old heavy industries fell into decay, and the government provided financial assistance to new industries - from nuclear power plants and oil refineries to light industry.

Public administration.

The unification of parliaments was followed a few years later by an almost complete unification of government systems. With the strengthening of the role of the state in the 19th century. Separate Scottish councils for the poor, education, health, agriculture and fisheries were formed. In 1885, the post of Secretary for Scotland was formed, and when the Scottish Office was established in 1926, most of the former councils replaced the departments that were part of it. After 1850 there was occasional dissatisfaction with union, at least in its current form, and proposals were made for a separate Scottish Parliament and a reorganization of Great Britain on the basis of federalism. Currently, the Scottish National Party, which emerged in the 1970s, exists and is actively operating. The government's proposal for a Scottish Parliament with the right to decide local issues was put to a referendum in Scotland in September 1997. The vast majority of citizens participating in the vote (74%) approved the proposal, and 63% of those who voted - the right of Parliament to raise or lower taxes within 3%.

Church.

The Scottish Church retained its Presbyterian organization, guaranteed by the Act of Union. The problem of reconciling the Presbyterian claim to independence from Parliament with the legitimate authority of the British Parliament caused constant difficulties and led to splits and the formation of sects. The controversy culminated in the schism of 1843 when the Free Scottish Church was formed. In the late 19th century, however, a reunification trend emerged, and from 1929 the Church of Scotland had a very small minority of Presbyterians in its ranks. The episcopal church, which lost official status in 1690, continued to exist in difficult conditions throughout the 18th century. and still represents a separate religious organization. Roman Catholicism practically disappeared in the early 17th century. and throughout the 18th century. enjoyed influence only in a few mountainous areas, but the influx of the Irish and Scotland in the 19th century. caused a serious strengthening of the position of Catholics.

Education reforms.

The reformers hatched plans for a comprehensive system of education, involving the establishment of schools at all levels, including in all parishes. From 1616 there was a legislative basis for parochial schools, but despite significant progress, the new education laws were never implemented. Schools funded by local landlords were under the control of the church. In addition, efforts were made independently of the church, thanks to which, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Scotland had more opportunities for education than any other country of that time (even before the 1872 obligatory visit schools). Universities opened their doors to young men from all social classes and at the end of the 18th century. won great fame. People who were educated in Scotland achieved the highest positions in England, and the Scots managed to achieve the heights of intellectual and cultural development in the work of such outstanding people as David Hume, Adam Smith and Walter Scott.

Anglicization.

In the course of nearly three centuries of political union, many factors have brought the Scots closer to the British in their way of life. At the end of the 18th century, when the interests of the Scots were first affected by the American War of Independence and then by the French Revolution, the country's political awakening took place, and the Scots began to take an active part in British parliamentary politics. From the period of the Napoleonic Wars, the Scots not only fought in the British army, but were loyal to Britain, and later fully shared the goals of British foreign policy and British military campaigns. The important role played by the Scots in the colonization and administration of the lands that made up the British Empire strengthened the partnership with England.

Delegation of power.

In the UK, the establishment and empowerment of state bodies subordinate to Parliament at the level of the whole country as a whole or at the level of regions is called delegation of power (devolution). Although Scottish voters in 1979 rejected the government's proposal for the formation of a Scottish legislature to which power over local affairs would be transferred, in 1997 they overwhelmingly approved such a proposal. The reasons for the change of view lay not in any rise of Scottish nationalism, but in the excessive concentration of power in the hands of the cabinet in London.

Scotland (Scotland) - now the administrative and political part of Great Britain, its historical province, whose inhabitants cannot forget that for a huge historical period it was an independent country. The area of ​​Scotland is 78.8 thousand km 2. Population 5 million 54 thousand (2002). Since 1999, the country has had its own parliament. Most believers belong to the Presbyterian Church.

Scotland. foothills.

Scotland occupies northern part the islands on which Great Britain is located, as well as smaller islands in the neighborhood: the Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland. The main territory of Scotland is surrounded from the west and north by the Atlantic Ocean, from the east by the North Sea, and from the south the territory of England adjoins it. The highest mountains are the Grampian Mountains, which stretch in the north of Scotland, where the most high peak Scotland, and the UK in general - Ben Nevis (height 1343 m). There are a lot of mountain lakes in Scotland, among which are such famous ones as Loch Lomond and Loch Ness. It is simply impossible not to hear about the latter - this is how the legend of Nessie glorified him. I must say that in Scotland, just like in Ireland, there are countless legends about various local monsters. Nessie, on the other hand, managed to become famous in those days when dinosaurs had just begun to be discovered, so the story about her acquired a “scientific” connotation. That is why this lake still attracts crowds of those interested. Other lakes are in no way inferior to it in beauty.

Scotland. Loch Ness.

Scotland is a rather harsh land compared to England. There are many corners untouched nature, mountains, groves. Numerous islands are scattered among lakes and bays. Preserved and ancient castles. In Orkney and Shetland, thanks to the Gulf Stream washing them, the climate is relatively mild. The Shetland Islands are rightfully famous for their woolen clothes (especially the sweaters and shawls from Fair Isle, a small island at the southern tip of the Shetland Range).

Scotland. Ayrshire. Neo-Gothic Kalzin Castle.

Scotland. Fountains in Kalzin Castle Park.

Scotland has become for many Europeans a real discovery of the 20th century. Tourism is one of the main sources of income here. In just one year, over 30 million tourists visit Scotland, which is 6 times the number of all inhabitants of Scotland. Scotland is no less popular than England as a country of educational tourism. The most visited are Edinburgh, Aberdeen, St. Andrews, Stirling, castle tours. Dundee and Glasgow are major industrial centers. Unique monument is the village of New Lanark.

Scotland. Edinburgh.

Scotland. Lochleven Castle. Here, in 1567, Mary Stuart signed her abdication.

The history of Scotland is closely connected with the English and yet it is the history of another people and another country. The most ancient population is the Picts, a mysterious ethnic group, whose representatives were, apparently, of small stature. The legends about the Picts are known to us from the ballad of Robert Stevenson "Heather Honey" translated by S.Ya. Marshak. The Picts as a people disappeared after the spread of Christianity, most likely, they simply assimilated. Later, the Picts were settled here by the Gaels - the Celtic people. The Gaels and Picts successfully defended themselves from the Romans, but the Roman Empire did not extend its power here, mainly due to the fact that these places were too cold and harsh for the Romans. In the 5th-6th centuries. the Celtic tribe of Scots came here, displacing the Gaels into the mountainous regions. The Gaels (now their language is spoken by no more than 80 thousand people in the Highlands and the Hebrides) are called Highlanders or simply Highlanders in a different way. And if you immediately remembered the series about the "immortal" highlander Duncan MacLeod, then you are right - he originates from the mountain Gaelic clans.

Scotland. Glemis Castle (17th century), built on the site of the old one, whose ruler in the 11th century. was Macbeth. A striking example of the so-called "baronial castles".

Scotland. Braemar Castle. 1628.

The Scotts, who gave their name to the country, converted to Christianity and actively carried out missionary activities. There was a clan structure of society. The clans, named after their semi-legendary founders, jointly owned land, were responsible for their members according to the rules of mutual responsibility, and fought wars according to the rules of feudal allegiance (i.e. if the head of the clan swore allegiance to someone, then all members of the clan had to support). Each clan had its own colors of clothing. Homespun wool - tartan - from which the outfits of clan members are sewn, usually has a checkered pattern. In modern Scotland, a men's suit with a skirt (kilt) is preserved, which is worn by members of the clan on solemn occasions, as well as soldiers of Her Majesty's Scottish regiments. Despite the clan system, kingdoms also formed in Scotland. The oldest Pictish kingdom had its center in Scone. From here comes the coronation stone, which now belongs to the British crown. A single kingdom was formed by the 10th century. W. Shakespeare's tragedy "Macbeth" just tells about one of the episodes of the struggle for power. True, in reality, Macbeth was not such a villain, he killed his enemies not in bed, but on the battlefield, but he was an opponent of the British, and therefore became in their eyes a villain for all time. England had a decisive influence on the political life of Scotland. The Scottish kings were repeatedly forced to fight for the independence of their homeland. Edward I of England conquered Scotland, but a huge uprising broke out there under the leadership of Sir William Wallace (early 14th century). After the execution of Wallace, a new uprising was raised by Robert the Bruce, who returned the country's independence and founded a new dynasty, which continued in Russia. King Bruce had a reputation in Scotland as a sorcerer, and subsequently his descendant in the Russian service had the same fame, which lasted for centuries. The descendant of another great Scot, the bard Thomas Lermontov, laid the foundation for the Lermontov family in Russia. By the way, Lermont was considered a seer and predictor, like his descendant Mikhail Yurievich. In the Middle Ages, the Scots were often employed in the service of foreign kings, the Scottish detachment was at the French court. Periods of confrontation with England gave way to peace. The reign of the Stuart dynasty, related by family ties to the English royal house, ended with the establishment of their power over the united Britain. But for Scotland, the personal union of 1603 was replaced by the accession to England in 1651-52 with the elimination of the trappings of independence. The English and the inhabitants of the valleys gradually pushed back the highlanders, whose life became more and more difficult. This sparked the biggest rebellion of Robert MacGregor, better known as Rob Roy. After the suppression of the uprising, Scotland forever went to Britain. Late 18th - early 19th century was the time of the real Scottish Renaissance. James Macpherson, having processed the ancient legends, passed them off as the writings of the legendary bard Ossian. The true singer of Scottish history was Walter Scott, thanks to whom the whole civilized world learned about the heroes of this northern country. The poet Robert Burns, the writer Robert Louis Stevenson and many others maintained interest in this country. Russia remains today the only country after Scotland, where Burns' birthday is celebrated. Many prominent British figures have Scottish roots - from economist Adam Smith to actor Sean Connery, by the way, a passionate fighter for the country's independence.

Scotland. Belmoral Castle is the current residence of the Queen in Scotland.

Scotland. Blair Castle. Erected in the 13th century. Hereditary possession of the Dukes of Atholl.

For a long time, Scotland's lagging behind England in economic development was depressing, but in recent decades there has been a gradual leveling off. Nevertheless, the tendency for the migration of the most educated part of the population to England remains, and in the mountainous regions the population gradually migrates to the valleys. The most populated area of ​​the city of Glasgow and the Clyde Valley, where high-tech industry is developing. Agriculture, fishing, whiskey production, etc. are widely developed in Scotland. About a quarter of the entire area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe country is cultivated or is under pastures. The main Scottish crop is oats. No wonder Scotland is called the "Land of Cakes". This name is given to the country because it is known for its famous "oatmeal cakes" (oatmeal cakes). In Scotland, you will be offered other National dishes, first of all - haggis. This is a tripe-like offal dish. Meat puddings are also common here.

Scottish piper.

Inverness. Inverness Castle.

SCOTLAND, the country that occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It is separated from England mainly by the Cheviot Hills and the Tweed River. To the west of Scotland, on the other side of the North Channel (St. Patrick's Sound), is Northern Ireland. The southern coast of Scotland faces the Irish Sea and the Solway Firth. Scotland's borders have remained unchanged for almost 500 years.
Scotland is an integral part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. However, the political status of Scotland is not noted in this title. Although Scotland has never been an autonomous or federal unit of Great Britain and is no longer a kingdom, it is not just a geographical or administrative area. Scotland can be considered as a separate country. The Scots defend their national identity and retain many institutions that are not found in England and other English-speaking countries. They have their own capital, Edinburgh, their own church, laws and courts, their own banks and banknotes. In Scotland, cities are called burghs (as opposed to boroughs in England), and their mayors are called provosts (in England, mayors), sheriffs there are judges who receive a salary, and not honorary dignitaries, as in England.

Peculiar institutions have been preserved in Scotland since ancient times, when it was a sovereign state. For a long time there have been attempts to unite Scotland and England. Many of them were acts of armed aggression on the part of England. The Scots for a long time successfully repulsed the invaders, which contributed to the strengthening of national identity. In 1603, when, after the death of Elizabeth I, the Scottish king James VI peacefully established himself on the English throne, both countries found themselves under the rule of one monarch, but each retained its own parliament and its own governing bodies. Then, in accordance with the Act of Union 1707, Scotland and England joined the United Kingdom of Great Britain with a single parliament and central government.

However, even after 1707, Scotland retained its identity, as some of its institutions were clearly specified by the Act of Union, and in the most recent years there has been a trend towards decentralization of government, with many government functions transferred to individual Scottish departments.

Although in terms of area (78,772 sq. km) Scotland is more than half the area of ​​England and Wales combined (151,126 thousand sq. km), its population in 1991 totaled only 4,989 thousand people compared to 49,890 thousand in England and Wales . In the 20th century In Scotland, there have been significant changes in the distribution of the population: migration to the cities has increased, where 9 out of every 10 Scots now live. In the mountains and on the islands, the population density does not exceed 12 people per 1 sq. km. km. However, at present, the centers of population growth are not large cities, but their suburban areas.

Nature.

The character of the Scottish people and their way of life were largely influenced by the natural environment: due to the predominance of mountains and uplands, only 1/5 of the territory was suitable for agriculture. In the south, the South Scottish Highlands are bordered on almost all sides by coastal lowlands and river valleys. The Mid-Scottish Lowland, which crosses the country between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde, is highly industrialized. To the north of this belt, almost along the entire eastern coast, a wide plain can be traced, and agriculture is developed in several large river valleys. Only in the most fertile lands in the south and east - in the Tweeda Valley, Ayr, Lothian, the county north of the Firth of Tay, partly in Aberdeen and along both banks of the Moray Firth - intensive farming brings very high incomes.

Rocky hills and swamps are widespread in Scotland, and mountains dominate in its central and western regions. The highest point - Mount Ben Nevis in the Grampian Mountains - reaches only 1343 m, several other peaks rise above 1200 m. However, there are approx. 300 peaks exceeding 900 m and many mountains make an impressive impression, rising almost from the seashore. There are no clearly defined ridges in the mountains of Scotland; when viewed from above, a mass of randomly dispersed peaks opens up, separated by deep narrow valleys called glens, or elongated narrow lochs. The valley of Glen More, containing three lakes (Loch Ness, Loch Loch and Loch Lynn) and continuing in underwater valleys at both ends, is distinguished by its rectilinear outlines; it stretches from the southwest to the northeast and divides the entire highlands of Scotland into two parts. Throughout this dissected territory, outcrops of bedrock are often found, and only in the lower parts of the slopes of the mountains and in the glen there are pastures and arable lands. In the last quarter of the 20th century Scotland carried out extensive afforestation.

The coasts of Scotland are heavily dissected. In the west, fjord-like bays-lohas penetrate deeply into the central part of the mountainous country. Off the coast of Scotland is approx. 500 islands united in archipelagos. The most significant of these is the Hebrides, which includes such large islands as Lewis (1990 sq. Km) and Skye (1417 sq. Km), along with grass-covered rocks suitable for grazing a few sheep. The northern archipelagos - Orkney and Shetland Islands - have 150 islands of various sizes. Both the western and northern islands are distinguished by a variety of landscapes; there are very fertile areas along with completely barren outcrops of bedrock. In contrast, there are very few large islands off the east coast of Scotland. Here, steep ledges, alternating with sandy beaches, go out to the North Sea. In the past, in the days of small sailing ships, there were many small ports on the east coast, mainly at the mouths of the rivers. Through these ports, Scotland's trade relations with neighboring countries of Northern Europe were mainly carried out. In the 18th century, when Scotland began to trade with America, the deep-water estuary of the Clyde River became the main trading artery of the country.
Transport problems have always largely depended on the terrain. Until good roads were built (end of the 18th century), small loads were transported on horseback, while heavy or bulky goods had to be transported by sea from one port to another. Soon the era of railways began, which greatly facilitated transportation in more populated areas located at low altitudes. However, in the highlands in the west and north of Scotland, the construction of railways was difficult, and the main mode of transport remained steamboat traffic along the coast and along the lochs. Currently, road transport is dominant. Many railway lines were dismantled and steamboat services were cancelled. Air traffic plays a minor role, it is maintained only between the UK and some islands, but its development is hindered by fogs and strong winds.

The climate of Scotland is typical maritime. The average January temperature is approx. 4° C, July - 14° C. There are differences between the open west coast and the more sheltered east coast, the latter characterized by colder winters and warmer summers. Much more precipitation falls in the west. The average annual rate for the whole of Scotland is 1300 mm per year, but on some exposed western slopes it rises to 3800 mm.

population and lifestyle.

The population of Scotland occurred as a result of mixing of several races. The earliest inhabitants of the country were the Caledonians, or Picts, who inhabited most of the territory north of the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. In the southwest lived the Britons, related to the Welsh. Argyll ca. 500 AD an Irish colony was founded, and at the same time the Angles left the European continent and landed in the southeast of Great Britain. In the 8th-11th centuries. the Scandinavians visited almost the entire coast of Scotland, but settled in the north and west. In the 12th century Normans and Flemings appeared there. Many Irish immigrants arrived in the 19th century. Migration processes between England and Scotland proceeded in a similar way.

Plains dwellers and highlanders.

The main difference is between the plains people, who are of mixed ethnogenesis and have spoken English for centuries, and the highlanders, who are mostly of Celtic origin and who until recently spoke Gaelic. In the 11th century Gaelic was spoken in almost all parts of Scotland, but subsequently the area of ​​​​its distribution narrowed significantly. In the 1960s, there were no more than 80,000 Gaelic speakers, almost all of whom lived in the western highlands and islands, and also knew English.

There were more than just linguistic differences between the Highlanders and the Lowland Scots. Important differences persisted between a predominantly agricultural (later predominantly industrial) economy in the plains and a predominantly pastoral economy in the mountains. In addition, the specificity of land use with the concentration of the population in the glen, separated by mountains, apparently favored the cohesion of some clans. As a result, until the 18th century. the highlanders could not be completely turned into law-abiding subjects of the kingdom.

Religion.

Many Scots are Presbyterians and their religious life takes place within the Scottish Church. The adherents of this church make up 2/3 of all believers, it enjoys strong influence almost everywhere. The heresies and schisms that plagued Scottish Presbyterians in the 18th and 19th centuries have for the most part been overcome. The two surviving Presbyterian minorities, the Free Church and the Free Presbyterian Church, have their adherents predominantly in some mountainous regions and on the western islands, where their highly conservative doctrine retains its appeal to the population.

The Reformation won over most of the country, and at the end of the 17th century. only about 12 thousand Catholics remained in Scotland, who lived mainly in the mountains, in the west of the main island and on one or two small islands. Until the 19th century The Roman Catholic Church sought only to strengthen its influence in these areas. However, Irish immigration, especially during the famine years of the 1840s, contributed to the growth of the Catholic population in industrial areas, mainly around Glasgow. Currently, there are about 800,000 Catholics in the country. In the 18th century the positions of the Anglican Church were strengthened in the areas located north of the river Tey. Now its role has weakened, with the exception of the petty nobility, whose authority outside the cities is not great.

Culture.

In Scotland, education has long been under the control of the Church. During the Middle Ages, schools were established at cathedrals or other temples, which were managed by city councils. At the same time, the church organized three universities in Scotland - in St. Andrews (1410), Glasgow (1451) and Aberdeen (1494). The University of Edinburgh was founded shortly after the Reformation (1583); four more universities were added in the 1960s - Strathclyde in Glasgow, Heriot-Watt in Edinburgh, Dundee and Stirling. Several parliamentary acts of the 17th century. schools were called for in every parish, but in remote areas this idea was put into practice without much haste. In the 18th - early 19th centuries. in addition to the parish system, schools were established by voluntary societies until the whole country was completely covered by educational institutions. In 1872 the old order was replaced by a state system and schooling became compulsory. The Scottish tradition did not encourage the establishment of private schools under the direction of school boards, however, schools in the country were very diverse until the late 1800s.

Sport.

The national sport in Scotland is football, but it is played mostly by professionals. Scotland is the birthplace of golf, and the sandy east coast has good golf courses. In the mountains they play children's hockey, similar to the usual one. Highlander costumes give color to sports competitions, which, together with bagpipe competitions, are regularly held in mountainous areas.

Economy.

Scotland is predominantly an industrial country. Businesses are concentrated in the Lowlands between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. In the same strip are the main industrial centers - Edinburgh and Glasgow. Both old (steel, printing and brewing) and relatively new industries (petrochemical, electronics and automotive) are represented here. In addition, shipbuilding and general engineering are developed in the Clydeside area, which includes Glasgow and its suburbs.

Light industry is partly concentrated in the cities of Dundee and Aberdeen, located on the east coast north of the Firth of Forth. Aberdeen refines oil from fields in the North Sea. Industry Dundee specializes in the production of jute, clocks, refrigerators and electronic equipment. Most of the famous whiskey distilleries are located in northeastern Scotland. For many years clothing and fabrics, especially tweed, have been produced in the valleys of the South Scottish Highlands, in the northern highlands and on the islands. There are nuclear power plants on the banks of the Firth of Clyde and the Solway Firth and on the north coast.

Agriculture is predominantly concentrated on the eastern coastal plain. Among the main crops there stand out barley, oats, wheat, potatoes, turnips and sugar beets. 3/4 of the agricultural area of ​​Scotland is used for pasture. Sheep are bred in the hilly regions of the northwest, and cattle are bred in the plains of the northeast. The southwest is an important area for dairy farming.

State structure and politics.

Administratively, Scotland has been subdivided into 12 regions since 1975, including 53 districts and 3 island territories (Western Isles, Orkney and Shetland). Districts usually correspond to the former counties, or shires, that existed before 1975. Councils are elected to govern districts, districts, and island territories.

The Scottish Parliament is missing some of the laws that are permanently in place throughout the UK. Other laws are partly relevant to Scotland, while others are wholly relevant to Scotland, when they are discussed, differences in legal proceedings, administrative procedures, etc. are taken into account.

Until the 1970s, the idea of ​​local government had little success in Scotland. However, in the early 1970s, the discovery of oil fields in the North Sea stimulated Scottish nationalism, and in the 1974 general election the Scottish National Party won a third of the vote in Scotland and 11 seats in the British House of Commons. In 1978, Parliament passed a bill for direct elections to the Scottish Assembly in Edinburgh, giving it greater powers in domestic affairs. However, in a referendum in 1979, this project did not receive the support of the population.
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Scotland continued to struggle for its place in the overall political context of the United Kingdom. The country retains national characteristics in religion, legal structure, language (called Scottish) and education system. Scotland has its own original culture, a highly developed and recently expanded university system, and its own press.

Despite the existence of the Ministry of Scotland, headed by the Secretary of State for Scotland in Edinburgh, and two reorganizations of local government, in 1973 and 1995, this integral part of the UK leads a rather isolated political life, which, in turn, has internal regional features. First, there is the area of ​​Glasgow and the Clyde Estuary to the southeast. About 40% of the total five million population of Scotland lives in this developed industrial area, a significant part of heavy industry is located and there are quite a lot of social problems associated with lack of housing, rising crime, poverty and unemployment. Trade unions are traditionally developed, Catholics, mainly Irish, form an influential minority in Glasgow and the Strathclyde area. The combination of these socio-demographic features fuels a strong and consistent Labor Party electorate.

The rest of Scotland is politically distinct from this region. In most constituencies, three or four parties - Labour, the Conservatives, the Scottish National Party and the Liberal Democrats - compete for the vote on an equal footing, although the Labor Party is traditionally strong in urban areas such as Edinburgh and Aberdeen.

In London, Scotland is represented by 72 members of the House of Commons, but they are considered to have little influence in the 659-member Parliament. In the May 1997 general election, all major parties, except the Conservatives, were in favor of a significant change in the position of Scotland in the United Kingdom. Labor won 56, the Liberal Democrats 10, the Scottish National Party 6 votes, while the Conservatives won no seats, although 17.5% of the population voted for them.

After that, in a referendum, 70.4% of the Scots voted in favor of the formation of a Scottish Assembly with limited powers, which will be convened in Edinburgh in July 1999. A slightly smaller number of Scots who took part in the referendum (but also a majority) supported the proposal to give the Assembly some rights in tax area.

Labor supported the idea of ​​the Assembly in the hope of putting an end to the dissatisfaction of the Scots in connection with the existing constitutional status of their country. The measures put to a referendum were also approved by the Scottish National Party, which regarded them as the first step towards full independence. It should be noted that Scottish nationalists are in favor of continued membership in the European Union and are not as radical in matters of preserving culture and language as their counterparts in Wales.

STORY

Roman period.

For thirty years after 80 AD. and again around 140-180 AD. Roman troops occupied southern Scotland. They defended the line through Fort Clyde against the Caledonians, or Picts, a warlike people who inhabited the northern territories. For this, the Romans built fortifications during the first occupation and a defensive rampart during the second occupation. About 84 and again about 208 they penetrated north to the Moray Firth, but beyond the Firth of Forth they left no military settlements. Having lost control of southern Scotland for the first time, they built the so-called. Hadrian's Wall, built after 120 between the River Tyne and the Solway Firth, which for a long time served as the frontier of the Roman Empire in Britain. However, the rampart could not hold back the Picts, who repeatedly invaded territories in southern Britain. In the 3-4 centuries. many tribes of southern Scotland became allies of Rome.

Christianization.

St. Ninian began his missionary work in the southwest of the island c. 400; other missionaries are said to have preached among the Picts as far north as the Moray Firth, but the Christianization of Scotland is generally dated to the arrival of St. Columba in 563. The conversion took place during the migration of the Scots from northern Ireland, where Christianity had dominated since the beginning of the 5th century, to the Hebrides and the western part of Scotland. Columba himself settled in a monastery on the island of Iona near the southwestern tip of the island of Malla. Not limited to brothers in faith - Scots in the west - Columba eventually managed to convert the king of the Picts in Inverness to the Christian faith. Over time, the Irish form of Christianity, with its special rites and organization, came into direct conflict with Roman Christianity, which was spreading north from Kent. At the Synod of Whitby (663 or 664), the King of Northumbria, after hearing the adversarial rites, decided in favor of Rome, and his verdict was later adopted in all the territory north of the Cheviot Hills; Iona eventually capitulated c. 720. The replacement of Irish rites by Roman ones had a profound effect on the history of Scotland, for the country was thus joined to the general stream of the history of European civilization.

Other influences.

With the end of the Roman occupation of Britain, the rampart along the Tyne-Solway line ceased to be an insurmountable obstacle, and eventually two kingdoms were formed that were located on both sides of the rampart - Strathclyde in the west and Northumbria in the east. To the north lay the kingdoms of the Picts and Scots, the former occupying most of the country north of the straits of Clyde Fort, and the latter part of the west coast and the Hebrides. The northward expansion of the Anglian kingdom of Northumbria, reaching as far as the River Forth, met with strong resistance from the Picts, who defeated the Northumbrian army in 685 at the Battle of Nechtansmeer. The danger of invasion was somewhat reduced after the place of the Angles was occupied in the 8th century. Scandinavians, as the new settlers in Northumbria were more concerned with expanding south and west than north. However, the capture of the northern territories became the goal of the Scandinavian tribes who arrived by sea. The Normans conquered island after island, first in Shetland and Orkney, and then in the Hebrides; after they spread throughout the north and west of Scotland. Traces of the Norman conquest are still visible, especially in the Orkney, Shetland Islands and Caithness, which served as the center of concentration of the forces of the conquerors. During the 11th and 12th centuries. the power of the Normans gradually decreased, and the power of the kingdom of the Scots increased. Nevertheless, the Normans retained dominance over the western islands until 1266, and only in 1468-1469 Orkney and Shetland were returned to Scotland after the marriage between Princess Margaret and James III.

Scottish kingdom.

Meanwhile, in 844, the Scots and Picts were formally united under King Kenneth MacAlpin. During the 10th century the rulers of this united kingdom tried, and not without success, to retake Lothian from Northumbria and establish complete dominion over Strathclyde. The implementation of these claims fell on the reign of Malcolm II (1005-1034). However, as soon as Malcolm's grandson Duncan I took the throne in 1034, Macbeth of Moray seized the throne and held it until he was put to death in 1057 by Malcolm III. Duncan I's son Malcolm III was in exile in England and later married the Anglo-Saxon Princess Margaret. They and their sons brought the English way of life to Scotland. The system of monasteries and parishes was developed, a feudal system of the Norman type was established. This caused resistance in the Highlands, where opposition forces rallied around Moray. However, time passed, and the kingdom continued to exist, cities grew, trade developed, and England's attempts to subjugate Scotland met with resistance and were successfully repulsed. The period from 1153 to 1286 is called the golden age of Scotland.

Fight with England.

A long and relatively calm and fruitful period came to an abrupt end with the death in 1290 of Margaret, the "Maiden of Norway", who became heir to the Scottish throne. She was to marry the son and heir of Edward I, King of England. To avoid a civil war for the throne, Edward was asked to act as an arbitrator. He chose John Baliol, who was crowned in 1292, but only after he recognized Edward as his overlord. Repentant for what he had done, Baliol, with the help of the French, tried to get rid of his dependence, but the uprising was crushed. In 1297, William Wallace challenged the British at Stirling Bridge, and this time the Scots were victorious. However, Wallace, unable to reconcile conflicting interests, was eventually deceived and handed over to Edward. The banner of rebellion was again raised by Robert I (Bruce) in 1306. For several years he led the policy of exhausting the troops of Edward II, and then, in 1314, at Bannockburn, dealt the most crushing blow ever received by English troops on Scottish soil. In 1320, in a letter to the pope, the Scots stated; "As long as there are at least a hundred Scots left alive, we will not submit to the English king." Despite this declaration of independence, it was only in 1328 that England, by the peace treaty at Northampton, agreed to recognize King Robert, and in 1329 the pope finally recognized the sovereignty of the Scottish kingdom.

instability and war.

The war with England did not stop, and this led to the impoverishment of the population of Scotland. In addition to this, the country suffered from ineffective rule by kings that were either too young or too old, and periods of strong rule did not last too long for stability to be established during this time. The chiefs of the Highlands and the barons of the Lowlands, and the Church, having all the wealth and influence in Scotland, were the enemies of the monarchy. Although the citizens of cities have held seats in parliament since the reign of Robert I, there has been nothing like the English House of Commons in the country to counterbalance the lords and prelates. During the Hundred Years' War, Scotland became an ally of the French. The result was important cultural ties to the Continent, but this involved Scotland in a series of military adventures. The economic, administrative and intellectual development of the country under James IV ended after his invasion of England and his death at the Battle of Flodden in 1513.

The Reformation and the End of the Anglo-Scottish Wars.

One of the lessons of the defeat at Flodden was that traditional ties with France posed no small danger to Scotland. At the same time, the advent of the Reformation era added another reason for revising the country's foreign policy. The Scots, influenced by Lutheranism, believed that Scotland should ally with Henry VIII after he rejected papal authority and dissolved the monasteries. James V, however, did not follow Henry's lead. Instead, he took advantage of the situation and received financial benefits in exchange for loyalty to the pope. In addition, he strengthened relations with France by successively marrying two French women, the second of whom was Marie of Guise. The result of his policy was the war with England and the defeat of the Scots in the battle of Solway Moss in 1542, after which Jacob soon died.

Until the coming of age of Mary, who succeeded to the throne at the age of one week, the dominion of Scotland was contested by a Frenchman and an Englishman, each of whom had many supporters among the Scots. Henry VIII supported the Scottish reformers and plotted to assassinate Cardinal David Beaton, who favored an alliance with France. George Wishart, a Protestant preacher associated with the English, was burned at the stake as a heretic by Beaton, who was soon also killed. The British, unable to secure the engagement of the Queen of Scots to Prince Edward (later Edward VI), carried out devastating raids in the south of Scotland and, as a result, ensured that Scotland fell into the hands of the French. Mary was sent to France (1548) and betrothed to the Dauphin. She married him in 1558, and he became king of France under the name of Francis II. In Scotland, Mary of Guise became regent in 1554 and ruled the country, respecting the interests of France and relying on French troops.

The Reformation movement in Scotland was now combined with patriotic resistance to French dominance and the fear that Scotland would henceforth be ruled by a dynasty of French monarchs. In 1559, upon the return of John Knox from Geneva, an uprising broke out, directed both against the French and against Rome. Troops sent by Elizabeth prevented the suppression of the rebels by the French, and the death of Mary of Guise (June 1560) opened the way for a treaty by which English and French soldiers were to leave Scotland.

Mary, Queen of Scots.

The Reformers were in power in 1560, but in August 1561 Queen Mary, who had lost her husband Francis in December 1560, returned to Scotland. As a Catholic, she initially had no animosity towards the reformed church. However, Mary could not be the head of a new church, the leadership of which was mainly in the hands of the governors, or new bishops, and the supreme power was in the General Assembly, which was practically a Protestant parliament. Mary claimed more claim to the English throne than Elizabeth, and after marrying her cousin, Lord Darnley, who followed her in succession to the English throne and whose claims were recognized by the English Catholics, the reformed church ceased to enjoy her favor. After the murder of Darnley, Mary married the Earl of Bothwell, who was believed to be the murderer of her second husband. A rebellion broke out and Mary was deposed. The crown passed to her minor son James VI. Mary fled to England in 1568 under the protection of Elizabeth. She was imprisoned until the Queen of England ordered her execution in 1587.

James VI.

The period before the coming of age of James VI is marked by the civil war waged by his regents against his mother's supporters, and by the intrigues of Rome, supported by the European powers. In addition, a Presbyterian movement arose within the reformed church, demanding the abolition of bishops and the transfer of church government to the elders. The Presbyterians denied any authority over the church to the king and parliament, and argued that high presbyters should determine the policy of the state. Jacob pursued a cunning, flexible and consistent policy in his dealings with rival factions. For some time he had to rely on the Presbyterians and in 1592 agreed to the proclamation of Presbyterianism as the state church. However, after the defeat of the last Catholic uprising in 1594, he began to insist on the preservation and strengthening of the posts of bishops along with church courts. James forced Andrew Melville into exile and established tight control over the church, but did not interfere in the theological issues proper, which had been discussed since the beginning of the Reformation. This compromise was generally accepted, especially after James reconciled the nobles and landowners and found a foothold in the relatively conservative northern territories, where Presbyterianism had not yet taken deep roots. When James sat on the English throne in 1603, it did not unify the parliaments or government of the two countries, but strengthened his own position, whereby he made the Scots respect the law and was able to rule more effectively than any of his predecessors.

Charles I.

Charles I lacked the tact that his father had; his actions were not distinguished by patience and flexibility and led to the fact that many subjects turned away from him. Jacob did not dispute the rights to the former church property seized after the beginning of the Reformation. Charles began his reign (1625-1649) by questioning these rights, and in later years nurtured plans to restore the income of the old church. He went even further than his father in manipulating Parliament by means that were considered unconstitutional; established taxes that were considered exorbitant, and gave bishops political functions. Finally, ignoring criticism and opposition, Charles introduced new ecclesiastical canons that threatened to replace the existing compromise with a system identical to that of the Anglicans, and a new liturgical service, which was rejected as Roman Catholic by already inflamed public opinion. As a result, the National Covenant (1638) was signed, which stated that the king acted illegally, and soon the Presbyterian church was again accepted as official.

Civil War and Oliver Cromwell.

Charles resisted the increasing influence of the Scots, but he did not have enough strength to bring them into obedience. The return of the Scots to arms and their occupation of northern England forced him to convene the Long Parliament. After the start of the civil war, the Covenantors, who had power over Scotland, following the Solemn League and Covenant (1643), agreed to help the English Parliament in the fight against the king on the condition that Presbyterianism become the state church not only in Scotland, but also in England. However, when the royal forces were defeated, power in England passed not to Parliament, but to Cromwell and the army, who shared not the Presbyterian, but the Independent views on church government. Then the Scots, or rather some of the Scots, tried to restore the reign of Charles I, and after his execution they put Charles II on their throne on the condition that he sign the covenants. The result was the defeat of the Scots at Dunbar (1650) and Worcester (1651) and the conquest of the country by the British. During the period of the republic and the protectorate, Scotland was united with England, sent deputies to the English parliaments and conducted free trade with England and the English colonies.

Restoration and Glorious Revolution.

The Restoration of the Stuarts (1660) was intended to restore the pre-war system of government and the terms of the religious compromise reached under James VI. There was some political opposition in the country, as Scottish politicians and parliament were no longer as obedient as they had been before 1648. Although the restoration was accepted in the country, serious discontent was brewing in some areas, especially in the southwest, among those strict Presbyterians who advocated the implementation of the National Covenant and the Solemn League. A policy of alternating reconciliation and suppression lessened the degree of discontent, and the rebellion at Bothwell Bridge (1679) was brutally suppressed, but a handful of extremists still survived and eventually refused to recognize the English king.

James VII (James II of England) was mainly occupied with resolving the issue of restoring the status of Roman Catholicism. His principle of religious tolerance extended not only to Catholics, but also to Presbyterians, which undermined the official status of the Episcopal Church, preserved by his predecessors. The policy of toleration was so unpopular that Parliament refused to sanction it, and it had to be carried out solely by the will of the king. The result was a general aversion to royalty. Thus, when the English Revolution of 1688 led to the flight of James and the rise of William of Orange, James had little chance of remaining on the Scottish throne. In 1689 he was declared ineligible for the crown. The campaign of John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee, ended at Killecranky, and William's rule was established in Scotland. The bishops and the majority of the clergy were loyal to Jacob, so William relied on the Presbyterians, whose church was finally declared state (1690). One of the results of William's determination to break the resistance of the Highlanders was the famous massacre at Glencoe in 1692.

Darien.

In the 17th century The country was going through a period of transformation. Since the reign of James VI, Scotland has increasingly become an advanced country with a developed economy and culture; economic projects aroused the enthusiasm of the population, there were new incentives for production and commerce; attempts were made to colonize new lands - in Nova Scotia, in eastern New Jersey and in South Carolina. The economic interests of Scotland differed from those of England. The regime of free trade with England ended with the beginning of the Restoration, when, according to the Navigation Act, the Scots were excommunicated from trade with the English colonies. As a result, serious tensions arose between the countries. Up until the revolution of 1688, crises were avoided because the king was able to keep the Scottish parliament under control. After the revolution, Parliament gained independence and showed its freedom-loving character precisely when the power of the English Parliament also increased. Under these conditions, the Scots conceived an ambitious project to establish their own colony in Darien, and this project was widely supported and financed. Darien nominally belonged to Spain, with which at that time Wilhelm was in difficult negotiations. For this reason, he refused to support the idea of ​​a Scottish colony and forbade English subjects to give the Scots any help in this enterprise. The colony venture ended in disaster, partly because of the epidemic, and partly because of the resistance of the Spaniards. The Scots blamed William for everything, and the attitude towards England became even more hostile. It became clear that the only hope for progress in trade lay with Scotland's entry into the markets of England and the English colonies.

Union with England.

William understood that the difficulties that were inevitable under the circumstances could be overcome with the help of the union of the two kingdoms and the creation of a single parliament, but the Scots did not like the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bsubordinating England, and the British did not at all want to give the rights of trade to the Scots. Nevertheless, after 1701, England entered the War of the Spanish Succession with France, and the Scots took advantage of the situation by threatening to pursue an independent foreign policy and even choose their own monarch. Under the threat of the emergence of an independent Scotland with the support of France, the British were forced to yield, and in 1707 an act of union was adopted, according to which the Scots renounced their political independence. Scotland received representation in London - 45 seats in the lower house and 16 peer seats in the House of Lords; it was also decided that after the death of Queen Anne, the countries would receive a monarch from the House of Hanover. In return, the Scots received equal trading rights with the British, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland was declared inviolable, and Scottish laws and the judiciary remained independent of the English. In practice, appeals in civil cases could be brought, after hearings in the Scottish High Court, to the British House of Lords. In all other cases, the decisions of the Scottish courts were final.

Jacobite uprisings.

For more than 40 years after the conclusion of the union in Scotland, there was a serious dissatisfaction with the state of affairs, it seemed to the Scots that their interests were being ignored by the British Parliament, and the expected economic benefits were not bearing such rich fruits. However, the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745, aimed at restoring the descendants of James VII and James II, cannot in any way be considered a proper Scottish national resistance movement; they received almost no attention from the people of central Scotland, receiving a response only from adherents of the Episcopal Church and Catholics. In the north, where economic and social development was not as vigorous as in other areas, and the situation was determined by the rivalry of the clans and the willingness to join in any occupation that provided an opportunity for robbery, a sufficient number of chiefs attracted their clans to the side of the Jacobites, who as a result were replenished in 5-10 thousand soldiers. The uprising of 1715, led by Count Mar, ended in failure; the "senior pretender" James VIII joined him at the moment when it was already suppressed. During the uprising of 1745, the "junior pretender" Charles Edward landed in Scotland, proclaimed his father king, took Edinburgh and invaded England, reaching Derby. There, however, he did not receive any support and withdrew to the north, where he was finally defeated at Culloden (1746), which put an end to the claims of the Stuarts. The defeat of the Highlanders was applauded by the inhabitants of central Scotland. Dissatisfaction with the union faded, and over the next century it was welcomed by almost the entire population of the country.
Scotland after the union.

Economic development.

Over time, the union brought obvious economic benefits. Scottish ports, especially along the banks of the Clyde, imported tobacco from America; to meet the needs of the colonists in industrial products, enterprises were formed, primarily flax-spinning manufactories. The British monopoly on the tobacco trade ended with the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, but industrial development in Scotland continued. From the end of the 18th century the most important industry in the west of the country was cotton spinning and cotton weaving, which flourished until the American Civil War cut off the supply of raw cotton. Since then, the cotton industry in Scotland has not recovered, but heavy industry began to develop, based on the country's coal and iron reserves. The invention of the hot blast method (1828) revolutionized Scottish metallurgy, and Scotland became the center of engineering, shipbuilding and transport engineering. By the end of the 19th century iron was replaced by steel. Scotland, which throughout the 17th century. was mainly an agricultural country, acquired an industrial belt stretching across the whole country from the southwest to the northeast, where most of the population lived. Agriculture also received significant development after the Union, its level remained high, although in the second half of the 19th century, when Britain began to pursue a policy of free trade, food imports had a very negative impact on local agricultural production. The development of industry, bringing with it employment and prosperity, proceeded so rapidly that housing construction, urban expansion, and health systems lagged behind, and for a time living conditions in some cities remained extremely poor.

The predominant development of heavy industry began to bring losses after the Second World War, when the processes of industrialization in other countries deprived Scottish industry of markets. Within Great Britain itself, production was centralized, and industry moved farther south, leaving Scotland in the position of an industrial outskirts. As a result, the entire interwar period was a time of depression, and the world crisis of 1931 was only its most acute phase. After the Second World War, the old heavy industries fell into decay, and the government provided financial assistance to new industries - from nuclear power plants and oil refineries to light industry.

Public administration.

The unification of parliaments was followed a few years later by an almost complete unification of government systems. With the strengthening of the role of the state in the 19th century. Separate Scottish councils for the poor, education, health, agriculture and fisheries were formed. In 1885, the post of Secretary for Scotland was formed, and when the Scottish Office was established in 1926, most of the former councils replaced the departments that were part of it. After 1850 there was occasional dissatisfaction with union, at least in its current form, and proposals were made for a separate Scottish Parliament and a reorganization of Great Britain on the basis of federalism. Currently, the Scottish National Party, which emerged in the 1970s, exists and is actively operating. The government's proposal for a Scottish Parliament with the right to decide local issues was put to a referendum in Scotland in September 1997. The vast majority of citizens participating in the vote (74%) approved the proposal, and 63% of those who voted - the right of Parliament to raise or lower taxes within 3%.

Church.

The Scottish Church retained its Presbyterian organization, guaranteed by the Act of Union. The problem of reconciling the Presbyterian claim to independence from Parliament with the legitimate authority of the British Parliament caused constant difficulties and led to splits and the formation of sects. The controversy culminated in the schism of 1843 when the Free Scottish Church was formed. In the late 19th century, however, a reunification trend emerged, and from 1929 the Church of Scotland had a very small minority of Presbyterians in its ranks. The episcopal church, which lost official status in 1690, continued to exist in difficult conditions throughout the 18th century. and still represents a separate religious organization. Roman Catholicism practically disappeared in the early 17th century. and throughout the 18th century. enjoyed influence only in a few mountainous areas, but the influx of the Irish and Scotland in the 19th century. caused a serious strengthening of the position of Catholics.

Education reforms.

The reformers hatched plans for a comprehensive system of education, involving the establishment of schools at all levels, including in all parishes. From 1616 there was a legislative basis for parochial schools, but despite significant progress, the new education laws were never implemented. Schools funded by local landlords were under the control of the church. In addition, efforts were made independently of the church, thanks to which, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Scotland had more opportunities for education than any other country of that time (even before compulsory school attendance was introduced in 1872). Universities opened their doors to young men from all social classes and at the end of the 18th century. won great fame. People who were educated in Scotland achieved the highest positions in England, and the Scots managed to achieve the heights of intellectual and cultural development in the work of such outstanding people as David Hume, Adam Smith and Walter Scott.

Anglicization.

In the course of nearly three centuries of political union, many factors have brought the Scots closer to the British in their way of life. At the end of the 18th century, when the interests of the Scots were first affected by the American War of Independence and then by the French Revolution, the country's political awakening took place, and the Scots began to take an active part in British parliamentary politics. From the period of the Napoleonic Wars, the Scots not only fought in the British army, but were loyal to Britain, and later fully shared the goals of British foreign policy and British military campaigns. The important role played by the Scots in the colonization and administration of the lands that made up the British Empire strengthened the partnership with England.

Delegation of power.

In the UK, the establishment and empowerment of state bodies subordinate to Parliament at the level of the whole country as a whole or at the level of regions is called delegation of power (devolution). Although Scottish voters in 1979 rejected the government's proposal for the formation of a Scottish legislature to which power over local affairs would be transferred, in 1997 they overwhelmingly approved such a proposal. The reasons for the change of view lay not in any rise of Scottish nationalism, but in the excessive concentration of power in the hands of the cabinet in London.

Each culture has its own rules and norms of behavior, customs and traditions, often not similar to each other, but it is they that identify a person as part of a nation.

The population of Scotland is markedly different from all other subjects of the English crown. Despite their small number, according to statistics for 2016, a little more than five million people live in Scotland (this is two times less than in Moscow), the Scots manage to maintain their identity and even turned it into a kind of brand. This is especially evident in the fashion world, where Scottish tartan (a national check that defines a Scot as an adherent of a particular clan) has been a favorite for several years now.

mentality

Despite their apparent cordiality, the population of Scotland is somewhat closed, harsh, stubborn, stingy and does not like strangers. The latter can be justified by the fact that the Scots, like their neighbors the Welsh, English and Irish, are islanders, which means that they have a slightly different temperament than those who live on the mainland.

If for the population of the mainland the visit of a neighbor was a common thing, then it was necessary to get to the island, and most often strangers did not sail in peace. The constant defense of their land both from the sea and from their closest neighbors, the British (namely, they were the main headache for the Scots), formed the descendants of the ancient Picts.

A bit of history

The settlement of the territory of modern Scotland began with the ancient Picts. It was they who served as the progenitors of modern Scottish society. Initially, they were called Iberians, and only with the advent of the Celts on the island did the name "Picts" appear. Their habitat was the north of the island, the part that is today called Scotland. The Scots (ancestors of the Irish) lived in the west, the territory of England was occupied by the Britons, who were later forced out by the Anglo-Saxons.

In the 9th century, the Picts and Scots united against the Vikings formed a kingdom called Scotia. And here modern name"Scotland" appeared only a couple of centuries later, in the 11th century.

Galik

Or how to call it correctly, Gaelic, which is used by the population of Scotland, is the main one along with English. Although today you can meet pure Gaelic only in deep Scottish villages. The bulk of the population speaks something between English and Gaelic (Scottish English). Therefore, it is sometimes difficult to understand the language of Scotland even to the closest neighbors, the British.

It appeared thanks to the Irish, displacing Pictish and Old English. But he didn't last long either. Already in the 15th century, the population of Scotland began to speak Scottish. The development of the homogeneity of the language was partly served by cities that began to appear as early as the 11th century.

Scotland cities

The cities of Scotland, like most European cities, have a "spider" network of streets and roads. Most often they originated around the castle of some feudal lord. At first, these were temporary settlements consisting of the workers who built the castle and their families. Then the population increased, and already appeared small villages. And when the construction was completed and the owner moved to the castle (or fortress), cities were formed.

The type of activity of the owner of the land often determined the fate of the city. So, if the feudal lord chose the seashore as a place for his house, then the city became a port, and already his main income depended on the catch.

The cities of Scotland, located in the mountains, villages, farms are still fed from land and livestock. The legendary kilt made of Scottish sheep wool has been and remains the main pride of the population. It is akin to our Orenburg scarf. Maybe not as thin and elegant, but certainly warm and durable.

And no youth party is complete without Scottish. There is also a second spelling of this whiskey drink - this is the Irish version, which differs not only in spelling, but also in taste. Irish whiskey is pure, without impurities. It was invented by Irish immigrants who arrived in the US and missed their home very much. Scottish is slightly peaty. It was on it from ancient times that this drink was brewed. Therefore, for any Scot, whiskey is more than just a drink, it is a connection with its history.

Who rules Caledonia

Wide known fact that the Scots for many centuries defended their lands and waged war both with each other and with the English. Wars, or rather two wars, were fought from the end of the 13th to the middle of the 14th century. The results were successful, because until the 17th century Scotland remained independent. And only in 1603 there was a union of the Scottish and English crowns. So today the Queen of Scots is Elizabeth II - the oldest monarch in the history of Britain. Of course, even before that, Scotland had had female rulers on its throne, but none of them ruled the country for as long as Elizabeth.

Modern Scotland leaves approximately 5.2 million people. Whether this is an administrative part of the UK independent state, according to this indicator, it would take 113th place in the world. More than 80% of the population are Scots, about 7% of the British live here. There are also representatives of other nationalities: Poles, Irish, Pakistanis, Indians, as well as people from African countries.

Numerous descendants of the Scots are scattered all over the world today. In the past, the country was a region with significant migration. A lot of local residents in the XVIII-XIX centuries moved to the United States of America and Canada. Scottish people can be found in South Africa, Australia and South America. The Scots often form in foreign countries entire diasporas.

Scotland does not have one officially recognized state language. Two varieties of Scots, adopted by the European Charter in 1992, are traditionally spoken here. Religious Scotland is not particularly colorful. Most residents consider themselves adherents of the national, built according to the Presbyterian type. There are also Catholics here, who, however, are half as many as atheists.

Scotland is currently actively preparing for a nationwide referendum. The question of the independence of this territory is on the agenda today. This topic, which is acute for the general population, has been raised more than once over the past three hundred years. But at the level of serious politicians, autonomy and even the complete separation of Scottish territory from Great Britain was only discussed in the 1930s.

In 2007, the Scottish National put the issue of independence on the agenda of the country's political life. The leaders of the national movement believe that every Scot should have the opportunity to independently determine the future of his homeland. For the vast majority local residents giving the country the status of an independent state will mean fundamental changes in the way of life.

The people of Scotland as a whole are eager for such changes, although there are opponents of independence. They believe that from the UK could seriously worsen the socio-economic of Scotland. Meanwhile, the Scots are anxiously awaiting the fateful referendum scheduled for September 18, 2014.

Scotland is an autonomous kingdom within the UK. It is located on almost 800 islands, of which only 300 are inhabited. The capital of Scotland is the city of Edinburgh. The country is famous for its rich history, culture and picturesque nature.

Instruction

The first settlements in Scotland appeared 6 thousand years ago. And the history of the Scottish kingdom begins in 843, when two peoples united in a single state - Scots and Picts. Until 1707 the kingdom was an independent state. And at the beginning of the 18th century, Scotland and England signed an act of unification.

The nature of Scotland is mesmerizing. Mountains, sea, lakes, forests, fields and meadows intertwine here in an incredibly beautiful landscape. Scotland is home to the highest mountain in the UK, Ben Nevis. It is in this country that Loch Ness is located, famous for the legend that the monster Nessie lives in its waters.

Scotland is rich in its fortresses, palaces, castles. For example, Edinburgh castle- the abode of monarchs, Stirling Castle - built near the largest family of the country Glasgow, on top of a volcano, the residence of the queen - Balmoral Castle. All the ancient buildings of Scotland are shrouded in secrets and legends about ghosts.

The national Scottish men's costume, the kilt, attracts attention. It appeared around the 15th century, and at first it was worn only. The first kilt was a warm checkered plaid, 13 meters long. During the day it was wrapped around the body, and at night they covered it like a blanket.