History of Brazil. History of Brazil: interesting facts and key events
The history of Brazil begins with its accidental discovery in April 1500 by the Portuguese expedition led by Pedro Alvarez Cabral on their way around Africa and then named the island of Santa Cruz. According to the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, which divided the yet undiscovered and not captured lands of Latin America along meridian 370 to the west of the Cape Verde Islands, the territories to the east of it were ceded to Portugal, and the lands to the west - to Spain. This conditional line crossed Latin America in the east and became the first border of the still undiscovered Brazil.
colonial period
Realizing the significance of his discovery, Cabral sent one of the captains, Gaspard Lemoush, to Lisbon with a message to the king, in which he announced the discovery of new lands. But the interests of the Portuguese crown were in the other direction - in Asia and Africa, therefore, for 30 years there were no systematic actions to organize a colony in this territory.
Only in 1530, the first settlers began to sail to the shores of Brazil. Fortified settlements were founded in the northeast of the country, the first of which were San Vicente (1532) and El Salvador (1549). As a result, 14 hereditary fiefs were created on the territory of Brazil - captaincies, and some of them were larger in size than Portugal itself. The owners of the captaincies, the so-called donatarios, that is, those who "accept the gift", were responsible for their safety and development.
The experiment ended in failure due to economic problems and constant raids by the natives. For geopolitical reasons, Portugal opted for a centralized system of government, which went down in history under the name of the General Government, which was located in the city of Salvador - the current capital of the state of Bahia.
Portugal's interest in the overseas colony again escalated as a result of the depletion of further opportunities for the exploitation of sugar cane plantations on the islands of the Atlantic coast of Africa. This coincided with an increase in sugar consumption in Western Europe. Sugar production was established in the northeast of Brazil (the states of Pernambuco and Bahia), became the basis of the Brazilian economy, focused on the export of agricultural products.
Success in sugar production was directly dependent on solving the problem of attracting labor. Attempts by the colonialists to use the labor of enslaved Indians were unsuccessful. As a result of contacts with Europeans, the Indians acquired diseases that led to a demographic catastrophe. In addition, the Indians put up fierce resistance, defending their lands, so from 1570 the Portuguese began to import African slaves to Brazil, who became the main labor force exploited by the colonialists. The slave trade became a highly lucrative business in colonial Brazil.
At the same time, the territory of Brazil expanded significantly westward due to the numerous bandeirantes expeditions undertaken during the 17th century. Starting their route from the São Paulo area, these pioneers organized long expeditions inland in search of precious metals and gems, along the way capturing Indians who were enslaved. The result of this expansion was the denunciation of the Treaty of Tordesillas between Portugal and Spain, and in accordance with the Treaty of Madrid of 1750, and later the Treaty of Santo Ildefonso of 1777, new boundaries were established for the possessions of the two countries in South America.
The discovery of gold by the bandeirantes expeditions in Minas Gerais caused a real pursuit of precious metals in this region. Since the end of the 17th century, sugar production has faded into the background and the extraction of gold and diamonds has become a decisive factor in the changes in the economy. Evidence of the "gold rush" has come down to our times in the names of historical cities in the state of Minas Gerais, including the most famous of them Ouru Preto. The center of the country's socio-economic life has shifted to the central and southern regions of Brazil, and at the same time, the country's capital has been transferred from El Salvador to Rio de Janeiro.
The move of the Portuguese court to Brazil was a defining event in the fate of the colony, which ultimately led to the proclamation of its independence. When Napoleon's army launched a war of conquest against Portugal, the Prince Regent, the future Don Joao VI, moved in 1808 with his entire court to Rio de Janeiro, where he announced "the opening of Brazilian ports for trade with all friendly nations." During the stay of the court in Brazil, which lasted from 1808 to 1812, the colony was transformed into a metropolis and the Portuguese crown got involved in a war against the independence of Uruguay.
With the intensification of rivalry between Brazil and Portugal, caused by the departure of King Don Joao VI to Europe, the political elite of Rio de Janeiro, together with the Prince Regent Don Pedro, declared independence while maintaining the monarchy in the country. The process was carried out almost bloodlessly. This was the main difference between the process of gaining independence by Brazil from similar processes in Spanish colonies Latin America. So on September 7, 1822, the overseas colonies of Portugal declared their independence, and a new state arose - Brazil.
Monarchy
The monarchical form of government existed in Brazil from 1822 to 1889. Politically, this period can be divided into three stages: from the enthronement of Don Pedro I to his abdication in 1831; the regency period, when the country was ruled by regents on behalf of the minor daughter of Don Pedro I; reign of Don Pedro I from 1840 to 1889.
During this period, the Brazilian monarchy pursued a policy focused on the Latin American continent, Brazil intervened in the conflict in the La Plata region, acted as the main actor in the war with Paraguay and participated in the War of the Triple Alliance, the largest armed conflict in Latin America between countries region.
In domestic politics, slavery remained the most serious problem, when it was possible to practically solve the problem of attracting labor for the country's agriculture, the basis of which in those years was coffee production.
From the middle of the 19th century, under the influence of increased coffee consumption in the USA and Europe, an active growth in the production of this crop began, concentrated in the provinces of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. Coffee was grown on large plantations that used slave labor. For a long time, Brazil resisted abolitionist pressure, but was eventually forced to abolish the slave trade in 1840. As it became clear that the days of slavery were numbered, the Sao Paulo planters adopted a new policy based on attracting immigrants, who came mainly from Italy and Spain. Slavery was finally abolished in Brazil in 1888.
The abolition of slavery almost coincided with the fall of the empire in 1889. The crisis of the monarchy was the result of disillusionment in the military environment and the dissatisfaction of the bourgeoisie associated with the production of coffee. The monarchy has always treated the army as a secondary institution, but the position of the army has been significantly strengthened as a result of the war with Paraguay.
Inspired by new ideas, the military openly criticized the slave system and the country's economic backwardness. The interests of coffee producers were met by the decentralization of political power, which promised freedom of action for the provinces of the country in the political and economic spheres. The fall of the monarchy was not accompanied by major upheavals and occurred as a result of an armed uprising led by Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca.
The political elite triumphed - their dream of establishing a federal republic enshrined in the Constitution of 1891 came true. The former constitutional provinces were turned into states and given broad autonomy, within which they could independently attract foreign loans (a vital necessity for coffee planters) and form their own armed forces.
Republic
A characteristic feature of the first republic, which lasted from 1889 to 1930, was an export-oriented economy based on agricultural production, the basis of which was the production of coffee, as well as control by oligarchic groups of state power. The political elite was a "club of the elite", which once every four years elected the president of the country. The main levers of power were in the hands of the elites from São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Rio Grande do Sul. The election results were falsified, because at that time there was no secret ballot system, the voter turnout was extremely low and did not exceed 1-5% of the country's population.
But the crisis of the oligarchic system was the result of a lack of mutual understanding between representatives of the political elite, as well as the discontent of the military, mainly representatives of the middle command staff, the so-called "lieutenants", who were the main champions of the ideas of centralized power. In October 1930, Getúlio Vargas became the leader of the country as a result of a revolution launched in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. His name has become synonymous with the country's modernization and a new style of political leadership characterized by the replacement of "chosen clubs" with "charismatic presidential rule."
Vargas led the country as chairman of the Provisional Government (1930-1934); president elected by Congress (1934-1937) and dictator during the New State (Estado Novo) period 1937-1945. He was re-elected president of the country in 1951, but did not have time to complete his term of office, committing suicide in 1954.
Democracy
Vargas' resignation in 1945 was prompted by a number of international factors. Despite fluctuations in foreign policy, the Brazilian government was inclined, in the end, to an alliance with the allies in the anti-Hitler coalition. Brazil sent an expeditionary force to Europe that fought in Italy and was the only Latin American country to send its soldiers to war in Europe.
The struggle for democracy on the external front, against the backdrop of a tightening of the dictatorship at home, played the role of a mobilizing factor for the middle class (including students and journalists) to unite against Vargas. Among other things, the populist policy pursued by Vargas made him persona non grata in the leadership of the country's Armed Forces.
He was succeeded by Janio Cuadros, who resigned less than a year after the election, and then the duties of the president passed to Vice President João Goulart. Goulart took the oath of office after Congress urgently adopted a parliamentary system of government that severely curtailed presidential powers. The result of the plebiscite, held four months later, showed that the people are choosing the old system of presidential government. High inflation and the political polarization of the left and right forces led the country to socio-political instability, which lasted two and a half years and led to economic crisis. On March 31, 1964, the military overthrew Goulart and seized power.
There are at least two important points that characterize the period between Vargas' suicide and the establishment of a military dictatorship in 1964. In economic terms, the presidency of Juscelino Kubitschek (1956-1960), whose name is associated with the construction of the new capital of Brasilia, marked the transition from nationalist politics to a course for the development of the country, an integral element of which was economic growth based on attracting foreign investment. The most obvious example of this course was the creation of the automobile industry in Brazil.
Politically, the unexpected resignation of Janio Cuadrus, who replaced Juscelino Kubitschek as president, led to destabilization in the country, culminating in a coup d'état in April-May 1964.
military regime
The authoritarian rule that had been established in Brazil had some characteristic features. Firstly, there was no one-man dictatorship in the country - the generals succeeded each other as head of state, staying in power for strictly measured terms. Secondly, despite the abolition of political freedoms and the lawlessness that reigned, the parliament continued to work in the country within the framework of a legalized two-party system.
Against the background of rising incomes and an increase in public debt, the process of modernizing the country was gaining momentum, which became especially noticeable in the field of telecommunications, in the financial sector and diversification of the export nomenclature.
The transition to democracy was a long process, made possible by an agreement between the political forces that sided with the military regime and the moderate opposition. The election of Tancredo Nevis as President of Brazil by the Electoral College of the National Congress (1984) can be considered the starting point of the country's democratization process.
Democracy
Brazil experienced the dramatic death of Tancredo Nevis, who never took office, the reign of Vice President José Sarney, and the first direct presidential election in 30 years, which was won by Fernando Collor. The "impeachment" of Collor, accused of corruption, was a negative moment, which, nevertheless, marked a trend towards a change in political traditions for the better.
In the period from 1995 to 2003, the President of the Republic was Fernando Henrique Cardoso, who was elected in the first round of direct elections on October 3, 1994, receiving 53% of the vote. At the center of the election political platform Cardoso had a plan to stabilize the economy, and the program was based on a series of measures aimed at improving the situation in health, education, the economy, infrastructure and agriculture. In the election program, he also promised to strengthen the role of the state as a coordinating, regulating and planning force in the development of society, and also promised to reform the public sector.
On October 4, 1998, Cardoso was re-elected for a second presidential term. He received 52.91% of the popular vote. His main opponent, the leader of the Workers' Party, Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, won 31.84% of the vote.
Luis Inácio Lula da Silva was President of the Republic from 2003 to 2011. During his reign, social inequality in Brazil reached its lowest level in half a century.
Opening
Almost immediately, the Portuguese crown begins to explore and map new lands. On January 1, 1502, an expedition under the command of Gaspard de Lemouch enters the bay, which initially takes it to be the mouth of a wide river. In accordance with tradition, the place is named after the saint of a particular month - the January River of St. Sebastian (Rio de Janeiro do São Sebastião). Subsequently, it becomes clear that this is not a river, but a bay (now Guanabara Bay). But the name was decided to remain the same. Saint Sebastian is still considered the protector and patron of Rio. The Portuguese liked the bay itself with its still waters and numerous islands. The lands around were not of particular value to them, since they mainly consisted of steep and high hills. Gradually, the islands of the bay and the coast of the continent begin to be occupied by the first emigrants from Europe.
French Antarctica
Governor-General Tomé de Sousa was appointed to manage the new colony. He founded the capital in the northeast of Brazil, in the city of Salvador. Excommunicated from court social life in Portugal, Sousa took to drink and quickly lost control of the colony (for which he was subsequently executed by the inquisitors). Meanwhile, with the blessing of the Huguenot order and the French Marshal Coligny (Coligny) Cavalier Order of Malta Vice Admiral Nicolas Durand (Nicolas Durend de Villegaignon) was sent to the shores of Rio de Janeiro. It was from here that France, taking advantage of the weakness of the Brazilian colony, decided to create its own - French Antarctica. Nature and God did not contribute to this event in any way. Two ships carrying 600 soldiers, sailors and Church officials first suffered from scurvy in Africa. There they were forced to wait a long time for a headwind and current. Meanwhile, drinking water and resources were gradually running out. Finally, on November 10, 1555, the ships entered Guanabara Bay. Suddenly, reconnaissance boats scattered throughout the bay are overtaken by a storm, rare in these places. Several hundred French go to the bottom. taught By bitter experience, Duran decides to land on the shores of the bay, and not on its islands. Forts are built at the entrance to the bay. Thus, any ship illegally enteredthe bay was attacked by cannonballs from two sides at once.The main fortification is being built on the site of the modern city center. Surrounded on three sides by mountains and on the fourth by the sea, the town gradually begins to rebuild, laying the foundation for a new French colony.
Foundation of the city
In 1550, the French receive reinforcements in the form of three ships requested by Durand from Paris. French subjects, frightened by the iron discipline of the leader of the colony, flee to the virgin forests of Brazil and live in Indian tribes. Reinforcements were called upon to raise morale (80 soldiers, artillery, nobles and artisans). Of course, the pastors of the Holy Church also arrived on the ships - 14 Protestant monks, whose task was to form a Calvinist church in the new colony. Trying to overcome any (including religious) dissent, Duran tightens his rule day by day. As a result, the policy of French Antarctica leads to rebellions within the colony. In the meantime, a new one was sent in place of the unsuccessful Governor-General de Sousa, who had proven himself from the very beginning. better side nobleman Men de Sa (Mem de Sa). He takes the colony under strict control and immediately sends an army to drive the French from territory of Rio de Janeiro. His nephew Estacio de Sa commanded the army.
In 1564, de Sa's troops approached Guanabara Bay. Fearing military forts at the entrance to the Gulf of Eshtasio, he commands a landing much further south, in the area of \u200b\u200bmodern Copacabana. On foot, through the passes, the troops invade the territory of the French and, within a few days, occupy the main positions. The demoralized French colony surrenders and its defenders leave the Brazilian shores. March 1, 1565 (the day of the conquest of the Gulf of Guanabara) is considered to be the date of the founding of Rio de Janeiro as a city.
Jesuit Order
This order played a big role in the development of the city. As you know, the Jesuits were the most free and "daring" servants of the Holy Mother Church. Forward front of the Catholic Church a lot was forgiven. The double standards of the Inquisition allowed the Jesuits any action aimed at spreading the true faith in the European colonies. For example, the Pope forbade the use of the indigenous population as slaves. The Jesuits convert the Indians to the Catholic faith and, as free people, force them to build monasteries. Including main monastery in Rio de Janeiro - São Bento. Numerous pirates who lived off the coast of the new Portuguese colony also received all sorts of preferences, subject to loyalty to the Portuguese crown. The Jesuits, having chosen the center of Rio de Janeiro, create a network of their monasteries throughout Brazil. Along with this, they create infrastructure (inns, roads, postal service). In addition to religion, the Jesuit order brings in new country culture and art.
Troubled times
Portugal did not stand on ceremony with its colonies, which acted as milk cows. Angola, Brazil, the Cape Verde Islands… All of them were obliged to supply the kingdom with almost everything they had. At the same time, the crown forbade any production in the colonized lands. This was done in order to support the wealthy industrialists of Portugal. Of course, such a situation only weakened the colonies and could not but affect the standard of living in them. Taking advantage of the weakness of Brazil, in 1695 the French again made an attempt to capture Rio and nearby territories. This tidbit never gave them rest. The exadra of the Duke de Genet attempts to enter the Gulf of Guanabara, but is forced to leave the battlefield due to resistance from the shores of the Gulf. However, in 1711 the French returned to the bay and in one night took up strong positions both on water and on land. The governor of Rio de Janeiro, Castro Moraes, does not join the battle and withdraws his troops from the city. Thus giving it into the hands of the enemy. The population of the city is trying to escape in the nearby forests. The conquerors burned the whole city down to the last house. About a month later, the governor decides to offer the French a ransom of 600,000 cruzados, 100 boxes of sugar, and 200 bulls. The proposal was accepted, as the army of Antonio de Alberge was on the way. The French accepted the offering and went home without getting involved in a war with the more daring Alberge. As for the cowardly Moraes, he was immediately deported to India, having lost all his property.
Capital of Brazil
In 1740, Brazil received the status of viceroyalty and its leaders moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeira, giving the city the status of the capital of the colony. With this status, the city begins to develop much faster. One of the Viceroys, the Marquis de Lavradio attaches great importance agricultural reforms and coffee and cane plantations begin to grow rapidly in the city. With the advent of the new Viceroy Louise de Vasconcelos (1779), the Academy of Sciences and the Literary Society appeared in the city. De Vasconcelos also patronized the Theater. Thanks to him, in 1781, the first performances took place on the hay of the Opera House. The city began to grow, and with it its population. If in 1749 there were only 25 thousand inhabitants, then in 1800 there were already 100 thousand. By this time there were 1051 shops, 123 factories, two libraries, two theaters, several educational institutions, private courses in Rio. foreign languages and philosophy.
Kingdom
Napoleon, unwittingly, radically changed the life of Brazil and its capital. Launching an offensive against Portugal, he forced the Prince Regent Don Juan the Sixth, his mother, Queen Dona Maria of Portugal, as well as the entire royal court, to board ships and flee to Brazil. In addition to the courtiers, 50,000 aristocrats, large industrialists and merchants, priests and other nobility sailed to the Portuguese colony. In fact, Lisbon was left to the mercy of Napoleon without a fight. In 1808 ships come to the city of Salvador. Don Juan, realizing that a small town cannot accommodate the 50,000th army of refugees, decides to sail further to Rio de Janeiro. The viceroy, waiting for the arrival of his overlord, drives the owners of the city's best houses out into the street, preparing them for the new owners. The sign “PR” (prince regent) was placed above the doors, but the inhabitants deciphered it in their own way - Ponha na Rua (get out into the street).
Don Juan also swung at the largest monastery in the city, São Bento, seduced by its beauty and huge halls. But the abbot of the monastery turned out to be quite cunning and dissuaded the prince from this undertaking, telling him many terrible stories about constant earthquakes and lightning strikes, which supposedly destroyed the sacred monastery. Nevertheless, the arrival of Don Juan in Brazil had a positive impact on both the country itself and its capital. In a short time, new institutions are being created in Rio: the Bank of Brazil, a medical school, a military academy, a chemical laboratory, a royal library and new theaters. By the way, the famous botanical garden of the city also owes its appearance to the new king. Known for his love of food, Don Juan sent messengers to all countries. They brought new fruit plants to Rio (this is how durian appeared in Brazil) and various herbs for seasoning. Tea was introduced to Brazil in 1810. Several hundred gardeners from China arrived to take care of the new plant.
Independence
In 1816, Dona Maria died and Don Juan inherited the crown of the united kingdom of Brazil, Portugal and the Algarves. He did not want to return to Lisbon, preferring to rule the kingdom from Rio de Janeiro. And only in 1821, having listened to the urgent requests of Great Britain, he returned to his homeland, leaving control of Brazil to his son, Don Pedro.
MPs legislative assembly Portugal turned to Don Juan with a demand to lower Brazil to the rank of a colony and restore its status as a dependent on Portugal. In 1822, the inhabitants of Rio de Janeiro petitioned the regent Don Pedro, in which they expressed their disagreement with this order and demanded independence from Portugal. After 8 months, with the support of the people, Don Pedro is proclaimed the First Constitutional Emperor of the Brazilian Empire, Don Pedro the First. Actually, the Brazilian Empire had only two emperors - Don Pedro the First and his son Don Pedro the Second (Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga). Both of them have done a lot both for the country and for Rio de Janeiro. No longer burdened by the taxes that Portugal had to pay, Brazil developed rapidly.
Abolition of slavery and the republic
In 1888, Don Pedro II sailed to Europe to treat his tuberculosis. His daughter Princess Isabel (Dona Isabel Cristina Leopoldina Augusta Micaela Gabriela Rafaela Gonzaga de Bragança e Bourbon) remained in charge of the country. It was her hand that signed the law freeing the slaves. The slaves themselves called the law "golden". But their former owners did not agree with them. Of course, slavery was condemned all over the world, but no one renounced it with the stroke of a pen. The regent's decree sent Brazil into an economic collapse. The owners of fazendas and enterprises were left without a workforce. The country's economy is rapidly falling. In addition, the new "free citizens" do not want to work, neither for money, nor for food. Crime is thriving in the country, huge masses of people do not know what to do with themselves.
The military elite, led by Marshal Manuel Deodoro da Fonseca, suggested that the princess relinquish the throne. Without a single drop of blood on November 15, 1889, the country turns from an empire into a republic. The royal family leaves Brazil for Europe. Dona Isabel was offered a very good life annuity as compensation, but she refused. Marshal Fonseca, the first president of Brazil, becomes the head of the republic. The new Republican government does not stand on ceremony with its citizens. A dictatorial form of government is what the country needed at that moment. Former slaves found a use. From the north, northwest of Brazil, they were forcibly sent to Rio de Janeiro. Here a barrack-type town was created for them, which was called Cidade de Deus (City of God). For a relatively small fee, the godoks were involved in construction work, the improvement of the city, and maintenance. That is, to any work that did not require qualified knowledge. This is how the first favela of Rio de Janeiro appeared.
President Getulio Vargas
For many years, the Brazilian government pursued a so-called "coffee with milk" policy. This meant the development of only two Brazilian states - Minas Gerais (the main producer of milk and beef) and São Paulo (coffee production). The economies of the other states practically did not develop, as they did not receive government subsidies. Members of the government, led by presidents, cared too much about own business and completely forgot about the needs of the people.
Among the military and the nobility, discontent was ripening. On November 3, 1930, a group of people in military uniform breaks into the parliament building of the republic and seizes power. The revolution took place within a few days. The old government never believed in its possibility. Even despite the fact that the revolutionaries were declaring themselves with might and main in the newspapers. Their head was Getulio Vargas (b. 19/04/1882 - died 24/08/1954). Lawyer, industrialist, journalist, military man, Vargas was a rather versatile person. Immediately after the revolution, the military junta handed over to him the reins of the provisional government of Brazil. Getulio settles in the capital and almost immediately begins to change its appearance. Many buildings in the historic center are being demolished and huge, imperial-style ministries and departments of the New State (Estado Novo) are rebuilt in their place. Hundreds of houses were demolished just so that the new president could build the widest, straightest and longest street for military reviews and parades. Now it is named after Getulio Vargs.
Under President Vargas so-called "squadrons" were introduced of death - police squads that shoot all the homeless of the city, including women and children. During his reign, thousands of politicians and public figures who disagreed with the pro-fascist policies of the New State were sent to jail. Brazil took part in the Second World War. First, Vargas sent soldiers to help the Italians. By the end of the war, realizing that fortune was slipping away from the Nazis, he defected to the side of the Allies. By and large, Brazil has earned on both sides, supplying not only cannon fodder, but also food, metals, weapons, oil.
Immediately after the end of the war, Vargas was removed from his post, but supporting the policy of the new President Dutra, he was not deported from the country. Moreover, he took an active part in the political life of the country. And after 5 years, by popular vote, he returned to his previous position. In 1954, luck again turns away from Getulio Vargas. Inflation is rising in the country and workers are going on strike, demanding higher wages. In August of this year, military officials demanded the resignation of Vargas. His response was suicide and a suicide note in which he expressed his conviction that his policy was the right one.
Events from 1960 to the present day
Since the 20s of the last century, Rio began to grow not only in width, but also in height. The first high-rise buildings appeared. Under President Vargas, their number increased every day. southern beaches were separated from the center by high hills. In order to develop, it was necessary to either blow them up or build tunnels. Only at the end of the fifties was a new tunnel built, connecting the center and the Copacabana area. Despite the fact that this area has existed since the end of the 19th century, the inhabitants of Rio have paid attention to it only now. Thanks to the new liberal government, literature and culture are once again flourishing in the city. Copacabana becomes a Bohemian neighborhood. Americans starting to explore Brazil as a new holiday destination preferred to stay there. A lot of luxury hotels are being built on Copacabana, a decade later it was decided to increase the territory of the beach and expand the promenade due to the embankment.
In 1960, the capital was moved from Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia, new town built from scratch. The decision to move the capital was due to several factors. First, Rio was heavily overpopulated. Secondly, it gradually began to turn into the center of tourism in Brazil. Thirdly, for security reasons, the capital should be located in the depths of the country, and not on its coast. Has the city suffered from the fact that it ceased to be the capital? Not at all. It was not the presence of power that made this city rich, but its businessmen, industrialists, haciendas and, of course, tourism. The presence of a complete apparatus of power only hindered the development of Rio de Janeiro.
Taking advantage of God-given beauties, nature, location, Rio has relied on tourism. And not only did not lose, but also wins so far. Rio de Janeiro is still considered one of the most beautiful cities world and attracts millions of tourists every year.
Path of Cabral's expedition across the Atlantic Ocean
On March 9, 1500, a large trade and military expedition left Lisbon for East India on 13 ships (we do not know their type and tonnage) with a crew of about 1,500 people, of which more than 1,000 were "selected and well-armed people." Its goal is to establish trade relations with India by peaceful means if possible, but "... not to stop, despite any resistance, this enterprise" ( Phrase from a letter from Manuel I to the ruler of Calicut). Commander-in-Chief of the squadron ("Captainmore") Manuel I appointed Pedro Alvaris Cabral , who had not previously shown himself in any way either in the military or in the nautical business.
Cabral, Pedro Alvaris, 1467-1520
Portuguese navigator off the coast of Brazil and India
On March 22, the squadron, having lost one ship, moved from San Nicolau - the central island of the Cape Verde archipelago - directly south, crossed the equator, and then deviated west and at 17 ° S. sh. approached April 22, 1500 to the coast of Brazil. Meridian about. San Nicolau approximately 24°W d., the meridian of the final point (most likely the Brazilian Cape Corumban) - 39 ° W. Consequently, during the transition, the squadron moved west from the intended, southern course by 15 ° longitude, which at the latitude of Cape Corumban is about 1600 km. On purpose or by accident, voluntarily or unwittingly, did Cabral deviate so far to the west? The captain of one of the ships Bartolomeu Dias advised him to stay in the southern hemisphere away from the African coast. There is news that Gama, referring to personal experience, suggested that Cabral avoid the Guinean coast and follow from the Cape Verde Islands directly to the south until you reach the latitude of the cape Good Hope. Following this course, Cabral's ships crossed three sea currents: the North Trade Wind, which carried them to the west, the Equatorial Countercurrent, then the South Trade Wind Current (again to the west), and finally they were carried away by the Brazilian Current to the southwest.
The fleet of Pedro Cabral on his voyage to the coast of Brazil. The fleet consisted of 13 caravels and almost 1,200 professional soldiers.Fragment from Libro das Armados
“April 21, when we were ... 660-670 leagues from the island of San Nicolau,” a member of the expedition wrote on May 1, 1500 from Porto Seguro (Brazil) to his homeland Peru Vash Caminha- there were signs of the earth, a large amount of long and any other grass ... ". A day later, they approached the land that Cabral called the "Island of Vera Cruz" (True Cross). Near the coast one could see "a high, round mountain, and to the south - other, lower mountains and a plain covered with big trees". It was Easter day, and Cabral called high mountain Paskual ("Easter", 536 m); it is located west of Cape Corumban, at 17 ° S. sh. San Nicolau lies at 16°37" N. Therefore, the ships, moving due south, had to pass to the latitude of Mount Pascual at 33°30", which is more than 3700 km. According to the countdown of the navigators, according to P. Kaminya, the squadron covered about 4000 km. But then there can be no question that Cabral first went south, to 17 ° S. sh., and then turned sharply to the west, "as if in search of some famous point." With this assumption - and it is made by the defenders of the Portuguese priority - the ships had to travel 3700 km along the meridian and 1600 km along the parallel, and in total 5300 km. Of course, they could be wrong for two or three hundred kilometers, but an incredible mistake for 1300 km. And from this follows the conclusion: there was no sharp turn “almost at a right angle” - the ships followed a southerly course, and the current carried them to the west until land appeared. The discovery of Brazil by the Portuguese on April 22, 1500 was a matter of luck.
True, in Portugal, by the time Cabral's squadron went to sea, they probably already knew about the discovery by Columbus in 1498 of a large land lying west of Trinidad. But it was in the northern hemisphere, more than 3000 km from that point in the southern hemisphere, which the Portuguese approached on April 22, 1500, and its discovery did not affect the course of Cabral's voyage. On the achievements of other Spanish expeditions that discovered in 1499-1500. large stretches of coast South America even the rumors could not yet reach Portugal. And yet, some Portuguese and Brazilian historians argue that the organizers and leaders of the Cabral expedition knew for sure that the transatlantic South continent existed; before Columbus, Portuguese ships allegedly sailed to him. These historians had only to find suitable "discoverers" of South America, as famous as possible, starting from Martina Beheim, in Portuguese service.
Expedition of Pedro Alvaris Cabral, 1500-1501
Behaim's 1492 globe shows no sign of transatlantic southern mainland. Until this year, it is reliably known that he sailed only in the Eastern Atlantic. But probably from the mid 90's. 15th century Behaim settled back in the Azores, doing who knows what. Consequently, the "historians" argue, he could sail west - of course, only on Portuguese ships, and if he sailed, he could reach America, and not only North, but also South. On such unconvincing grounds, they suggest that Beheim knew the coast of America from Florida to Brazil inclusive before 1498. Together with anonymous captains of the Portuguese ships, Beheim acts as the forerunner of Columbus in the discovery of South America and as Cabral's informant about Brazil.
The rarest exception, when it was possible to find a suitable name for the captain of the Portuguese ship, was the alleged expedition of Duarte Pasek Pireira in the 90s. 15th century Pireira, a satellite of Cabral in 1500, who had sailed to the shores of West Africa more than once before, between 1505 and 1508. wrote an essay entitled "Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis" ("Emerald on the Position of the Earth"). The original manuscript and complete lists from it have not come down to us, of the alleged five parts (“books”), only three and an excerpt of the fourth have been preserved in Portuguese libraries, they were first published in 1892. In the Emerald ... - if this is not the latest copyist's insert - some transatlantic lands are mentioned in passing and very vaguely, and the author says that he first became acquainted with them about six years before Cabral's expedition. On this "foundation" Pireira is credited with the discovery of South America in 1494, and possibly earlier. Other authors prefer not to name the alleged discoverers of South America at all: someone undoubtedly sailed there before 1498, but who exactly and when is still unknown. “And if the name is put forward ... of another navigator - the predecessor of Cabral, then the Portuguese will be able to oppose him with many of their navigators who knew about the existence of the American continent even before Columbus” (J. Rocha-Pombu).
The Portuguese on the "Island of Vera Cruz"
For research new open land on a small boat, Cabral sent a sailor Nicolau Cuelho, a member of the first expedition of Vasco da Gama. Having landed on the shore, Cuelho made the first contact with the natives, who were very friendly. The stop at Cape Corumban was unreliable, and when a storm began, Cabral on April 25 transferred the flotilla 60 km to the north, to a safe harbor, in Portuguese - Porto Seguro, the maps now give another name - Bahia Cabralia, i.e. "Cabral Bay". On May 1, 1500, Cabral took possession of the "island of Vera Cruz": he erected a large wooden cross on the hill, not padran. Consequently, Cabral seemed to emphasize that he did not attach much importance to the discovery.
Landing of Pedro Cabral in Porto Seguro, Brazil. Painting by Perero da Silva, National Museum of Rio de Janeiro
On that day, Cabral sent Captain Gaspar Lemouch to Lisbon on a small ship with a report to Manuel I on the progress of the expedition and the discovery of the "Island of Vera Cruz" and with several parrots. These outlandish birds made the greatest impression, and the name “country of parrots” was established behind the “island” for decades. Caminha sent a letter to Manuel, which became the most important primary source on the history of the discovery of Brazil by the Portuguese. Very interesting for ethnographers detailed description the first meetings (quite peaceful) of the Portuguese with the Brazilian Indians, their appearance, dwellings, lifestyle, weapons and jewelry, including lips bushings (Sleeve - in the local language "Botoque", hence the name of the Indians of Eastern Brazil, given to them by the colonialists - Botokudy P. Caminha, describing them appearance- bronze-colored skin, painted black and red bodies, black straight hair - especially notes that they are inserted into the pierced lower lip in the form of an ornament "a bone as thick as a spindle and as long as a span"). Diogo Dias, brother of B. Dias, the captain of one of the ships, visited an Indian village, 10 km from the coast. On his return, he reported that their dwellings were longhouses, their food was cassava bread and seeds of wild plants, berries and fish; they sleep in hammocks. In the area of Porto Seguro, Cabral left behind two convicted criminals. So did his followers. And although the Portuguese claimed that the Brazilian Indians were cannibals, decades later Europeans met aged exiles or their descendants from marriages with Indian women at different points along the coast. On May 2, 11 ships of the squadron departed from Porto Seguro to the Cape of Good Hope.
Expedition Cuelho - Vespucci
Vespucci Amerigo, 1451-1512
Italian navigator in the service of Spain and Portugal
Manuel I reacted very quickly to the discovery of Cabral. In 1500, he notified other monarchs of this, renaming "Vera Cruz" to "Santa Cruz": "The land of the Holy Cross is very convenient and necessary for communication with India, since he [Cabral] repaired his ships there and took water "(M. Navarrete). And in 1501, the king sent a second Portuguese expedition to the shores of an unknown land. The captain-general of a flotilla of three caravels Manuel I appointed a skilled navigator Goncalo Cuelho with instructions to continue the discovery of the coast of the southern mainland, find out what goods can be obtained from there and how to “press against the wall”, i.e. bypass, the Tordesillas Treaty. Amerigo Vespucci, who had entered the Portuguese service by 1501, was invited as a semi-official navigator and given the task of describing the course of the "first exploratory expedition in Brazil." This becomes clear from his letters ( For the first time in Russian they appeared in 1971 in Sat. "Brigantine-71")- the only, although not very reliable, source - and from a number of maps that have come down to us from the beginning of the 16th century, on which a part of the coast of Brazil is plotted with the inscriptions "Santa Cruz" or "country of parrots" and with the names of several rivers, capes and bays . Fortunately for historians, the Portuguese, like the Spaniards, gave the newly discovered objects, as a rule, the names of the Catholic calendar. Given this and comparing the very meager data of Vespucci's letters with the oldest maps of Brazil, historians have determined the course of the discovery by the Portuguese of the coastline of the southern mainland in 1501-1502.
So, on May 10, 1501, three ships under the command of Goncalo Cuelho, with the participation of Amerigo Vespucci, left Lisbon. On June 1, at Cape Verde, they met Cabral, who was returning home. Near the Bizhagos archipelago, they replenished fresh water and timber for 11 days. From here, the flotilla moved southwest and after a long passage, during which the weather was very stormy for almost five weeks, it touched a rocky island - most likely about. Fernando de Noronha ( So it was named a year later in honor of a merchant-shipbuilder from Lisbon, who signed a contract with Manuel I to establish a colony in Brazil with a two-year monopoly on the sandalwood trade) , and on August 17, she found herself near the shore of some large land. At the first Brazilian cape, the ships stood for only a week, although the crew needed rest and the ships needed repairs; the short duration of the stay was explained by the fact that two sailors who went ashore for a trade exchange were missing - they were expected and searched for; in front of the eyes of the Spaniards, the Indians killed a young sailor sent to establish contacts. Cuelho refused - to the indignation of Vespucci - from the punitive operation and moved south, and all segments of the flotilla's path between 5 and 25 ° S. sh. fit into the exact chronological framework thanks to the Catholic saints - below in brackets is the day of a particular saint.
The northernmost marked on the maps of the early XVI century. the point that the expedition touched in 1501 is Cape San Roque (August 17, at 5 ° 30 "S). It is located on the eastern ledge of the mainland, discovered in February - April 1500 by the Spaniards Pinson and Lepe. Undoubtedly, even for the time that it was east of the demarcation line of 1494, and, therefore, should have belonged to Portugal. That is why the expedition of 1501 did not approach the Brazilian coast at Porto Seguro (16 ° 25 "S . w.), but much further north, 11 ° closer to the equator. The Portuguese did not even think then about the already discovered in 1500 for 16 ° S. sh. "island", the coast of which Cabral traced for only 60 km. After all, already in the autumn of 1500, Pinson and Lepe - this is documented - returned to Spain.
It is more than probable that Manuel I knew by the beginning of 1501 that in the southern hemisphere beyond the ocean, relatively close to Africa, in the subequatorial strip, there is a large land, but he did not know this from Portuguese sailors, but from Portuguese spies in Spanish ports or at the Spanish court.
Expedition Cuelho - Vespucci 1501-1502
From Cape San Rocky began moving south along the coast of the mainland. The next point on the map was Cape Sant'Agustín (August 28), which should be identified with Cabo Branco. South of Cape Cuelho, he met a friendly Indian tribe, three of whose representatives voluntarily agreed to accompany the sailors across the ocean. Here the ships stood for a month, and then passed by the mouths of small rivers flowing from the plateau of Borborem - San Miguel (September 29) and San Jerónimo (September 30) - and reached the mouth of a very large river. San Francisco (October 4, 10 ° 30 "S). To the next important place - the bay of "All Saints" (Todus-us-Santos, November 1, at 13 ° S) - the expedition approached after four It is the only major bay in the tenth latitudes, and later the colonists called it simply Bahia ("Bay") ( It was also officially called one of the most important Brazilian provinces (now - the state of Bahia), and unofficially - its center, the city of Salvador) . The entire coast between 7 and 16° S. sh., was opened secret expedition A. Velez de Mendoza - Roldan, which the Portuguese, of course, did not know about.
Discovery of Rio de Janeiro. Gordon Miller
At Porto Seguro, Cuelho took on board two sailors of Cabral, left for the "civilization" of the Indians; the Portuguese did not succeed in this - it is good that they survived. Then the ships proceeded past the mouth of Santa Lucia (December 13) - probably this is the river. Dosi. They rounded Cape Sao Tome (December 21, 22°S) and turned sharply due west. On January 1, 1502, the magnificent bay of Guanabara opened up before the Portuguese, which they took for the mouth of the river and called the "January River" - Rio de Janeiro (at 23 ° S; it first appears on the map Piri Reisa in 1513). The ships then sailed 100 km west to the bay of Angra dos Reis (January 6), where the shore deviated to the southwest; The expedition crossed the Tropic of Capricorn and reached about. San Vicente (January 22, at 24° S). The “baptism” of the shores of the new mainland seemed to have stopped at this point: oldest maps"Land of Santa Cruz" no Christian names for more southerly locations, coastline about 200 km southwest of San Vicente, the last name “Rio di Cananor” (now Cananea, at 25 ° S and 48 ° W) is cut off and is clearly “pagan”.
Miller's Atlas, Atlantica, 1519, Lopo Homem and others. Parchment, 610x1180 mm.National Library, Paris
From here Cuelho decided to return home; one ship under the command of the representative F. di Noronha separated from the flotilla and arrived in Lisbon on June 24, 1502. The two remaining caravels sailed from the coast of Brazil on February 13, 1502 ( Vespucci wrote: by February 15, 1502, he had reached 32°S along the coast. sh., but this statement is not confirmed by other evidence, and, as we see, it is refuted by maps) , passed, according to Vespucci's calculations, almost 3 thousand km and on April 3 at 52 ° S lat. saw the "new land". Most likely, both the length of the path and the achieved latitude were erroneously determined: the discovered island, which did not have anchorages, is probably about. Trindade (at 20° S and 30° W). The sailors persuaded Cuella to change course, and on May 10, 1502, both ships approached the shores of Sierra Leone, where one dilapidated caravel had to be burned. Cuelho arrived in Lisbon on September 6, 1502.
The results of the voyage disappointed the crown: no gold, no silver - only a brazilian tree, parrots and monkeys, but the geographical achievements of the expedition turned out to be enormous: the coast of the new land between 5 ° 30 "and 25 ° S. was discovered and mapped, of course primitive. from Cape San Roque to the "river" Cananea, more than 3 thousand km long, including 1 thousand km (from 5 ° 30 "to 16 ° S) a second time, after Veles de Mendoza. For more than 4.5 centuries, this voyage was semi-anonymous: Vespucci, distinguished by verbosity and the ability to paint details, never - unenviable constancy - did not name the boss. Only in the late 60s. of our century in the library of the Italian city of Fano, on the Adriatic, at the 13th century. found a map of the world dating from about 1504-1505. Brazil is called "Land of Gonçalo Cuelho...". After such a convincing find, Cuelho's position in history geographical discoveries became unshakable.
At the beginning of the 16th century This Portuguese discovery was associated with the results of the Spanish expeditions of 1498-1502, who discovered the northeastern and north coast new land. It could only be an overseas continent, previously unknown, for the most part lying in the southern hemisphere. Consequently, it had nothing to do with East Asia.
There is an opinion that the Europeans discovered Brazil by accident, almost by mistake. “Once upon a time there was such a nobleman in the 15th century - Pedro Alvaris Cabral. He was sent, they say, by the Portuguese king to India to establish trade relations, but here's the trouble: a hitch happened on the way! Whether the wind has changed, or the current has carried the ships aside, who knows ... Just before going around Africa, they landed on an unfamiliar land. Cabral went down to the shore, looking - the island is not an island, the mainland is not the mainland, you need to explore. True, he didn’t find anything of value - spices or golden sand, and therefore after a week or so he ordered to raise the sails again, but at first he declared this land to be Portuguese property and put a tall cross at the landing site so that different competitors and, first of all , the Spaniards, knew: do not open your mouth at someone else's loaf! Sailed further. But the further journey was unsuccessful. At the Cape of Good Hope, they got into a storm, several ships sank, and arrived in India - the local population rebelled against the Europeans, so ferociously that they had to fight. In general, Cabral returned to Portugal a year later and reported to the king: it didn’t work out with the Indians in a good way to agree on trade, it would be necessary new expedition equip, but this time there are more soldiers. His Majesty was angry and decided to remove Cabral from business for a long time, and to appoint a stronger commander in his place. No sooner said than done! And so the navigator lived out his life far from the court, unjustly offended. Of course, the king did not know that the Portuguese could not see the trade monopoly in India, like their own ears, but the land that Cabral accidentally discovered along the way would provide them with fabulous incomes in the future. It was Brazil, after all.
This kind of traditional version is often found in history books and popular science literature. Does it correspond to reality? Are the authors right who attribute a significant role in the discovery of Brazil to winds and currents, and even, perhaps, to a factor of chance, and was Manuel I right, who prematurely sent Cabral to an honorable retirement? To answer these questions, let's look at the facts.
The purpose of the expedition was to settle in India, crush possible resistance, establish Portuguese influence and establish strong trade relations by peaceful means if possible. The expedition included 13 ships, both military and commercial, and about 1,500 people on board. Among the participants of the expedition were those who participated in previous expeditions. Such pilots were already appointed famous people like Bartolomeu Dias - the first European to circumnavigate Africa from the South (1487-1488), Nicolau Coelho - a member of the first expedition to India, Duarte Pasheku Pireira, who became the chronicler of the expedition, and many others. A staff was recruited to establish trade relations with the Indian principalities: Agent Irish Correia, secretary of the future trading post in Calcutta Peru Vas de Caminha, as well as translator Moor El Masud (Monsaidi), who served with Vasco da Gama, bachelor Juanish - scientist and physician of the expedition and eight Franciscan monks, led by Enrique de Coimbre, appointed vicar in Calcutta, and several priests. Copper, cinnabar, velvet, woolen fabrics and other goods were carried in the holds for trade; supplies were taken for 1.5 years of navigation. March 9, 1500 in the port there was a solemn procession and mass of Bishop Don Diogo de Ortiz. Manuel I personally handed over the banner of the expedition, the banner of the Order of Christ, to Cabral, which did honor to the navigator. After sailing on March 9, 1500, the ships under the command of Cabral on March 14 passed the Canary Islands, and on March 22 reached the Cape Verde Islands. On the night of March 22-23, the Vasco de Ataide ship went missing.
Cabral's ships then, following the instructions of Vasco da Gama and Bartolomeu Dias, swerved southwest to bypass the Gulf of Guinea and sail from the Cape Verde Islands due South, to the latitude of the Cape of Good Hope. Following this course, Cabral's ships crossed three sea currents: the Northern Equatorial Current, which carried them to the West, the Equatorial Countercurrent, then the Southern Equatorial Current (again to the West), and, finally, they were carried away by the Brazilian Current to the southwest Magidovich I.P. , Magidovich V.I. Essays on the history of geographical discoveries. T.2. M.1982. S. 53 .. This point of view confirms the “accidental discovery” of the Brazilian land by Cabral, as well as the fact that, on the basis of the course of Vasco da Gama, sailors of the subsequent period, following to India, sought to avoid the Guinean coast, where long calms dominated, it was very hot, it was raining The Englishman Thomas Stephen (sailing to India in 1579) - wrote about the difficulties of navigation near the Guinean coast, and the Dutchman Linskoten in 1583. (who spent two months in the Gulf of Guinea) also left information about the features of this area. large land lying west of Trinidad. But it was far enough from the place where the sailors of Cabral landed on April 23, 1500. And as for the expeditions of Pinson and Lepe, who explored eastern shores South America a few months before Cabral, then even rumors about this could not reach Portugal, since Pinzon returned to Spain only at the end of September 1500, and Lepe returned to Spain in July 1500. Part of the territory of South America, surveyed by Pinzon and Lepa, belonged to Treaty of Tordesilla Portugal. . Although there are claims that in Portugal they already knew about the research of Pinson and Lepe before March 9, 1500 Konstantinova N.S. Journey into the past. Navigation error or secret mission? // Latin America, No. 5, M.2000, p.8. . If we take into account the point of view that the Portuguese sailed to the shores of South America before Columbus, then we will come across a lack of convincing evidence for this. It is known that, being in the Portuguese service, Martin Beheim M. Behaim (1459-1507) is a German geographer who created in 1492. 1st geographical globe. did not reflect on the globe any signs of the transatlantic southern continent Ditmar A.B. From Ptolemy to Columbus. M.1989, S.230. . And the fact that he sailed on Portuguese ships in the 90s. 15th century to America is unprovable due to lack of information about it. A little more convincing is the evidence that the satellite of Cabral in 1500. Duarte Pasheco Pireira in 1494 visited some lands across the Atlantic. This statement is based on the work of Duarti Pascheku Pireira, which was written between 1505. and 1508. ("Emerald on the Position of the Earth"). From copies of extant passages we learn about visiting certain transatlantic lands. But this is probably a later insertion by the copyist. There is also the point of view of Yul Oldham (1894) that the Portuguese discovered Brazil before 1448, when Andrea Bianco produced a map on which a landmass was plotted with an unreadable legend. Oldham read it as "a certain island lying 1500 miles to the west" - here, he assumed, we are most likely talking about Brazil, lying 1520 miles west of the islands Cape Verde. There is also an assumption that a certain Jean Cousin traveled to Brazil in 1488. Thus, whether the deviation to the West of the Cabral ships was a planned action or not is still unclear, but one thing remains true, the waters up to the Papal Meridian belonged to Portugal, so she could not help but examine them. Perhaps Vasco da Gama, who also deviated west of the course, was looking for some land here, but Cabral was more fortunate. From a letter from Peru Vas de Caminha to King Manuel I, we find that “on the 21st of April, ..., signs suddenly appeared to us” (seaweed - sargassum, sedum and birds), and on April 22 in the evening they saw land. On April 23, part of the expedition members headed for the shore and on the same day they saw the natives for the first time. “They were dark-skinned and completely naked: there was nothing on them to even cover shame. And they held bows and arrows in their hands. On April 24, two natives were brought to the flagship, who were well received by the Portuguese. Here Caminha, seeing them with his own eyes, gave a more detailed description of the natives: “Both of them have a pierced lower lip, and a real white bone sticks out of it, palm-long, spindle-thick, and sharp at the end, like an awl. They insert it into the lip from the inside, and the part that is between the lip and the teeth is turned like a chess rook, and, being inserted there, does not disturb them and does not interfere with speaking, eating, or drinking. Their hair is smooth. And the heads are cut from the sides, from the neck up, and above the ears too, but stick out high on the crown of the head. And one of them, under the hair from temple to temple, has a sort of mane of yellow feathers, finger-long, thick and hard, and covers the back of his head and ears. And a feather is glued to the hair with something soft, like wax (but not wax), and the result is a hat - very rounded, very hard, very even, and nothing will be done with it, no matter how much mine is - it will only stand better. Unlike Pinson and Lepa, the sailors of Cabral developed quite friendly relations with the natives; there were no armed skirmishes between them, according to Camigna. The natives even helped the Portuguese cut trees. Previously, "they cut a tree with stones made with a wedge, inserting them into a fork of a stick and tying them tightly, as ours said, who just went to them and saw this."
The Portuguese admired the excellent flora and fauna. These are wonderful fruits, a huge number of parrots. Many in those days called Brazil - "the country of parrots." Caminha argued that they "now have no faith and do not understand anything about it." May 1, 1500 on Friday, a large wooden cross was erected with the coat of arms and motto of the King of Portugal, and the official mass of the monk Enrique de Coimbra was celebrated, which was attended by many natives. On the same day, the ship of Gaspard de Lemoush was sent by Cabral with the news of the discovery of a new land. Lemoush carried with him letters from Caminha, Cabral and other members of the expedition. new land Captain Cabral named the Island of the True Cross (Vera Cruz). Why Island? It is possible that “after the first two expeditions of Christopher Columbus, the Portuguese consciously sought to secure control over the South Atlantic and find, perhaps further from the African coast, islands that could serve as stages on sea route to the Indias. Cabral considered Brazil as one of these islands and therefore called it at first the Island of the True Cross. Manuel I was not greatly impressed by the news, although the open land could serve as a base for stopping and repairing ships on their way to India. Manuel I subsequently notified all the monarchs about Cabral's expedition, renaming Vera Cruz to Santa Cruz, that is, the Holy Cross. On the maps of the early 16th century. this land was called either Terra Brasilis or Santa Cruz do Brasil. . In everyday life, it was called either "country of parrots" or "Brazilian land." This name came from the brazy tree growing here, from which valuable dyes were extracted, which before that came to Europe only from Asia.
May 2, 1500 Cabral and his companions set sail and continued their voyage to India. At the Cape of Good Hope, a storm overtook them and 4 out of 11 ships went to the bottom. Then B. Diash also died. The ship of B. Dias' brother, Diogo Dias, disappeared from Mozambique, who went back to Portugal. Autumn 1500. Cabral, after unsuccessful attempts to trade with Calcutta, established trade relations with the hostile principalities of Cochin and Kannanur. The Portuguese acquired spices, fabrics, incense, porcelain, and medicinal plants here. On the way back, Cabral lost another ship, it ran aground, but people were saved. And in the summer of 1501. Cabral arrived in Lisbon. Despite the loss of 6 ships, the value of the delivered cargo was enormous. Its sale doubled all the expenses for the expedition. However, Cabral lost half of his fleet, and therefore he no longer took part in the voyages by decision of the king. He spent the rest of his life in seclusion on his estate in the province of Baira Bakes.
The land discovered by Cabral actually turned out to be convenient on the way to India, since not only could ships be repaired and supplies replenished here, but it was also possible to successfully pass the Cape of Good Hope from Brazil. Thus, in the end, Cabral's expedition gave Portugal what it was supposed to give: - "take possession of the territories of the Atlantic." An important fact is the construction of the first settlements. If Cabral left two exiles on the shore (as well as two young deserters), then after the next expeditions of Lemoush, Amerigo Vespucci, Gonzal Coelho, fortresses were already founded. Thus, unlike Pinson and Lepa (Spanish navigators), who appeared in these places shortly before the Portuguese, the outcome of the Cabral expedition is significant in that the Portuguese remained here and began, albeit uncertainly, to establish the first small settlements.
Despite the fact that active colonization began 30 years after the expedition of Cabral, the importance of the discovery was already appreciated in the first years - this is a braza and fertile land. So by decree of 1516. Manuel I ordered that axes, hoes and other tools be given to the colonists. A little later, a decree was signed on the need to find a person capable of starting sugar production in Brazil, in connection with which funds will be allocated to him.
If for Portugal the outcome of the expedition is quite obvious, then for the natives of this land the coming of the Europeans turned into a long and painful process of resistance to colonization. Unlike the Spaniards, the Portuguese did not immediately find gold (it was found only at the end of the 17th century), so one of the main values was land that needed to be processed. The aborigines, just, represented easy prey for the bandeirants - slave hunters. Moreover, for the Portuguese, this kind of activity was not something new. Ever since 1442. began to develop trade in slaves from Africa. And in the period from 1450 to 1500. about 150,000 Negroes were captured by the Portuguese on the "dark continent".
Thus, the outcome of Cabral's expedition can be assessed in two ways. On the one hand, there was a collision of two worlds, which made it possible to enrich the flora and fauna of America, Europe and other continents; in the process of integration, a new state was formed, the Brazilian nation, was created new culture on this ground. On the other hand, by what means it was carried out. Today, the Indian population of Brazil has only partly preserved its culture and language. Many tribes of the coast were destroyed, and some are cheap labor in agriculture, in the collection of rubber, Brazil nuts and in other industries Fainberg L.A. Indian population of Brazil. In: Brazil. Economics, politics, culture. M.1965. P.138. . Therefore, speaking about Cabral's expedition, we should not forget not only what the discovery brought to the Portuguese, but also what it turned out to be for the natives.
Both the Portuguese and the natives formed a new nation, in which the Negro element is also strong, but in the 16th century the result of the expedition meant another increase in the Portuguese colonial empire, which lost its possessions only in the second half of the 20th century.
41. Discovery and colonization of Brazil
On March 8, 1500, a squadron consisting of three ships with one thousand two hundred people on board left Tagus. The noble nobleman Pedro Alvaris Cabral commanded the expedition, and India was the end point of the journey. The number of ships and soldiers shows that this was the first big trading expedition capable of transporting large quantities of goods from India to Lisbon and conducting military operations if necessary.
Following a route that roughly coincides with that of Vasco da Gama, the ships, having passed the Cape Verde Islands, headed west to take advantage of fair winds South Atlantic and round the Cape of Good Hope. On April 22, land appeared: “a very high and round mountain,” which the sailors called Pashkual (Easter), since it was Easter. Two days later the ships were found comfortable spot for anchorage - Porto Seguro (Porto Seguro, Reliable Port). There they stayed for a week, exploring the surroundings and establishing contact with the local population. The clerk, who was on one of the ships, recorded in detail the events of these days in an account that has become one of the masterpieces of our travel literature - in the famous letter to Peru Vas di Caminha.
There is much debate whether this discovery was accidental or intentional. Was the squadron of Cabral specifically looking for the Brazilian coast to make its "official discovery" (because until then the information about this land, which may have existed, was kept secret), or did it arrive there due to a deviation from the route under the influence of winds or a navigational error?
One of the most important arguments in favor of the thesis about the intentional nature of the expedition lies in the efforts made by the Portuguese in Tordesillas to fix the border of Spanish and Portuguese possessions along the meridian passing 370 leagues from the Cape Verde Islands (and not 100 leagues, as was noted in two bull of Pope Alexander VI). This shift of the frontier to the west thus included Brazil in the Portuguese zone of influence, and the Portuguese demand may be explained by the knowledge of the presence of land at this longitude. Indeed, the regime of the Atlantic winds drives ships to the Brazilian coast, and it is highly probable that voyages prior to 1500 noted the presence of land, which was kept secret to avoid friction with Spain.
The main wealth of the newly discovered land for a long time was the pau-brasil tree (pau-brasil), the core of which, bright red in color, was used to dye fabrics, and durable wood was used in the manufacture of furniture and shipbuilding. Therefore, the name that the discoverers gave to the new land - the Land of the True Cross - was soon replaced by the designation of the main product that was brought from there.
Already in 1501, an expedition was organized to reconnoiter the coast, which made a long journey of 3600 km. In 1502, the trade in pau-brazil wood was given over to the newly converted Christian Fernand di Lorone, who undertook to send out a squadron of six ships every year and also to reconnoiter 300 leagues of the coast annually, establishing trading posts in the most suitable places. Since then, the foundation of the first Portuguese settlements on the Brazilian coast begins.
An inventory of the property of one of the ships from 1511 gives a clear picture of the economic activity of that time: the ship was loaded with 5,000 pau brazil barrels, and also carried several slaves and a large number of monkeys and parrots. One French ship, taken prisoner by the Portuguese on its return from Brazil, carried as cargo, in addition to wood, monkeys and parrots, 3,000 jaguar skins and 300 centners of cotton.
Soon after the discovery of Brazil, French merchants-adventurers began to penetrate there, seeking to stock up on the pau brazil tree and attempting to seize territories. Small military squadrons were sent from Lisbon to guard the coast. But the main thing for Brazil was for many years the function of an intermediate point for ships going from Portugal to India.
The idea of systematic official colonization arose in 1530, with the expedition of Martin Afonso de Sousa. It was at this time that the colony of San Vicente was founded, on the swampy lands of which the first sugar cane plantations arose and the first engenue was arranged. By that time, the Portuguese were already in the area. On the initiative of one of them, the famous João Ramalho, the Portuguese founded a village in the sertans, a few leagues from the coast. It was this village, Piratininga, that later gave rise to the city of São Paulo.
In 1534, João III divided the entire territory of Brazil into hereditary captaincies, which he granted to representatives of the lower nobility. "Complained captains" were supposed to ensure at their own expense the settlement and development of the territory of captaincies. In some cases, as in São Vicente in the south and Pernambuco in the north, the captaincies prospered, but generally the captains' lack of economic opportunities and the aggressive attitude of the locals made colonization difficult. One way or another, by 1548 there were sixteen Portuguese settlements along the coast, living off trade with Portugal, where they sold, in addition to forest products, sugar, cotton and tobacco.
The growing economic importance of the territory caused in 1548 the creation of a single general government. The first governor of Brazil, Tome di Sousa, went there, accompanied by almost a thousand settlers. The first Jesuits also rode with him, among them Manuel da Nobrega, who later developed a vigorous activity in the civilization of the Indians. It was Nóbrega, who sought to settle as close as possible to the local population with whom he wanted to make contact, who founded the College of St. Paul in the village of Piratininga. Hence the name of the future city. At the same time, Tome di Sousa established the center of the general government to the north, in San Salvador, which began to develop rapidly.
The development of Portuguese Brazil has gone on at a rapid pace since then. Many Jews, seeking to escape the persecution they were subjected to in Portugal, came and settled in Brazil. The overwhelming majority of migrants did not take their wives with them on this journey, from which they usually did not return. They converged with local women, giving rise to a mixed race, the so-called Mameluks, who contributed to the spread of Portuguese influence. In 1583 the permanent white population numbered 25,000. Sugar production has developed successfully due to the warm and humid climate. A century after the first engenue, sugar production was about two million arrobe a year. The owners of the engenyu established direct relations with the Guinean coast and acquired a large number of slaves there who worked on plantations and in the production of sugar.
In 1584, the Jesuit priest Fernand Cardin visited the establishments of the Order in Brazil and described the society of Pernambuco in the following terms: in a rich house he received four crusades a year, not counting clothes]. Some owe much, because of the great losses they suffer from the slave trade in Guinea, as many slaves die to them, and from the excesses and high expenses to which they are accustomed. They dress, and they dress their wives and children in velvet, damask and other silk. The women are very beautiful seigneurs and not very pious, they do not go to mass, prayers and confessions, etc. Men love pomp so much that they buy horses for 200 and 300 cruzads, and others have three or four thoroughbred horses. When a venerable girl married a Vian [a person who came from Viana, that is, a native of Minho who boarded a ship in this port], who are the most influential in this land, all relatives and friends dressed some in scarlet velvet, others in green and damask and other silks of different colors, and the flags and saddles were of the same silk in which they were dressed. That day there was a bullfight and various games, and everyone went to visit the college so that the father-caretaker could see them. And on this holiday you can see what they do on other occasions, which are numerous and very common.
They especially like feasts, when ten or twelve people dine together on one day, then on another; and so they squander what they have and drink every year on 50,000 cruzadas of Portuguese wines, and in some years on 80,000. In general, there is more vanity in Pernambuco than in Lisbon! The Vians are the masters of Pernambuco, and if there is any attempt on them, then instead of the "king's people", as is customary, "people from Viana" are called for help.
While trade with India was in decline, Brazil was quietly developing. Unlike India, in Brazil, the Portuguese did not find any established economy, the products of which they could simply lay their hands on. Even to use existing natural resources I had to set up a system. For the export of Pau-Brazil, it was necessary to arrange at least primitive work (cutting timber in the hinterland, transporting it to the coast, storing and protecting it from pirates, loading onto ships that annually went to Portugal). But especially the sugar production cycle made the entrepreneur and producer out of the settler. Engenho, the center of economic, family and social life, firmly tied him to the land, which he began to consider his second home, which never happened in the East, where the Portuguese went to return rich as soon as possible. This led to the fact that in Brazil the Portuguese ethnic minority left its mark on the local population: the Brazilian left the forest and entered into civilized life, focusing on the models that the Portuguese gave him.
