How many people live in Scotland. Major cities and attractions. Restoration and Glorious Revolution

SCOTLAND, the country that occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It is separated from England mainly by the Cheviot Hills and the Tweed River. To the west of Scotland, on the other side of the North Channel (St. Patrick's Sound), is Northern Ireland. South coast Scotland faces the Irish Sea and the Solway Firth. Scotland's borders have remained unchanged for almost 500 years.
Scotland is an integral part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. However, the political status of Scotland is not noted in this title. Although Scotland has never been an autonomous or federal unit of Great Britain and is no longer a kingdom, it is not merely a geographic or administrative region. Scotland can be considered as a separate country. The Scots defend their national identity and retain many institutions that are not found in England and other English-speaking countries. They have their own capital, Edinburgh, their own church, laws and courts, their own banks and banknotes. In Scotland, cities are called burghs (as opposed to boroughs in England), and their mayors are called provosts (in England, mayors), sheriffs there are judges who receive a salary, and not honorary dignitaries, as in England.

Peculiar institutions have been preserved in Scotland since ancient times, when it was a sovereign state. For a long time there have been attempts to unite Scotland and England. Many of them were acts of armed aggression on the part of England. The Scots for a long time successfully repulsed the invaders, which contributed to the strengthening of national identity. In 1603, when, after the death of Elizabeth I, the Scottish king James VI peacefully established himself on the English throne, both countries found themselves under the rule of one monarch, but each retained its own parliament and its own governing bodies. Then, in accordance with the Act of Union 1707, Scotland and England joined the United Kingdom of Great Britain with a single parliament and central government.

However, even after 1707, Scotland retained its identity, as some of its institutions were clearly specified by the Act of Union, and in the most recent years there has been a trend towards decentralization of government, with many government functions transferred to individual Scottish departments.

Although in terms of area (78,772 sq. km) Scotland is more than half the area of ​​England and Wales combined (151,126 thousand sq. km), its population in 1991 totaled only 4,989 thousand people compared to 49,890 thousand in England and Wales . In the 20th century In Scotland, there have been significant changes in the distribution of the population: migration to the cities has increased, where 9 out of every 10 Scots now live. In the mountains and on the islands, the population density does not exceed 12 people per 1 sq. km. km. However, at present, the centers of population growth are not large cities, but their suburban areas.

Nature.

The character of the Scottish people and their way of life were largely influenced by the natural environment: due to the predominance of mountains and uplands, only 1/5 of the territory was suitable for agriculture. In the south, the South Scottish Highlands are bordered on almost all sides by coastal lowlands and river valleys. The Mid-Scottish Lowland, which crosses the country between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde, is highly industrialized. To the north of this belt, almost along the entire eastern coast, a wide plain can be traced, and agriculture is developed in several large river valleys. Only in the most fertile lands in the south and east - in the Tweeda Valley, Ayr, Lothian, the county north of the Firth of Tay, partly in Aberdeen and along both banks of the Moray Firth - intensive farming brings very high incomes.

Rocky hills and swamps are widespread in Scotland, and in its central and western regions mountains dominate. The highest point - Mount Ben Nevis in the Grampian Mountains - reaches only 1343 m, several other peaks rise above 1200 m. However, there are approx. 300 peaks exceeding 900 m and many mountains make an impressive impression, rising almost from the seashore. There are no clearly defined ridges in the mountains of Scotland; when viewed from above, a mass of randomly dispersed peaks opens up, separated by deep narrow valleys called glens, or elongated narrow lochs. The valley of Glen More, containing three lakes (Loch Ness, Loch Loch and Loch Lynn) and continuing in underwater valleys at both ends, is distinguished by its rectilinear outlines; it stretches from the southwest to the northeast and divides the entire highlands of Scotland into two parts. Throughout this dissected territory, outcrops of bedrock are often found, and only in the lower parts of the slopes of the mountains and in the glen there are pastures and arable lands. In the last quarter of the 20th century Scotland carried out extensive afforestation.

The coasts of Scotland are heavily dissected. In the west, sucker bays, which have a fjord-like character, are deeply embedded in the central part mountain country. Off the coast of Scotland is approx. 500 islands united in archipelagos. The most significant of them is Hebrides, which includes such large islands as Lewis (1990 sq. Km) and Skye (1417 sq. Km), along with grass-covered rocks suitable for grazing a few sheep. Northern archipelagos - Orkney and Shetland Islands- there are 150 islands of different sizes. Both the western and northern islands are distinguished by a variety of landscapes; there are very fertile areas along with completely barren outcrops of bedrock. By contrast, off the east coast of Scotland there is very little major islands. Here, steep ledges, alternating with sandy beaches, go out to the North Sea. In the past, in the days of small sailing ships, there were many small ports on the east coast, mainly at the mouths of the rivers. Through these ports, Scotland's trade relations with neighboring countries of Northern Europe were mainly carried out. In the 18th century, when Scotland began to trade with America, the deep-water estuary of the Clyde River became the main trading artery of the country.
Transport problems have always largely depended on the terrain. Until they were built good roads(late 18th century), small loads were transported on horseback, while heavy or bulky goods had to be transported by sea from one port to another. Soon the era of railways began, which greatly facilitated transportation in more populated areas located at low altitudes. However, in the highlands in the west and north of Scotland, the construction of railways was difficult, and the main mode of transport remained steamboat traffic along the coast and along the lochs. Currently, road transport is dominant. Many railway lines were dismantled, and steamship flights were canceled. Air traffic plays a minor role, it is maintained only between the UK and some islands, but its development is hindered by fogs and strong winds.

The climate of Scotland is typical maritime. The average January temperature is approx. 4° C, July - 14° C. There are differences between the open west coast and the more sheltered east coast, the latter characterized by colder winters and warmer summers. Much more precipitation falls in the west. The average annual rate for the whole of Scotland is 1300 mm per year, but on some exposed western slopes it rises to 3800 mm.

population and lifestyle.

The population of Scotland occurred as a result of mixing of several races. The earliest inhabitants of the country were the Caledonians, or Picts, who inhabited most of the territory north of the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. In the southwest lived the Britons, related to the Welsh. Argyll ca. 500 AD an Irish colony was founded, and at the same time the Angles left European continent and landed in the southeast of Great Britain. In the 8th-11th centuries. the Scandinavians visited almost the entire coast of Scotland, but settled in the north and west. In the 12th century Normans and Flemings appeared there. Many Irish immigrants arrived in the 19th century. Migration processes between England and Scotland proceeded in a similar way.

Plains dwellers and highlanders.

The main difference is between the plains people, who are of mixed ethnogenesis and have spoken English for centuries, and the highlanders, who are mostly of Celtic origin and who until recently spoke Gaelic. In the 11th century Gaelic was spoken in almost all parts of Scotland, but subsequently the area of ​​​​its distribution narrowed significantly. In the 1960s, there were no more than 80,000 Gaelic speakers, almost all of whom lived in Western mountainous areas and on the islands and also knew English.

There were more than just linguistic differences between the Highlanders and the Lowland Scots. Important differences persisted between a predominantly agricultural (later predominantly industrial) economy in the plains and a predominantly pastoral economy in the mountains. In addition, the specificity of land use with the concentration of the population in the glen, separated by mountains, apparently favored the cohesion of some clans. As a result, until the 18th century. the highlanders could not be completely turned into law-abiding subjects of the kingdom.

Religion.

Many Scots are Presbyterians and their religious life takes place within the Scottish Church. The adherents of this church make up 2/3 of all believers, it enjoys strong influence almost everywhere. The heresies and schisms that plagued Scottish Presbyterians in the 18th and 19th centuries have for the most part been overcome. The two surviving Presbyterian minorities, the Free Church and the Free Presbyterian Church, have their adherents predominantly in some mountainous regions and on the western islands, where their highly conservative doctrine retains its appeal to the population.

The Reformation won over most of the country, and at the end of the 17th century. only about 12 thousand Catholics remained in Scotland, who lived mainly in the mountains, in the west of the main island and on one or two small islands. Until the 19th century The Roman Catholic Church sought only to strengthen its influence in these areas. However, Irish immigration, especially during the famine years of the 1840s, contributed to the growth of the Catholic population in industrial areas, mainly around Glasgow. Currently, there are about 800,000 Catholics in the country. In the 18th century the positions of the Anglican Church were strengthened in the areas located north of the river Tey. Now its role has weakened, with the exception of the petty nobility, whose authority outside the cities is not great.

Culture.

In Scotland, education has long been under the control of the Church. During the Middle Ages, schools were established at cathedrals or other temples, which were managed by city councils. At the same time, the church organized three universities in Scotland - in St. Andrews (1410), Glasgow (1451) and Aberdeen (1494). The University of Edinburgh was founded shortly after the Reformation (1583); four more universities were added in the 1960s - Strathclyde in Glasgow, Heriot-Watt in Edinburgh, Dundee and Stirling. Several parliamentary acts of the 17th century. schools were called for in every parish, but in remote areas this idea was put into practice without much haste. In the 18th - early 19th centuries. in addition to the parish system, schools were established by voluntary societies until the whole country was completely covered by educational institutions. In 1872 the old order was replaced by a state system and schooling became compulsory. The Scottish tradition did not encourage the establishment of private schools under the direction of school boards, however, schools in the country were very diverse until the late 1800s.

Sport.

The national sport in Scotland is football, but it is played mostly by professionals. Scotland is the birthplace of golf, and the sandy east coast has good golf courses. In the mountains they play children's hockey, similar to the usual one. Highlander costumes give color to sports competitions, which, together with bagpipe competitions, are regularly held in mountainous areas.

Economy.

Scotland is predominantly an industrial country. Businesses are concentrated in the Lowlands between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. In the same strip are the main industrial centers - Edinburgh and Glasgow. Both old (steel, printing and brewing) and relatively new industries (petrochemical, electronics and automotive) are represented here. In addition, shipbuilding and general engineering are developed in the Clydeside area, which includes Glasgow and its suburbs.

Light industry is partly concentrated in the cities of Dundee and Aberdeen, located on the east coast north of the bay Firth of Forth. Aberdeen refines oil from fields in the North Sea. Industry Dundee specializes in the production of jute, clocks, refrigerators and electronic equipment. Most of the famous whiskey distilleries are located in northeastern Scotland. For many years clothing and fabrics, especially tweed, have been produced in the valleys of the South Scottish Highlands, in the northern highlands and on the islands. There are nuclear power plants on the banks of the Firth of Clyde and the Solway Firth and on the north coast.

Agriculture is predominantly concentrated on the eastern coastal plain. Among the main crops there stand out barley, oats, wheat, potatoes, turnips and sugar beets. 3/4 of the agricultural area of ​​Scotland is used for pasture. Sheep are bred in the hilly regions of the northwest, and cattle are bred in the plains of the northeast. The southwest is an important area for dairy farming.

State structure and politics.

Administratively, Scotland has been subdivided into 12 regions since 1975, including 53 districts and 3 island territories (Western Isles, Orkney and Shetland). Districts usually correspond to the former counties, or shires, that existed before 1975. Councils are elected to govern districts, districts, and island territories.

The Scottish Parliament is missing some of the laws that are permanently in place throughout the UK. Other laws are partly relevant to Scotland, while others are wholly relevant to Scotland, when they are discussed, differences in legal proceedings, administrative procedures, etc. are taken into account.

Until the 1970s, the idea of ​​local government had little success in Scotland. However, in the early 1970s, the discovery of oil fields in the North Sea stimulated Scottish nationalism, and in the 1974 general election the Scottish National Party won a third of the vote in Scotland and 11 seats in the British House of Commons. In 1978, Parliament passed a bill for direct elections to the Scottish Assembly in Edinburgh, giving it greater powers in internal affairs. However, in a referendum in 1979, this project did not receive the support of the population.
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Scotland continued to struggle for its place in the overall political context of the United Kingdom. Country saves national characteristics in religion, legal order, language (called Scottish) and the education system. Scotland has its own original culture, a highly developed and recently expanded university system, and its own press.

Despite the existence of the Ministry of Scotland, headed by the Secretary of State for Scotland in Edinburgh, and two reorganizations of local government, in 1973 and 1995, this integral part of the UK leads a rather isolated political life, which, in turn, has internal regional features. First, there is the area of ​​Glasgow and the Clyde Estuary to the southeast. About 40% of the total five million population of Scotland lives in this developed industrial area, a significant part of heavy industry is located and there are quite a lot of social problems associated with lack of housing, rising crime, poverty and unemployment. Trade unions are traditionally developed, Catholics, mainly Irish, form an influential minority in Glasgow and the Strathclyde area. The combination of these socio-demographic features fuels a strong and consistent Labor Party electorate.

The rest of Scotland is politically distinct from this region. In most constituencies, three or four parties - Labour, the Conservatives, the Scottish National Party and the Liberal Democrats - compete for the vote on an equal footing, although the Labor Party is traditionally strong in urban areas such as Edinburgh and Aberdeen.

In London, Scotland is represented by 72 members of the House of Commons, but they are considered to have little influence in the 659-member Parliament. In the May 1997 general election, all major parties, except the Conservatives, were in favor of a significant change in the position of Scotland in the United Kingdom. Labor won 56, the Liberal Democrats 10, the Scottish National Party 6 votes, while the Conservatives won no seats, although 17.5% of the population voted for them.

After that, in a referendum, 70.4% of the Scots voted in favor of the formation of a Scottish Assembly with limited powers, which will be convened in Edinburgh in July 1999. A slightly smaller number of Scots who took part in the referendum (but also a majority) supported the proposal to give the Assembly some rights in tax area.

Labor supported the idea of ​​the Assembly in the hope of putting an end to the dissatisfaction of the Scots in connection with the existing constitutional status of their country. The measures put to a referendum were also approved by the Scottish National Party, which regarded them as the first step towards full independence. It should be noted that Scottish nationalists are in favor of continued membership in European Union and not as radical in matters of preserving culture and language as their counterparts in Wales.

STORY

Roman period.

For thirty years after 80 AD. and again around 140-180 AD. Roman troops occupied southern Scotland. They defended the line through Fort Clyde against the Caledonians, or Picts, a warlike people who inhabited the northern territories. For this, the Romans built fortifications during the first occupation and a defensive rampart during the second occupation. About 84 and again about 208 they penetrated north to the Moray Firth, but beyond the Firth of Forth they left no military settlements. Having lost control of southern Scotland for the first time, they built the so-called. Hadrian's Wall, built after 120 between the River Tyne and the Solway Firth, which for a long time served as the frontier of the Roman Empire in Britain. However, the rampart could not hold back the Picts, who repeatedly invaded territories in southern Britain. In the 3-4 centuries. many tribes of southern Scotland became allies of Rome.

Christianization.

St. Ninian began his missionary work in the southwest of the island c. 400; other missionaries are said to have preached among the Picts as far north as the Moray Firth, but the Christianization of Scotland is generally dated to the arrival of St. Columba in 563. The conversion took place during the migration of the Scots from northern Ireland, where Christianity had dominated since the beginning of the 5th century, to the Hebrides and western part Scotland. Columba himself settled in a monastery on the island of Iona near the southwestern tip of the island of Malla. Not limited to brothers in faith - Scots in the west - Columba eventually managed to convert the king of the Picts in Inverness to the Christian faith. Over time, the Irish form of Christianity, with its special rites and organization, came into direct conflict with Roman Christianity, which was spreading north from Kent. At the Synod of Whitby (663 or 664), the King of Northumbria, after hearing the adversarial rites, decided in favor of Rome, and his verdict was later adopted in all the territory north of the Cheviot Hills; Iona eventually capitulated c. 720. The replacement of Irish rites by Roman ones had a profound effect on the history of Scotland, for the country was thus joined to the general stream of the history of European civilization.

Other influences.

With the end of the Roman occupation of Britain, the rampart along the Tyne-Solway line ceased to be an insurmountable obstacle, and eventually two kingdoms were formed that were located on both sides of the rampart - Strathclyde in the west and Northumbria in the east. To the north lay the kingdoms of the Picts and Scots, the former occupying most of the country north of the straits of Clyde Fort, and the latter part west coast and the Hebrides. The northward expansion of the Anglian kingdom of Northumbria, reaching as far as the River Forth, met with strong resistance from the Picts, who defeated the Northumbrian army in 685 at the Battle of Nechtansmeer. The danger of invasion was somewhat reduced after the place of the Angles was occupied in the 8th century. Scandinavians, as the new settlers in Northumbria were more concerned with expanding south and west than north. However, the capture of the northern territories became the goal of the Scandinavian tribes who arrived by sea. The Normans conquered island after island, first in Shetland and Orkney, and then in the Hebrides; after they spread throughout the north and west of Scotland. Traces of the Norman conquest are still visible, especially in the Orkney, Shetland Islands and Caithness, which served as the center of concentration of the forces of the conquerors. During the 11th and 12th centuries. the power of the Normans gradually decreased, and the power of the kingdom of the Scots increased. Nevertheless, the Normans maintained dominance over western islands until 1266, and only in 1468-1469 Orkney and Shetland were returned to Scotland after the marriage between Princess Margaret and James III.

Scottish kingdom.

Meanwhile, in 844, the Scots and Picts were formally united under King Kenneth MacAlpin. During the 10th century the rulers of this united kingdom tried, and not without success, to retake Lothian from Northumbria and establish complete dominion over Strathclyde. The implementation of these claims fell on the reign of Malcolm II (1005-1034). However, as soon as Malcolm's grandson Duncan I took the throne in 1034, Macbeth of Moray seized the throne and held it until he was put to death in 1057 by Malcolm III. Duncan I's son Malcolm III was in exile in England and later married the Anglo-Saxon Princess Margaret. They and their sons brought the English way of life to Scotland. The system of monasteries and parishes was developed, a feudal system of the Norman type was established. This caused resistance in the Highlands, where opposition forces rallied around Moray. However, time passed, and the kingdom continued to exist, cities grew, trade developed, and England's attempts to subjugate Scotland met with resistance and were successfully repulsed. The period from 1153 to 1286 is called the golden age of Scotland.

Fight with England.

A long and relatively calm and fruitful period came to an abrupt end with the death in 1290 of Margaret, the "Maiden of Norway", who became heir to the Scottish throne. She was to marry the son and heir of Edward I, King of England. To avoid a civil war for the throne, Edward was asked to act as an arbitrator. He chose John Baliol, who was crowned in 1292, but only after he recognized Edward as his overlord. Repentant for what he had done, Baliol, with the help of the French, tried to get rid of his dependence, but the uprising was crushed. In 1297, William Wallace challenged the British at Stirling Bridge, and this time the Scots were victorious. However, Wallace, unable to reconcile conflicting interests, was eventually deceived and handed over to Edward. The banner of rebellion was again raised by Robert I (Bruce) in 1306. For several years he led the policy of exhausting the troops of Edward II, and then, in 1314, at Bannockburn, dealt the most crushing blow ever received by English troops on Scottish soil. In 1320, in a letter to the pope, the Scots stated; "As long as there are at least a hundred Scots left alive, we will not submit to the English king." Despite this declaration of independence, it was only in 1328 that England, by the peace treaty at Northampton, agreed to recognize King Robert, and in 1329 the pope finally recognized the sovereignty of the Scottish kingdom.

instability and war.

The war with England did not stop, and this led to the impoverishment of the population of Scotland. In addition to this, the country suffered from ineffective rule by kings that were either too young or too old, and periods of strong rule did not last too long for stability to be established during this time. The chiefs of the Highlands and the barons of the Lowlands, and the Church, having all the wealth and influence in Scotland, were the enemies of the monarchy. Although the citizens of cities have held seats in parliament since the reign of Robert I, there has been nothing like the English House of Commons in the country to counterbalance the lords and prelates. During the Hundred Years' War, Scotland became an ally of the French. The result was important cultural ties to the Continent, but this involved Scotland in a series of military adventures. The economic, administrative and intellectual development of the country under James IV ended after his invasion of England and his death at the Battle of Flodden in 1513.

The Reformation and the End of the Anglo-Scottish Wars.

One of the lessons of the defeat at Flodden was that traditional ties with France posed no small danger to Scotland. At the same time, the advent of the Reformation added yet another reason for revisiting foreign policy countries. The Scots, influenced by Lutheranism, believed that Scotland should ally with Henry VIII after he rejected papal authority and dissolved the monasteries. James V, however, did not follow Henry's lead. Instead, he took advantage of the situation and received financial benefits in exchange for loyalty to the pope. In addition, he strengthened relations with France by successively marrying two French women, the second of whom was Marie of Guise. The result of his policy was the war with England and the defeat of the Scots in the battle of Solway Moss in 1542, after which Jacob soon died.

Until the coming of age of Mary, who succeeded to the throne at the age of one week, the dominion of Scotland was contested by a Frenchman and an Englishman, each of whom had many supporters among the Scots. Henry VIII supported the Scottish reformers and plotted to assassinate Cardinal David Beaton, who favored an alliance with France. George Wishart, a Protestant preacher associated with the English, was burned at the stake as a heretic by Beaton, who was soon also killed. The British, unable to secure the engagement of the Queen of Scots to Prince Edward (later Edward VI), carried out devastating raids in the south of Scotland and, as a result, ensured that Scotland fell into the hands of the French. Mary was sent to France (1548) and betrothed to the Dauphin. She married him in 1558, and he became king of France under the name of Francis II. In Scotland, Mary of Guise became regent in 1554 and ruled the country, respecting the interests of France and relying on French troops.

The Reformation movement in Scotland was now combined with patriotic resistance to French dominance and the fear that Scotland would henceforth be ruled by a dynasty of French monarchs. In 1559, upon the return of John Knox from Geneva, an uprising broke out, directed both against the French and against Rome. Troops sent by Elizabeth prevented the suppression of the rebels by the French, and the death of Mary of Guise (June 1560) opened the way for a treaty by which English and French soldiers were to leave Scotland.

Mary, Queen of Scots.

The Reformers were in power in 1560, but in August 1561 Queen Mary, who had lost her husband Francis in December 1560, returned to Scotland. As a Catholic, she initially had no animosity towards the reformed church. However, Mary could not be the head of a new church, the leadership of which was mainly in the hands of the governors, or new bishops, and the supreme power was in the General Assembly, which was practically a Protestant parliament. Mary claimed more claim to the English throne than Elizabeth, and after marrying her cousin, Lord Darnley, who followed her in succession to the English throne and whose claims were recognized by the English Catholics, the reformed church ceased to enjoy her favor. After the murder of Darnley, Mary married the Earl of Bothwell, who was believed to be the murderer of her second husband. A rebellion broke out and Mary was deposed. The crown passed to her minor son James VI. Mary fled to England in 1568 under the protection of Elizabeth. She was imprisoned until the Queen of England ordered her execution in 1587.

James VI.

The period before the coming of age of James VI is marked by the civil war waged by his regents against his mother's supporters, and by the intrigues of Rome, supported by the European powers. In addition, a Presbyterian movement arose within the reformed church, demanding the abolition of bishops and the transfer of church government to the elders. The Presbyterians denied any authority over the church to the king and parliament, and argued that high presbyters should determine the policy of the state. Jacob pursued a cunning, flexible and consistent policy in his dealings with rival factions. For some time he had to rely on the Presbyterians and in 1592 agreed to the proclamation of Presbyterianism as the state church. However, after the defeat of the last Catholic uprising in 1594, he began to insist on the preservation and strengthening of the posts of bishops along with church courts. James forced Andrew Melville into exile and established tight control over the church, but did not interfere in the theological issues proper, which had been discussed since the beginning of the Reformation. This compromise was generally accepted, especially after James reconciled the nobles and landowners and found a foothold in the relatively conservative northern territories, where Presbyterianism had not yet taken deep roots. When James sat on the English throne in 1603, it did not unify the parliaments or government of the two countries, but strengthened his own position, whereby he made the Scots respect the law and was able to rule more effectively than any of his predecessors.

Charles I.

Charles I lacked the tact that his father had; his actions were not distinguished by patience and flexibility and led to the fact that many subjects turned away from him. Jacob did not dispute the rights to the former church property seized after the beginning of the Reformation. Charles began his reign (1625-1649) by questioning these rights, and in later years nurtured plans to restore the income of the old church. He went even further than his father in manipulating Parliament by means that were considered unconstitutional; established taxes that were considered exorbitant, and gave bishops political functions. Finally, ignoring criticism and opposition, Charles introduced new ecclesiastical canons that threatened to replace the existing compromise with a system identical to that of the Anglicans, and a new liturgical service, which was rejected as Roman Catholic by already inflamed public opinion. As a result, the National Covenant (1638) was signed, which stated that the king acted illegally, and soon the Presbyterian church was again accepted as official.

Civil War and Oliver Cromwell.

Charles resisted the increasing influence of the Scots, but he did not have enough strength to bring them into obedience. The return of the Scots to arms and their occupation of northern England forced him to convene the Long Parliament. After the start of the civil war, the Covenantors, who had power over Scotland, following the Solemn League and Covenant (1643), agreed to help the English Parliament in the fight against the king on the condition that Presbyterianism become the state church not only in Scotland, but also in England. However, when the royal forces were defeated, power in England passed not to Parliament, but to Cromwell and the army, who shared not the Presbyterian, but the Independent views on church government. Then the Scots, or rather some of the Scots, tried to restore the reign of Charles I, and after his execution they put Charles II on their throne on the condition that he sign the covenants. The result was the defeat of the Scots at Dunbar (1650) and Worcester (1651) and the conquest of the country by the British. During the period of the republic and the protectorate, Scotland was united with England, sent deputies to the English parliaments and conducted free trade with England and the English colonies.

Restoration and Glorious Revolution.

The Restoration of the Stuarts (1660) was intended to restore the pre-war system of government and the terms of the religious compromise reached under James VI. There was some political opposition in the country, as Scottish politicians and parliament were no longer as obedient as they had been before 1648. Although the restoration was accepted in the country, serious discontent was brewing in some areas, especially in the southwest, among those strict Presbyterians who advocated the implementation of the National Covenant and the Solemn League. A policy of alternating reconciliation and suppression lessened the degree of discontent, and the rebellion at Bothwell Bridge (1679) was brutally suppressed, but a handful of extremists still survived and eventually refused to recognize the English king.

James VII (James II of England) was mainly occupied with resolving the issue of restoring the status of Roman Catholicism. His principle of religious tolerance extended not only to Catholics, but also to Presbyterians, which undermined the official status of the Episcopal Church, preserved by his predecessors. The policy of toleration was so unpopular that Parliament refused to sanction it, and it had to be carried out solely by the will of the king. The result was a general aversion to royalty. Thus, when the English Revolution of 1688 led to the flight of James and the rise of William of Orange, James had little chance of remaining on the Scottish throne. In 1689 he was declared ineligible for the crown. The campaign of John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee, ended at Killecranky, and William's rule was established in Scotland. The bishops and the majority of the clergy were loyal to Jacob, so William relied on the Presbyterians, whose church was finally declared state (1690). One of the results of William's determination to break the resistance of the Highlanders was the famous massacre at Glencoe in 1692.

Darien.

In the 17th century The country was going through a period of transformation. Since the reign of James VI, Scotland has increasingly become an advanced country with a developed economy and culture; economic projects aroused the enthusiasm of the population, there were new incentives for production and commerce; attempts were made to colonize new lands - in Nova Scotia, in eastern New Jersey and in South Carolina. The economic interests of Scotland differed from those of England. The regime of free trade with England ended with the beginning of the Restoration, when, according to the Navigation Act, the Scots were excommunicated from trade with the English colonies. As a result, serious tensions arose between the countries. Up until the revolution of 1688, crises were avoided because the king was able to keep the Scottish parliament under control. After the revolution, Parliament gained independence and showed its freedom-loving character precisely when the power of the English Parliament also increased. Under these conditions, the Scots conceived an ambitious project to establish their own colony in Darien, and this project was widely supported and financed. Darien nominally belonged to Spain, with which at that time Wilhelm was in difficult negotiations. For this reason, he refused to support the idea of ​​a Scottish colony and forbade English subjects to give the Scots any help in this enterprise. The colony venture ended in disaster, partly because of the epidemic, and partly because of the resistance of the Spaniards. The Scots blamed William for everything, and the attitude towards England became even more hostile. It became clear that the only hope for progress in trade lay with Scotland's entry into the markets of England and the English colonies.

Union with England.

William understood that the difficulties that were inevitable under the circumstances could be overcome with the help of the union of the two kingdoms and the creation of a single parliament, but the Scots did not like the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bsubordinating England, and the British did not at all want to give the rights of trade to the Scots. Nevertheless, after 1701, England entered the War of the Spanish Succession with France, and the Scots took advantage of the situation by threatening to pursue an independent foreign policy and even choose their own monarch. Under the threat of the emergence of an independent Scotland with the support of France, the British were forced to yield, and in 1707 an act of union was adopted, according to which the Scots renounced their political independence. Scotland received representation in London - 45 seats in the lower house and 16 peer seats in the House of Lords; it was also decided that after the death of Queen Anne, the countries would receive a monarch from the House of Hanover. In return, the Scots received equal trading rights with the British, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland was declared inviolable, and Scottish laws and the judiciary remained independent of the English. In practice, appeals in civil cases could be brought, after hearings in the Scottish High Court, to the British House of Lords. In all other cases, the decisions of the Scottish courts were final.

Jacobite uprisings.

For more than 40 years after the conclusion of the union in Scotland, there was a serious dissatisfaction with the state of affairs, it seemed to the Scots that their interests were being ignored by the British Parliament, and the expected economic benefits were not bearing such rich fruits. However, the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745, aimed at restoring the descendants of James VII and James II, cannot in any way be considered a proper Scottish national resistance movement; they received almost no attention from the people of central Scotland, receiving a response only from adherents of the Episcopal Church and Catholics. In the north, where economic and social development was not as vigorous as in other areas, and the situation was determined by the rivalry of the clans and the willingness to join in any occupation that provided an opportunity for robbery, a sufficient number of chiefs attracted their clans to the side of the Jacobites, who as a result were replenished in 5-10 thousand soldiers. The uprising of 1715, led by Count Mar, ended in failure; the "senior pretender" James VIII joined him at the moment when it was already suppressed. During the uprising of 1745, the "junior pretender" Charles Edward landed in Scotland, proclaimed his father king, took Edinburgh and invaded England, reaching Derby. There, however, he did not receive any support and withdrew to the north, where he was finally defeated at Culloden (1746), which put an end to the claims of the Stuarts. The defeat of the Highlanders was applauded by the inhabitants of central Scotland. Dissatisfaction with the union faded, and over the next century it was welcomed by almost the entire population of the country.
Scotland after the union.

Economic development.

Over time, the union brought obvious economic benefits. Scottish ports, especially along the banks of the Clyde, imported tobacco from America; to meet the needs of the colonists in industrial products, enterprises were formed, primarily flax-spinning manufactories. The British monopoly on the tobacco trade ended with the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, but industrial development in Scotland continued. From the end of the 18th century the most important industry in the west of the country was cotton spinning and cotton weaving, which flourished until, due to civil war in America, the supply of raw cotton did not stop. Since then, the cotton industry in Scotland has not recovered, but heavy industry began to develop, based on the country's coal and iron reserves. The invention of the hot blast method (1828) revolutionized Scottish metallurgy, and Scotland became the center of engineering, shipbuilding and transport engineering. By the end of the 19th century iron was replaced by steel. Scotland, which throughout the 17th century. was mainly an agricultural country, acquired an industrial belt stretching across the whole country from the southwest to the northeast, where most of the population lived. Agriculture also received significant development after the Union, its level remained high, although in the second half of the 19th century, when Britain began to pursue a policy of free trade, food imports had a very negative impact on local agricultural production. The development of industry, bringing with it employment and prosperity, proceeded so rapidly that housing construction, urban expansion, and health systems lagged behind, and for a time living conditions in some cities remained extremely poor.

The predominant development of heavy industry began to bring losses after the Second World War, when the processes of industrialization in other countries deprived Scottish industry of markets. Within Great Britain itself, production was centralized, and industry moved farther south, leaving Scotland in the position of an industrial outskirts. As a result, the entire interwar period was a time of depression, and the world crisis of 1931 was only its most acute phase. After the Second World War, the old heavy industries fell into decay, and the government provided financial assistance to new industries - from nuclear power plants and oil refineries to light industry.

Public administration.

The unification of parliaments was followed a few years later by an almost complete unification of government systems. With the strengthening of the role of the state in the 19th century. Separate Scottish councils for the poor, education, health, agriculture and fisheries were formed. In 1885, the post of Secretary for Scotland was formed, and when the Scottish Office was established in 1926, most of the former councils replaced the departments that were part of it. After 1850 there was occasional dissatisfaction with union, at least in its current form, and proposals were made for a separate Scottish Parliament and a reorganization of Great Britain on the basis of federalism. Currently, the Scottish National Party, which emerged in the 1970s, exists and is actively operating. The government's proposal for a Scottish Parliament with the right to decide local issues was put to a referendum in Scotland in September 1997. The vast majority of citizens participating in the vote (74%) approved the proposal, and 63% of those who voted - the right of Parliament to raise or lower taxes within 3%.

Church.

The Scottish Church retained its Presbyterian organization, guaranteed by the Act of Union. The problem of reconciling the Presbyterian claim to independence from Parliament with the legitimate authority of the British Parliament caused constant difficulties and led to splits and the formation of sects. The controversy culminated in the schism of 1843 when the Free Scottish Church was formed. In the late 19th century, however, a reunification trend emerged, and from 1929 the Church of Scotland had a very small minority of Presbyterians in its ranks. The episcopal church, which lost official status in 1690, continued to exist in difficult conditions throughout the 18th century. and still represents a separate religious organization. Roman Catholicism practically disappeared in the early 17th century. and throughout the 18th century. enjoyed influence only in a few mountainous areas, but the influx of the Irish and Scotland in the 19th century. caused a serious strengthening of the position of Catholics.

Education reforms.

The reformers hatched plans for a comprehensive system of education, involving the establishment of schools at all levels, including in all parishes. From 1616 there was a legislative basis for parochial schools, but despite significant progress, the new education laws were never implemented. Schools funded by local landlords were under the control of the church. In addition, efforts were made independently of the church, thanks to which, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Scotland had more opportunities for education than any other country of that time (even before compulsory school attendance was introduced in 1872). Universities opened their doors to young men from all social classes and at the end of the 18th century. won great fame. People who were educated in Scotland achieved the highest positions in England, and the Scots managed to achieve the heights of intellectual and cultural development in the work of such outstanding people as David Hume, Adam Smith and Walter Scott.

Anglicization.

In the course of nearly three centuries of political union, many factors have brought the Scots closer to the British in their way of life. At the end of the 18th century, when the interests of the Scots were first affected by the American War of Independence and then by the French Revolution, the country's political awakening took place, and the Scots began to take an active part in British parliamentary politics. From the period of the Napoleonic Wars, the Scots not only fought in the British army, but were loyal to Britain, and later fully shared the goals of British foreign policy and British military campaigns. The important role played by the Scots in the colonization and administration of the lands that made up the British Empire strengthened the partnership with England.

Delegation of power.

In the UK, the establishment and empowerment of subordinates to Parliament government agencies at the level of the whole country as a whole or at the level of regions is called the delegation of power (devolution). Although Scottish voters in 1979 rejected the government's proposal for the formation of Scottish legislatures, who would be given power over local affairs, in 1997 they overwhelmingly approved such a proposal. The reasons for the change of view lay not in any rise of Scottish nationalism, but in the excessive concentration of power in the hands of the cabinet in London.

Modern Scotland leaves approximately 5.2 million people. If this administrative part of Great Britain were an independent state, according to this indicator, it would take 113th place in the world. More than 80% of the population are Scots, about 7% of the British live here. There are also representatives of other nationalities: Poles, Irish, Pakistanis, Indians, as well as people from African countries.

Numerous descendants of the Scots are scattered all over the world today. In the past, the country was a region with significant migration. A lot of local residents in the XVIII-XIX centuries moved to the United States of America and Canada. Scottish people can be found in South Africa, Australia and South America. The Scots often form entire diasporas in foreign countries.

Scotland does not have one officially recognized state language. Two varieties of Scots, adopted by the European Charter in 1992, are traditionally spoken here. Religious Scotland is not particularly colorful. Most residents consider themselves adherents of the national, built according to the Presbyterian type. There are also Catholics here, who, however, are half as many as atheists.

Scotland is currently actively preparing for a nationwide referendum. The question of the independence of this territory is on the agenda today. This topic, which is acute for the general population, has been raised more than once over the past three hundred years. But at the level of serious politicians, autonomy and even the complete separation of Scottish territory from Great Britain was only discussed in the 1930s.

In 2007, the Scottish National put the issue of independence on the agenda of the country's political life. The leaders of the national movement believe that every Scot should have the opportunity to independently determine the future of his homeland. For the vast majority of local residents, giving the country the status of an independent state will mean a radical change in lifestyle.

The people of Scotland as a whole are eager for such changes, although there are opponents of independence. They believe that from the UK could seriously worsen the socio-economic of Scotland. Meanwhile, the Scots are anxiously awaiting the fateful referendum scheduled for September 18, 2014.

Scotland is an autonomous kingdom within the UK. It is located on almost 800 islands, of which only 300 are inhabited. The capital of Scotland is the city of Edinburgh. The country is famous for its rich history, culture and picturesque nature.

Instruction

The first settlements in Scotland appeared 6 thousand years ago. And the history of the Scottish kingdom begins in 843, when two peoples united in a single state - Scots and Picts. Until 1707 the kingdom was an independent state. And at the beginning of the 18th century, Scotland and England signed an act of unification.

The nature of Scotland is mesmerizing. Here in incredible beautiful landscape intertwined mountains, sea, lakes, forests, fields and meadows. Scotland is home to the highest mountain in the UK, Ben Nevis. It is in this country that Loch Ness is located, famous for the legend that the monster Nessie lives in its waters.

Scotland is rich in its fortresses, palaces, castles. For example, Edinburgh castle- the abode of monarchs, Stirling Castle - built near the largest family of the country Glasgow, on top of a volcano, the residence of the queen - Balmoral Castle. All the ancient buildings of Scotland are shrouded in secrets and legends about ghosts.

The national Scottish men's costume, the kilt, attracts attention. It appeared around the 15th century, and at first it was worn only. The first kilt was a warm checkered plaid, 13 meters long. During the day it was wrapped around the body, and at night they covered it like a blanket.

Each culture has its own rules and norms of behavior, customs and traditions, often not similar to each other, but it is they that identify a person as part of a nation.

The population of Scotland is markedly different from all other subjects of the English crown. Despite their small number, according to statistics for 2016, a little more than five million people live in Scotland (this is two times less than in Moscow), the Scots manage to maintain their identity and even turned it into a kind of brand. This is especially evident in the fashion world, where Scottish tartan (a national check that defines a Scot as an adherent of a particular clan) has been a favorite for several years now.

mentality

Despite their apparent cordiality, the population of Scotland is somewhat closed, harsh, stubborn, stingy and does not like strangers. The latter can be justified by the fact that the Scots, like their neighbors the Welsh, English and Irish, are islanders, which means that they have a slightly different temperament than those who live on the mainland.

If for the population of the mainland the visit of a neighbor was a common thing, then it was necessary to get to the island, and most often strangers did not sail in peace. The constant defense of their land both from the sea and from their closest neighbors, the British (namely, they were the main headache for the Scots), formed the descendants of the ancient Picts.

A bit of history

The settlement of the territory of modern Scotland began with the ancient Picts. It was they who served as the progenitors of modern Scottish society. Initially, they were called Iberians, and only with the advent of the Celts on the island did the name "Picts" appear. Their habitat was the north of the island, the part that is today called Scotland. The Scots (ancestors of the Irish) lived in the west, the territory of England was occupied by the Britons, who were later forced out by the Anglo-Saxons.

In the 9th century, the Picts and Scots united against the Vikings formed a kingdom called Scotia. And here modern name"Scotland" appeared only a couple of centuries later, in the 11th century.

Galik

Or how to call it correctly, Gaelic, which is used by the population of Scotland, is the main one along with English. Although today you can meet pure Gaelic only in deep Scottish villages. The bulk of the population speaks something between English and Gaelic (Scottish English). Therefore, it is sometimes difficult to understand the language of Scotland even to the closest neighbors, the British.

It appeared thanks to the Irish, displacing Pictish and Old English. But he didn't last long either. Already in the 15th century, the population of Scotland began to speak Scottish. The development of the homogeneity of the language was partly served by cities that began to appear as early as the 11th century.

Scotland cities

The cities of Scotland, like most European cities, have a "spider" network of streets and roads. Most often they originated around the castle of some feudal lord. At first, these were temporary settlements consisting of the workers who built the castle and their families. Then the population increased, and small villages already appeared. And when the construction was completed and the owner moved to the castle (or fortress), cities were formed.

The type of activity of the owner of the land often determined the fate of the city. So, if the feudal lord chose the seashore as a place for his house, then the city became a port, and already his main income depended on the catch.

The cities of Scotland, located in the mountains, villages, farms are still fed from land and livestock. The legendary kilt made of Scottish sheep wool has been and remains the main pride of the population. It is akin to our Orenburg scarf. Maybe not as thin and elegant, but certainly warm and durable.

And no youth party is complete without Scottish. There is also a second spelling of this whiskey drink - this is the Irish version, which differs not only in spelling, but also in taste. Irish whiskey is pure, without impurities. It was invented by Irish immigrants who arrived in the US and missed their home very much. Scottish is slightly peaty. It was on it from ancient times that this drink was brewed. Therefore, for any Scot, whiskey is more than just a drink, it is a connection with its history.

Who rules Caledonia

It is a well-known fact that for many centuries the Scots defended their lands and waged war both with each other and with the English. Wars, or rather two wars, were fought from the end of the 13th to the middle of the 14th century. The results were successful, because until the 17th century Scotland remained independent. And only in 1603 there was a union of the Scottish and English crowns. So today the Queen of Scots is Elizabeth II - the oldest monarch in the history of Britain. Of course, even before that, Scotland had had female rulers on its throne, but none of them ruled the country for as long as Elizabeth.

Scotland(English and Scots Scotland, Gaelic. Alba) is a country that is an administrative and political part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It occupies the northern part of the island of Great Britain and borders on land with England. On the other sides, it is surrounded by the seas of the Atlantic Ocean: the North Sea in the east, the North Strait and the Irish Sea in the west and southwest. In addition to the territory on the main British island of Scotland, there are also about 790 small islands, most of which are uninhabited.

Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland and the second largest city in the country after Glasgow. In the XVIII century Edinburgh became the center of the Scottish Enlightenment, which allowed Scotland to become one of the most important commercial, scientific and industrial regions of Europe. Glasgow is the largest city in the country, once one of the leading industrial cities in the world. Scotland owns part of the waters of the Atlantic Ocean and, in particular, the North Sea, in which there are large oil fields. The country's third largest city, Aberdeen, is nicknamed Oil and Energy Capital of Europe.

The Scottish kingdom is an independent state that existed from 854 to 1707. In 1603, King James VI of Scotland became the first Stuart king of England and Ireland. In 1707, the "Act of Union" was signed, forming the Kingdom of Great Britain, after which the Scottish Parliament was dissolved, and a single parliament began to sit in Westminster.

The Scottish legal system has remained independent of those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, thus the country has its own private and public law. Following a referendum in 1997 and the Scottish Act passed in 1998, the Scottish Parliament was restored in 1999. On September 18, 2014, the Scottish Independence Referendum was held in the country, as a result of which 55.3% of those who voted expressed their desire to remain part of the UK. After the referendum on leaving the European Union on June 23, 2016, when 68% of the Scottish population voted against the country's exit from the EU (38% voted "for"), the Scottish government decided to pursue its own independent foreign policy regarding the issue of maintaining the country's membership in European Union.

Name etymology

The word Scotland comes from the Latin word Scoti, denoting the Gaels. In late Latin, under the word Scotia(Land of the Gaels) meant Ireland. By the 11th century, this word was understood to mean the part of Scotland located north of the River Forth. The modern territory of the country began to be called Scotland, and the people living on its territory Scots in the Late Middle Ages.

Geography and nature

The territory of Scotland includes the northern third of the island of Great Britain and the adjacent islands - the Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland. The area of ​​Scotland is 78,772 km², the length of the coastline is 9,911 km. In the south it borders on England. The length of the border from the Solway Firth in the west to the River Tweed in the east is about 96 km. The island of Ireland is located 30 km southwest of the coast, Norway is 400 km northeast, and the Faroe Islands and Iceland lie to the north of Scotland.

The west coast of Scotland is washed by the Atlantic Ocean, the east by the North Sea. The western and eastern sea coasts of Scotland are connected by the Caledonian Canal, part of which is the famous Loch Ness.

Despite a very large area and a large number of untouched places in Scotland, there are only two national parks: Loch Lomond and Trossachs (area 1865 km², formed in 2002) and Cairngorms (area 4528 km², formed in 2003).

Flora and fauna

The fauna of Scotland is typical of the northwestern Palearctic ecozone, with some exceptions. In the temperate climate of Scotland, there are currently 62 species of wild mammals (including: a population of wild forest cats, a significant number of long-nosed and common seals, as well as the northernmost colony of bottlenose dolphins), about 250 species of birds (such as black grouse -Kosach and white (Scottish) partridge, northern gannet, golden eagle, Scottish crossbill, eagles and ospreys).

Scotland's seas are estimated to be the most biologically productive in the world total number marine species in them reaches 40,000. Darwin Hills (English) Russian. - one of the important areas of deep-sea cold-water coral reefs - was discovered in 1998. There are about 400 genetically distinct populations of Atlantic salmon in the waters of Scottish rivers. There are 42 species of fish in fresh waters, half of which appeared as a result of natural colonization, and half as a result of human introduction.

Four reptile species and six amphibian species are native to Scotland. However, in addition to them, there are 14,000 species of invertebrates (including rare species of bees and butterflies), one way or another falling under the protection acts. environment. Environmental Protection Agencies are concerned about the current threat to much of Scotland's fauna due to climate change.

Geology

The rocks of Scotland are rich in deposits of the Silurian, Carboniferous and Triassic periods. Among the fossil animals, amphibians and invertebrates dominate.

Story

Early history

Scientists believe that the first people appeared in Scotland about 13,000 years ago as the Last Ice Age ended. The first buildings appeared about 9,500 years ago, and permanent settlements - 6,000 years ago. These include one of the well-preserved Neolithic settlements - Skara Brae, located on the Orkney Islands. Other monuments of the era are found in the Outer Hebrides and Shetland Islands, this is due to the small amount of vegetation and the need for ancient inhabitants to build their houses of stone.

Roman influence

The written history of Scotland begins with the Roman conquest of Britain, when they were conquered, received the status of Roman provinces and became known as Britain, the territories of modern England and Wales. Part of southern Scotland was briefly placed under the indirect control of Rome. To the north lay lands free from Roman conquest - Caledonia, inhabited by Pictish and Gaelic tribes. According to the Roman historian Tacitus, the Caledonians launched "all-out armed resistance" by attacking the Roman legions. During one of the night raids, the IX Spanish Legion was defeated, saved from complete annihilation by the cavalry attack of Gnaeus Julius Agricola.

In 83-84 AD. e. Agricola defeated the Caledonians at the Battle of the Graupia Mountains. According to Tacitus, before the battle, the leader of the Caledonians, Calgac, addressed his soldiers with a speech in which he called them "people who do not know the fetters of slavery." After the victory, the Romans built a chain of forts at Gask Ridge, but after three years they withdrew to the South Scottish Highlands.

To protect the territory of Britain, in the years 122-126, the Romans built Hadrian's Wall, which became northern border Empire. Later, in the years 144-146 even further north, on the Mid-Scottish lowlands, the Antonine Wall was built, which was abandoned in 208 by order of the emperor Septimius Severus.

Although a large part of Scotland was under Roman control for only about 40 years, this had a serious impact on the southern part of the country, inhabited by the Votadins and Damnonii. Welsh name Yr Hen Ogledd (Ancient North) was used for the names of the kingdoms formed in the territory of Northern England and Southern Scotland after the departure of the Romans. According to the records of the 9th and 10th centuries, around the 11th century, the Gaelic kingdom of Dal Riada was founded in Western Scotland.

Middle Ages

The largest among the Pictish kingdoms was Fortriu, which was known as Alba or Scotland. The Picts reached their peak several times: after the Battle of Nechtansmeer during the reign of Brode III (671-693) and during the reign of Angus I.

The founding year of the Scottish kingdom is considered to be 843, when Kenneth MacAlpin became king of the united kingdom of the Scots and Picts.

Over the following centuries, the Scottish kingdom expanded roughly to the borders of present-day Scotland. During the reign of David I, Scotland became feudal, it was followed by a reorganization of government and a system of burghs was introduced. During this period, French and Anglo-French knights and churchmen moved to the country. Because of this, the eastern and southeastern territories of the kingdom became English-speaking, while the rest of the country spoke Gaelic, and Orkney and Shetland spoke Norwegian and remained under the control of the Norwegian kingdom until 1468. Between the 12th and 14th centuries, Scotland enters a relatively stable period, during which there were peaceful relations with England, trade relations with the Continent developed, and some scholars, such as John Duns Scotus, had influence far beyond the borders of the country.

Stirling Castle

The end of the 13th century was a serious test for Scotland. After the death of King Alexander III in 1286, there were no direct male heirs left, and Margaret, the granddaughter of Alexander III, born to his daughter, who married King Eirik II of Norway, was declared queen. King Edward I of England attempted to regain control of Scotland, and insisted on marriage between his son, the future King Edward II, and Queen Margaret, despite her young age. But neither the wedding nor even the coronation of Margaret took place, on the way she caught a cold and, before reaching Scottish soil, died in the Orkney Islands.

Since the direct branch was stopped, in 1290 several candidates put forward claims to the throne of the country at once, including John Balliol, grandson of the eldest daughter of David of Huntingdon, brother of Kings Malcolm IV and William I the Lion, and Robert the Bruce, 5th Lord of Annandale, son middle daughter of David. One of the contenders was Edward I, who was a descendant of Matilda of Scotland. But the English king, realizing his low chances of being elected, chose to head the court to consider the "Great Litigation". In 1292, Edward I ruled in favor of John Balliol, and on November 30, 1292, John was crowned King of Scotland. In gratitude for his support, John I Balliol recognized the suzerainty of England.

Despite the coronation, some of the Scottish barons, led by Robert the Bruce, Lord of Annandale, refused to recognize John's rights to the throne. And Edward I began to treat Scotland as a vassal territory, forcing John to appear in the English courts as a defendant in Scottish claims and placing English garrisons in Scottish fortresses. In order to reduce dependence on England, John Balliol in 1295 renewed the alliance with France and Norway, known as the Old Alliance, and openly opposed Edward I.

In response to these actions, Edward I declared John I Balliol a rebellious vassal. In 1296, the English army invaded Scotland and utterly defeated the Scots at the Battle of Spotsmoor and conquered the whole country with relative ease. John was captured and signed on July 10, 1296, the abdication of the throne of Scotland, he was deprived of his knighthood and coats of arms - from this his subsequent nickname "Empty Cloak". As suzerain of a vassal who renounced the fief, Edward I declared himself king of Scotland, as a result of which the country lost its independence.

The regime established by the English authorities was so cruel that already in 1297 the Scots revolted, led by William Wallace and Andrew de Moray, the English army was defeated in the battle of Stirling Bridge. Andrew de Moray received serious wounds in this battle and soon died. Scotland was liberated from English troops and William Wallace was elected Guardian of Scotland.

Edward I was enraged by the resistance of the Scots, he led the next invasion personally and in 1298 defeated the Scots at the Battle of Falkirk. William Wallace was forced to flee and go into hiding. Later, in 1305, he was betrayed by the Scottish knight John de Mentheis, arrested by the British, accused of high treason, which he did not recognize, because he did not consider the English king to be his king, and on August 23 he was executed in London. His body was cut into pieces, which were exhibited in the largest cities in Scotland.

After the Battle of Falkirk, the resistance was led by the descendants of the claimants to the throne of Scotland during the "Great Litigation" Red Comyn and the future king Robert I the Bruce, who remained rivals in an effort to seize the throne of Scotland. Bruce eliminated his rival by killing him in a church during a meeting, and ascended the throne as King Robert I on March 25, 1306. After a long and intense war, he won a final victory over the English at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. The troops of the English king Edward II were defeated, and the king himself fled and did not get off his horse until the very English border. After the death of Robert I the Bruce, the Second War of Scottish Independence (1332-1357) began, during which Edward Balliol, supported by King Edward III of England, contested the throne from the heirs of Robert I the Bruce.

In the process of a long and exhausting war, the son of Robert I, David II, managed to defend his rights to the throne, but he died childless, and therefore, after his death, Robert Stuart III, as his closest heir, was crowned in Scone on March 26, 1371 as King Robert II. More than 300 years of Stuart rule began.

By the end of the Middle Ages, Scotland was divided into two cultural zones: the plains, whose inhabitants spoke Anglo-Scots, and the highlands, whose inhabitants used Gaelic. Galloway Gaelic persisted until perhaps the 18th century in the remote parts of the southwest of the country that were part of Galloway County. Historically lowland Scotland was culturally closer to Europe. In the highlands of Scotland, one of the distinctive features of the region was formed - the Scottish clan system.

This period was also characterized by the flourishing of Franco-Scottish relations. In the service of King Charles VII of France was a mercenary regiment of the Scots Guards (Garde Ecossaise) who, in particular, fought against the British on the side of Joan of Arc during the Hundred Years' War. In March 1421, a Franco-Scottish army under the command of John Stuart and Gilbert de Lafayette defeated the English army at the Battle of Bogey. Three years later, in the battle of Verneuil, England was already the victorious side, John Stewart, like another 6 to 7 thousand soldiers, died.

Early Modern

In 1502, King James IV of Scotland and King Henry VII of England signed the Treaty of Perpetual Peace, and James IV married Margaret Tudor. This marriage allowed Henry to strengthen the legitimacy of his dynasty. However, ten years later, Jacob decided to break the Eternal Peace and, with the support of France, declared war on England. On September 9, 1513, James dies at the Battle of Flodden, becoming the last Scottish monarch to die in action. On July 6, 1560, the Treaty of Edinburgh was signed, ending almost three hundred years of confrontation between England and Scotland. In the same year, under the influence of John Knox, the Scottish Parliament proclaimed the prohibition of Catholicism and the adoption of Protestantism as the state religion of Scotland.

In 1603, King James VI of Scotland succeeded to the English throne and became King James I of England. Except during the Commonwealth, Scotland remained a separate state, but at the same time there were significant conflicts between the monarch and the Scottish Presbyterians over the form of church government. After the Glorious Revolution and the overthrow of the Catholic James VII by William III and Mary II, Scotland threatened for a short time to elect its own Protestant monarch, but under the threat of England breaking trade and transport links, the Scottish Parliament, together with the English Parliament, adopted the "Act of Union" in 1707. As a result of the unification, the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed.

18th century

After unification with England and the abolition of customs tariffs, trade began to flourish in Scotland, especially with colonial America. Tobacco merchants from Glasgow, who were called the Lords of Tobacco, prospered in particular. Before the start of the American Revolutionary War in 1776, Glasgow was the largest tobacco port in the world. At the same time, inequality between the inhabitants of the plains and the mountains continued to increase.

During the last attempt to restore the Stuart dynasty to the throne (1745-1746), the leader of the rebels was Charles Edward, also known as "Handsome Prince Charlie" or "The Young Pretender". In July 1745, the prince landed at Eriskay, Scotland, raised his father's banner and started the Jacobite rebellion. The applicant was supported mainly by representatives of the highland clans of Scotland. Quickly taking the Scottish capital of Edinburgh without a fight, Charles defeated the only government army in Scotland at Prestonpens on 21 September and marched south into England at the head of an army of 6,000 men. Having occupied Carlisle and reached Derbyshire, the prince, at the request of his advisers, turned back to Scotland, since the Jacobite movement did not cause mass support in England.

An English army was sent against him, led by the king's son William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, whom George II recalled from the European battlefield of the War of the Austrian Succession. On April 16, 1746, the armies met at the Battle of Culloden, three miles east of Inverness, in northern Scotland. In the open country, the Jacobite army found itself defenseless against the powerful artillery fire of Cumberland and was soon dispersed; the prince's adviser, Lord George Murray, managed to withdraw the rest of the army in combat readiness to Ruthven, intending to continue the war, but Charles, believing that he had been betrayed, decided to leave the rebels. The Battle of Culloden was the last battle fought on the island of Great Britain.

After the adoption of the "Act of Union", the Scottish Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution, the country became a powerful European commercial, scientific and industrial center. It should be noted that Scotland in many ways occupies a unique position in the United Kingdom, which is associated with the history of its unification with England and participation in the work of the national parliament while maintaining its administrative and judicial system. Since the administrative and political systems two countries remained excellent, then a reliable basis was created for the preservation of national forces in Scotland.

19th century

In 1832, an electoral reform was carried out, increasing the number of members of parliament and the number of citizens allowed to vote. In the middle of the 19th century, calls for autonomy began to increase in the country, because of this, the post of Minister for Scotland was restored.

E. Grimshaw. Ships on the Clyde (1881)

Glasgow became one of the largest cities in the world and was called the "Second City of the Empire" after London. After the 1860s, the shipyards on the River Clyde began to play an important role, where they began to manufacture steam-powered ships for both the merchant and navy. Thus, the region became one of the world centers of shipbuilding. Although the development of industry created jobs and enriched people, social problems began to accumulate: a lack of housing and a backlog of medicine led to a decrease in the quality of life and an increase in mortality.

It is believed that the Scottish Enlightenment ended by the end of the 18th century, but Scottish scientists and writers continued to play a large role in world science and literature in the 19th century. Scottish physicists James Maxwell and William Thomson, inventors James Watt and William Murdoch made a great contribution to the development of technology during the Industrial Revolution. Of the most famous poets and writers of the era, one can name Walter Scott, Arthur Conan Doyle, Robert Lewis Stevenson, James Matthew Barry and George MacDonald. The Glasgow School, which appeared in the 19th century and flourished in the early 20th century, occupied an important place in the movements of the Celtic Renaissance, the arts and crafts movement and Japaneseism, one of the famous representatives of the Glasgow School was Charles Rennie Mackintosh.

In the 19th century, the culture of the Scottish Highlands began to gain popularity. Thanks to the popularity of James MacPherson's Ossian and the novels of Walter Scott, the kilt and tartan came into fashion throughout Europe. Despite this, the population of the highlands remained poor. Many inhabitants of this region moved to large cities or left for England, Canada, America and Australia. The population of Scotland grew throughout the century: according to the 1801 census, 2.889 million people, and in 1901 - already 4.472. Even despite the development of industry, there were still not enough jobs, because of which, from 1841 to 1934, about 2 million Scots immigrated to America and Australia, and about 750 thousand to England.

Industrialization and urbanization weakened the parochial school system. Since 1830, the state began to give grants for the construction of schools, and from 1846 it directly sponsored them. In 1872, Scotland switched to the system of publicly funded free schools that existed in England.

20th century

Scotland played an important role in the First World War by supplying ships, equipment and fish. About half a million Scots went to war, about a quarter of them died, and 150,000 were seriously injured. Douglas Haig, a Scot by birth, was the commander-in-chief of the British Expeditionary Force in France.

In the post-war years, a period of economic stagnation followed in both cities and agrarian regions of the country, and unemployment increased. Despite the bombing by the Luftwaffe, at the beginning of the Second World War, the economy of Scotland began to rise again. Robert Watson-Watt invented radar, which contributed to the victory in the Battle of Britain.

Due to increased international competition and inefficient industry, Scotland experienced a sharp decline in production after the war, but in recent decades there has been a cultural and economic revival of the region due to the development of the financial transactions, electronics and oil and gas sectors. Scotland has long been regarded by the central government as a region with low industrial potential and slow development, which was associated with the decline in the importance of a number of old industries, such as coal, textiles, and shipbuilding. Of great importance for Scotland in the reorientation of the economy was played by foreign investment, mainly by North American and Japanese companies.

Elections were held in 1999 for the Scottish Parliament, which was established by the Scottish Act in 1998.

On September 18, 2014, a referendum on Scottish independence was held. 44.7% of those who voted were in favor of independence, 55.3% were against. Turnout was 84.59%.

Political structure

The legislative body is the Scottish Parliament (Gaelic Pàrlamaid na h-Alba), consisting of 129 members of the Scottish Parliament (Gaelic Ball Pàrlamaid na h-Alba), elected by the people of Scotland, one of whom the Parliament elects as the Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament (Gaelic Oifigear- Riaghlaidh) and two as Deputy Presiding Officers of the Scottish Parliament.

The executive body is the Scottish Government (Gaelic Riaghaltas na h-Alba), consisting of the First Minister of Scotland (Gaelic Prìomh Mhinistear na h-Alba), Deputy First Minister of Scotland (Gaelic Leas-Phrìomh Mhinistear na h-Alba), 8 cabinet Scottish Secretaries and 10 Scottish Ministers.

Legal system

The highest court is the Supreme Court ( Supreme Courts), Courts of Appeal - Sheriff Courts ( Sheriff Court), courts of first instance - district courts ( District Courts of Scotland), the lowest level of the judicial system - justices of the peace ( Justice of the Peace Courts)

culture

music and dancing

From folk instruments the most famous is the bagpipe.

Among Scottish dances, Scottish ballroom dancing and highland solo dances are well known.

Mark Knopfler, founder and leader of the rock band Dire Straits, is a well-known contemporary musician and composer of Scottish descent, who is now engaged in solo projects. Nazareth, Alestorm, Mogwai, The FRATELLIS, Simple Minds, Franz Ferdinand also come from Scotland. The famous punk band "The Exploited" comes from Scotland. The most famous Scottish alternative band is Primal Scream. The musicians of the legendary Australian band AC / DC Angus and Malcolm Young, as well as the late Bon Scott, are Scottish by nationality and natives of Scotland.

Folk music festivals Celtic Connections in Glasgow and the Hebridean Celtic Festival in Stornoway are held annually.

Literature

Scottish literature has rich history. Classics in their genres are the works of Robert Burns and Walter Scott, Robert Louis Stevenson and James Hogg.

Scottish literature includes the vast spectrum of literature written in English, Scottish Gaelic, Scots, Breton, French, Latin and many other languages ​​ever written within the borders of modern Scotland. The earliest literary records date back to the 6th century and include such works as "Gododdin" (Vol. Gododdin), written in Cumbrian (Old Welsh), and "Elegy in honor of St. Columba", written by Dallan Forgyle in Middle Irish. "Life of Columba" ( Vita Columbae), written by Adomnan ( Adomnan), the ninth abbot of the monastery on Iona, was written in Latin in the 7th century. In the XIII century, the French language became widespread in literature. A century later, the first texts on Scots appeared. After the 17th century, the influence of the English language increased, although in the southern part of Scotland the majority of the population still spoke the southern dialect of Scots. The 18th century became the "golden age" for all the literatures of Scotland, especially for poetry. The poet and songwriter Robert Burns wrote in Scots, however, much of his work is still written in English and the "lite" version of Scots, the use of which made his work accessible to a wider readership (and not just ordinary Scots). At the same time, Gaelic poetry (Alexander Macdonald, Duncan Ban McIntyre, etc.) experienced a rise, interest in which has not faded to this day in many countries of the world, including Russia.

The emergence of a movement known as the Cayyard School kailyard school) at the end of the 19th century revived elements of fairy tales and folklore in literature.

Some modern novelists, such as Irwin Welsh (famous, among other things, for Trainspotting) Trainspotting), which was filmed), are written in reader-friendly Scottish English, reflecting the vulnerabilities of contemporary Scottish culture.

Some notable Scottish writers:

• Sir Walter Scott - "Ivanhoe", "Quentin Dorward", "Rob Roy", etc.
• Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - "Sherlock Holmes", "The Lost World"
• Robert Louis Stevenson - "Treasure Island", "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde"
• Kenneth Graham - "The Wind in the Willows"
• William McGonagall - "The Collapse of the Bridge over the River Tay", "The Statue of Burns", "Poetic Pearls", "The Execution of James Graham, the Marquis of Montrose", etc.
• Irwin Welsh - "Trainspotting", "Nightmares of the Marabou Stork", etc.
• James Barry - "Peter Pan"

Fashion design and needlework

Scotland is famous for its national men's clothing - a kilt, which has many colors (tartans). Needlework is also developed in Scotland.

National symbols

• The Apostle Andrew is considered the patron saint of Scotland, according to legend, his relics were transferred in the VIII century from Constantinople to the Scottish city of St. Andrews. The images of the apostle, as well as the X-shaped cross on which, according to legend, he was crucified, serve as symbols of Scotland.
• The bagpipe is a national musical instrument, an unofficial symbol of Scotland.
• The coat of arms and the royal standard depict a red heraldic lion on a golden field surrounded by a red double border sprouted with lilies.
• Scotland's anthem, Flower of Scotland.
• The unicorn has traditionally been included in many historical Scottish coats of arms (often in the form of a shield holder).
• Tartan is a fabric with an ornament of horizontal and vertical stripes. The national clothes of Scotland, and in particular kilts, are sewn from fabric with such an ornament, in Russia it is called "plaid". The tartan pattern is assigned to a particular clan or family, military unit or organization.
• The flag of Scotland is an image of a white St. Andrew's cross on a sky-blue panel.
• The thistle flower is the semi-official national symbol of Scotland and is depicted, in particular, on banknotes. According to legend, in the 13th century, the coastal settlements of the Scots suffered from Viking raids. Once, an unexpected night attack was avoided due to the fact that the Vikings went barefoot into the thickets of Scottish thistle, which gave themselves away.

Until 1707 it was an independent state. And it appeared a very long time ago - back in 843 AD.

Like many other countries, Scotland has its own national motto. It sounds in Latin and in translation means "No one will touch me with impunity." This motto already speaks of how much the country has experienced on the way to its prosperity, the population here has always been very independent and independent. Moreover, they even have their own national animal - the unicorn. The choice is unclear, apparently, it further emphasizes the original independence of the inhabitants of Scotland.

The territory of this country occupies 78.7 thousand square kilometers. Telephone code countries +44, after it dial the city code. As for religion, the majority of the population are adherents of the Church of Scotland of the Presbyterian type, 16 percent identify themselves as the Roman Catholic Church, 28 percent are atheists.

IN Scotland home to more than five million people. Their characteristic features can be called the already mentioned independence and eccentricity - in any conversation, the Scot will always try to distinguish himself, to make himself different from others. Take, for example, even superstitions: if in many countries a black cat that crosses the road leads to problems, then the Scots, on the contrary, to good luck. They are quite friendly and sociable, but often suffer from bouts of melancholy. The Scots are quite practical and very proud, they will not talk about themselves if they see that they are not being paid due attention.

By the way, Scotland is one of the few countries where there are three official languages ​​at once - Scottish Gaelic, English and Anglo-Scots. Some of the words in these languages ​​are borrowed from each other and changed, so many tourists often have confusion in their heads.

It is worth noting one funny law that exists in Scotland: if someone knocks on the door of a Scot and asks for permission to use the bathroom if needed, the owner is obliged to let the person in. I wonder how often people come to their house with a similar request.

The climate here is relatively warm, in summer the temperature is around 20 degrees. In winter, the temperature only reaches 3 degrees. But nevertheless, there are quite often unexpected changes in the weather here - after the bright sun, heavy rain or even a hurricane begins abruptly. Of all parts of the UK, Scotland can be considered the coolest in terms of weather.

What is famous Scotland in the eyes of tourists? Of course, the famous kilt, bagpipes and Scotch whiskey. The tradition of wearing a kilt appeared among the Scots because of the local terrain - Scotland is completely covered with mountains, therefore it has long been convenient to move around in such attire, and at night they also hide. Now the kilt has become part of the national treasure, and its historical function has disappeared.

It is rightfully considered one of the most delicious. It has been produced here for many centuries in a row, there are a fairly large number of varieties, it is recommended to try single malt and grain whiskey - they most fully convey the entire flavor range. By the way, the word whiskey in translation means “water of life”. Apparently, in numerous wars, it was in this way that the Scots maintained their viability.

Scotland can be safely called the country of music and arts; music competitions and performances are regularly held here. In particular, the local people are especially fond of national music played by bagpipers.

The famous sights of Scotland include Loch Ness. Legends about the Loch Ness monster, which lives in the depths of the lake, are still circulating even among Russian tourists, many specially come there on an excursion in the hope that they will be lucky to see this famous monster.

Tourists are also highly recommended to visit Edinburgh Castle. It is located on the edge of Castle Rock, and its walls hide dense forests. Once upon a time, stormy wars took place here and the castle was a point of defense. Now it has turned into a museum, where you can see the treasures of the Scottish crown with your own eyes. The castle seems to evoke a sense of independence and numerous military victories.

If they make an impression modern countries progress, then Scotland evokes associations of something historical, saturated with traditions. Therefore, you should definitely visit all corners of the UK to get a complete picture of life in the United Kingdom.