Who ruled the Aztecs. Religion, culture and social structure of the Aztecs. Religion and mythology
The occupations of the Aztecs, a civilization that left many mysteries and mysteries, were very diverse. There remains a lot of evidence of the existence of this people, which has come down to us through jewelry and weapons, pottery and weaving. What did the Aztecs do, what was most important to them? Let's try to find answers in this article.
Aztecs: a brief historical background
Among the most of the American continent, there are three: the Incas, the Mayans and the Aztecs. Much of the knowledge about which Mayan, Aztec, and Inca occupations were the most popular has unfortunately been lost. But still, there are many archaeological finds that help solve some of the mysteries of the ancient inhabitants of planet Earth.
The Aztecs are the name of several peoples who lived in a valley called Mexico City until the Spaniards conquered Mexico in 1521. The peoples who inhabited the valley spoke the Nahuatl language. Their territories were divided into states, they built cities that were ruled by royal dynasties.
Aztecs: their life and occupations
It is rather difficult to summarize the topic. left a very big mark in history. Thanks to archaeological finds, research by scientists and historians, now we can draw conclusions about how these people lived, find out what was significant for them and what activities of the Aztecs were the most important.
Civilization numbered about 60 thousand people, and this people, without false modesty, could be proud of themselves. It took the Aztecs only 2 centuries to ordinary tribe nomads to turn into formidable warriors who ruled the territory of the Mexico Valley.
From this, historians conclude that the most important occupation of this people was military craft. In addition, it is known that these people were highly educated. Studied and practiced: medicine, astronomy, music, history of laws and religion. The development of the art of housekeeping and various crafts were at a high level. Consider all these activities of the Aztecs in order.
military craft
This people loved to fight. The military craft was very well developed, so it is not surprising that the Aztecs were famous as conquerors of new lands. During the existence of this civilization, the territory of residence of the people was greatly expanded due to constant wars and the conquest of new territories.
Captured new lands, according to Aztec law, were distributed among the warriors who became most famous on the battlefield. Accordingly, the conquered tribes automatically turned into slaves. This served to ensure that many wealthy slave owners appeared among the Aztecs, whom the thirst for profit forced them to conquer new lands.
economy
The occupations of the Aztecs concerned various spheres of life. The basis of the economy was agriculture.
Archaeologists have discovered farmers: sticks with pointed and extended ends. The second option is a prototype of a modern shovel.
It is known that this people knew how to irrigate and fertilize the soil. Among the various crops, preference was given to corn, pumpkin, beans, peppers and squash. The Aztecs went down in history as the people who first began to cultivate cocoa beans and tomatoes. They also grew tobacco.
Also, the main occupations of the Aztecs included the cultivation of several types of cotton.
Among the features of their agriculture, the presence of floating gardens should be noted. All due to the fact that the city of Tenochtitlan itself was on the island. The limited amount of land led to the emergence of vegetable gardens afloat. These gardens were built on rafts with fertile soil attached to piles driven into the ground.
Hunting and fishing
The occupations of the Aztec population included hunting and fishing. This people had no tradition of keeping pets. The only ones were dogs, sometimes they were eaten.
Stocks of meat were replenished during the hunt. Hunters obtained food with the help of a bow and arrows, throwing darts were widely used, and special traps for animals were also in use.
The prey of the hunter could be: rabbits, deer and wild birds.
The peoples who lived on the shores of the lakes were successfully engaged in fishing.
culture
The culture of this people was at the highest level. It should be noted that for the male population, schooling was a compulsory occupation. There were two kinds of schools: for the rich and the poor. Schools of the first type prepared future priests, military leaders and dignitaries. Boys from simple families learned to be farmers, warriors and artisans.
Science, literature, philosophy and astronomy are the main occupations of the inhabitants. The Aztecs were revered as a highly developed civilization.
This people developed a star map of the sky. The Aztec calendar is widely known, which, taking into account the location and movement of the heavenly stars, served to meet the needs of agriculture.
Unfortunately, during the conquest of this territory by the Spaniards, many examples of culture and art were destroyed. Nevertheless, archaeologists have recently discovered buildings that give us the opportunity to gain knowledge about how developed the Aztecs were in the field of architecture.
One of the attractions is the temple in Malinalco, which was completely carved from a single rock. Archaeologists say that apart from stone tools, this people had no others. Imagine how much effort it took to build this temple.
The main temple of Templo Mayor was discovered by archaeologists by accident. It happened in the 80s of the last century during an earthquake. This discovery made it possible to see the figures of gods carved from stone, as well as ceramic and jewelry. It should be noted that the Aztecs practiced human sacrifices to their gods. The handles of sacrificial knives were decorated with a mosaic pattern of turquoise and shell fragments.
Thanks to these finds, we can accurately determine how the Aztecs lived, whose occupations were distinguished by their diversity and highly developed culture.
End of story
This civilization remained unsolved until the end. All because cultural heritage The Aztecs were partially destroyed during the conquests. Having reached cultural heights, the Aztec people could not survive and preserve for history most their achievements. On the ruins of the Aztec capital grew new town- Mexico City, which went down in history as the center of the colonial possessions of new conquerors from Europe.
The content of the article
AZTEC, the name of the peoples who inhabited the Valley of Mexico shortly before the Spanish conquest of Mexico in 1521. This ethnonym unites many tribal groups that spoke the Nahuatl language and showed features of a cultural community, although they had their own city-states and royal dynasties. Among these tribes, the dominant position was occupied by tenochki, and only this one was sometimes called "Aztecs". last people. The Aztecs also mean the powerful tripartite alliance created by the Tenochtitlan Tenochtitlan, the Texcoco Acolua and the Tlacopan Tepanecs, who established their dominance in Central and Southern Mexico from 1430 to 1521.
The Aztec city-states arose on a vast mountain plateau called the Valley of Mexico, where the capital of Mexico is now located. This fertile valley with an area of approx. 6500 sq. km extends approximately 50 km in length and width. It lies at an altitude of 2300 m above sea level. and surrounded on all sides by mountains volcanic origin, reaching a height of 5000 m. In the time of the Aztecs, the landscape was given originality by a chain of connecting lakes with the most extensive of them, Lake Texcoco. The lakes were fed by mountain runoff and streams, and periodic floods created constant problems for the population living on their shores. At the same time, the lakes gave drinking water, created a habitat for fish, waterfowl and mammals, and boats served as a convenient means of transportation.
The triple alliance subjugated to its power a huge territory from the northern regions of present-day Mexico to the borders of Guatemala, which included a variety of landscapes and natural areas- relatively arid regions of the north of the Mexico Valley, mountain gorges the current states of Oaxaca and Guerrero, Pacific mountain ranges, coastal plains Gulf of Mexico, lush rainforests of the Yucatan Peninsula. Thus, the Aztecs gained access to a variety of natural resources who were not in their original places of residence.
The inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico and some other areas (for example, the Tlaxcalans who lived in the territory of the current states of Puebla and Tlaxcala) spoke dialects of the Nahuatl language (literally, "harmony", "folding speech"). It was adopted as a second language by Aztec tributaries and became the intermediary language of almost all of Mexico during the colonial period (1521–1821). Traces of this language are found in numerous toponyms such as Acapulco or Oaxaca. According to some estimates, approx. 1.3 million people still speak Nahuatl or its variant Nahuat, more commonly referred to as "Mexicano". This language is part of the Macro-Naua family of the Uto-Aztecan branch, which is distributed from Canada to Central America and includes about 30 related languages.
The Aztecs were great lovers of literature and collected libraries of pictographic books (the so-called codes) with descriptions of religious rites and historical events or representing data collection registries. Paper for codices was made from the bark. The vast majority of these books were destroyed during the conquest or immediately after it. In general, throughout Mesoamerica (this is the name of the territory from the north of the Mexico Valley to the southern borders of Honduras and El Salvador), no more than two dozen Indian codices have survived. Some scholars argue that not a single Aztec code of the pre-Hispanic era has survived to this day, others believe that there are two of them - the Bourbon Code and the Register of Taxes. Be that as it may, even after the conquest, the Aztec written tradition did not die and was used for various purposes. Aztec scribes recorded hereditary titles and possessions, compiled reports to the Spanish king, and more often described the life and beliefs of fellow tribesmen for the Spanish monks in order to make it easier for them to Christianize the Indians.
Europeans received the first information about the Aztecs during the period of the conquest, when Hernan Cortes sent five letters of reports to the Spanish king about the progress of the conquest of Mexico. Approximately 40 years later, a member of the Cortes expedition, soldier Bernal Diaz del Castillo, compiled The true story of the conquest of New Spain(Historia verdadera de la conquista de Nueva España), where he vividly and thoroughly described tenochkov and neighboring peoples. Information about various aspects of Aztec culture was received in the 16th and early 17th centuries. from chronicles and ethnographic descriptions created by the Aztec nobility and Spanish monks. Of the works of this kind, the most valuable is the multi-volume General History of the Things of New Spain (Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España) of the Franciscan monk Bernardino de Sahagun, containing a variety of information - from stories about the Aztec gods and rulers to descriptions of flora and fauna.
The capital of the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan, was destroyed by the conquistadors to the ground. The remains of ancient structures did not attract attention until in 1790, during earthworks, the so-called. Stone of the Sun and a 17-ton statue of the goddess Coatlicue. Archaeological interest in Aztec culture arose after a corner of the main temple was discovered in 1900, but large-scale archaeological excavations Temple were undertaken only in 1978-1982. Then archaeologists managed to expose seven separate segments of the temple and extract more than 7,000 items of Aztec art and everyday life from hundreds of burials. Later archaeological excavations revealed a number of large and small ancient structures under the Mexican capital.
STORY
Historical background.
Aztec culture was the last link in a long chain advanced civilizations that flourished and declined in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. The most ancient of them, the Olmec culture, developed on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in the 14th-3rd centuries. BC. The Olmecs paved the way for the formation of subsequent civilizations, so the era of their existence is called preclassical. They had a developed mythology with an extensive pantheon of gods, erected massive stone structures, were skilled in stone carving and pottery. Their society was hierarchical and narrowly professionalized; the latter manifested itself, in particular, in the fact that specially trained people dealt with religious, administrative and economic issues.
These features of Olmec society were further developed in subsequent civilizations. In the tropical rainforests of southern Mesoamerica, the Maya civilization flourished for a relatively short historical period, leaving behind vast cities and many magnificent works of art. At about the same time, a similar civilization of the classical era arose in the Valley of Mexico, in Teotihuacan, a huge city with an area of 26-28 square meters. km and with a population of up to 100 thousand people.
At the beginning of the 7th c. Teotihuacan was destroyed during the war. It was replaced by the Toltec culture, which flourished in the 9th-12th centuries. The Toltec and other late classical civilizations (including the Aztec) continued the trends laid down in the preclassical and classical eras. Agricultural surpluses contributed to the growth of population and cities, wealth and power were increasingly concentrated in the upper strata of society, which led to the formation of hereditary dynasties of rulers of city-states. Religious ceremonies based on polytheism became more complicated. Extensive professional strata of people engaged in intellectual labor and trade arose, and trade and conquests spread this culture over a vast territory and led to the formation of empires. The dominant position of individual cultural centers did not interfere with the existence of other cities and settlements. Such a complex system of social relationships was already firmly established throughout Mesoamerica by the time the Aztecs arrived here.
The wanderings of the Aztecs.
The name "Aztecs" (lit. "people of Aztlan") recalls the legendary ancestral home of the Tenochki tribe, from where they made a difficult journey to the Mexico Valley. The Aztecs were one of the many nomadic or semi-sedentary Chichimec tribes that migrated from the desert regions of northern Mexico (or even more remote) to the fertile agricultural regions of Central Mexico.
Mythological and historical sources indicate that the wandering tenochki took more than 200 years from the beginning or middle of the 12th century. until 1325. Leaving the island of Astlan (“Place of the Herons”), the tenochki reached Chicomostok (“Seven Caves”), the mythical starting point of the wanderings of many wandering tribes, including the Tlaxcalans, Tepanecs, Xochimilcos and Chalcos, each of which once set off from Chicomostok on the long journey south into the Mexico Valley and nearby valleys.
The Tenochki were the last to leave the Seven Caves, led by the chief deity of their tribe, Huitzilopochtli ("Hummingbird of the Left Side"). Their journey was not smooth and uninterrupted, as from time to time they stopped for a long time to build a temple or resolve intra-tribal strife with weapons. The related tribes of the Tenochs, already settled in the Valley of Mexico, greeted them with mixed feelings. On the one hand, they were desirable as brave warriors that warring city-states could use as mercenaries. On the other hand, they were condemned for cruel rites and customs. The first sanctuary was erected on the hill of Chapultepec (“Grasshopper Hill”), then they moved from one city to another, until in 1325 they chose two islets on Lake Texcoco for settlement.
This choice, due to practical expediency, had a mythical background. In the densely populated lake basin, the islands were the only free place. They could be expanded with bulk artificial islands (chinampa), and boats served as an easy and convenient mode of transport. There is a legend according to which Huitzilopochtli ordered the tenochki to settle where they see an eagle sitting on a cactus with a snake in its claws (this symbol was included in the state emblem of Mexico). In that place, the city of tenochkov, Tenochtitlan, was founded.
From 1325 to 1430 tenochki were in the service, including as military mercenaries, near the most powerful city-state in the Mexico Valley, Azcapotzalco. As a reward for their service, they received land and access to natural resources. With extraordinary diligence, they rebuilt the city and expanded their possessions with the help of artificial chinampa islands. They entered into alliances, most often through marriages, with the ruling dynasties of neighboring peoples, dating back to the Toltecs.
Creation of an empire.
In 1428, the Tenochki entered into an alliance with the Acolua of the city-state of Texcoco, located east of Tenochtitlan, rebelled against the Tepaneks of Azcapotzalco and defeated them in 1430. After that, the Tepaneks of nearby Tlacopan joined the military alliance of the Tenochki and Acolua. Thus, a powerful military-political force was created - a tripartite alliance aimed at wars of conquest and control over the economic resources of a vast territory.
The ruler of the tenochki, Itzcoatl, who was the first to lead the tripartite alliance, subjugated the other city-states of the Mexico Valley. Each of the five subsequent rulers expanded the territory of the empire. However, the last of the Aztec emperors, Motekusoma Shokoyotzin (Montezuma II), was engaged not so much in capturing new territories as in consolidating the empire and suppressing uprisings. But Montezuma, like his predecessors, failed to subdue the Tarascans on the western borders of the empire and the Tlaxcalans in the east. The latter provided enormous military assistance to the Spanish conquistadors led by Cortes in the conquest of the Aztec empire.
AZTEC LIFESTYLE
Economy.
The basis of the Aztec diet was corn, beans, pumpkin, numerous varieties of chilli peppers, tomatoes and other vegetables, as well as chia and amaranth seeds, a variety of fruits from the tropical zone, and a prickly pear-shaped nopal cactus growing in semi-deserts. Vegetable food was supplemented by the meat of domesticated turkeys and dogs, game, and fish. From all these components, the Aztecs were able to prepare very nutritious and healthy stews, cereals, sauces. From cocoa beans they prepared a fragrant foamy drink intended for the nobility. Pulque was made from agave juice.
Agave also gave wood fiber for making coarse clothes, ropes, nets, bags and sandals. A finer fiber was obtained from cotton, which was cultivated outside the Valley of Mexico and imported into the Aztec capital. Only noble people had the right to wear clothes made of cotton fabrics. Men's hats and loincloths, women's skirts and blouses were often covered with intricate patterns.
Located on the island of Tenochtitlan, the chinampa expanded with "floating gardens". Aztec farmers built them in shallow water from tied baskets of silt and algae and strengthened them by planting willows around the edges. Between the artificial islands, a network of interconnected channels formed, which served for irrigation and transportation of goods and supported the habitat of fish and waterfowl. Farming on the chinampa was possible only in the vicinity of Tenochtitlan and in the southern lakes, near the cities of Xochimilco and Chalco, since the springs here kept the water fresh, while in the central part of Lake Texcoco it was more salty and therefore unsuitable for agriculture. In the middle of the 15th century the Aztecs built a powerful dam across the lake to save fresh water for Tenochtitlan and protect the city from floods. The engineering and architectural achievements of the Aztecs, who did not know pack animals, wheels and metal tools, were based solely on the efficient organization of labor.
However, the chinampa and the lands of the Mexico Valley could not feed the growing urban population. By 1519, from 150 to 200 thousand people lived in Tenochtitlan, the population of the second largest city, Texcoco, reached 30 thousand, and in other cities, from 10 to 25 thousand people lived. The proportion of the aristocracy increased, and among other urban strata, a significant proportion were those who consumed, but did not produce food: artisans, merchants, scribes, teachers, priests and military leaders.
Food was delivered to the cities as tribute levied on conquered peoples, or brought in by merchants and local farmers to be sold in the market. In large cities, markets functioned daily, and in small ones they opened every five or twenty days. The largest market in the Aztec state was organized in the satellite city of Tenochtitlan - Tlatelolco: according to the estimates of the Spanish conquistador, from 20 to 25 thousand people gathered here daily. You could buy anything here - from tortillas and feathers to precious stones and slaves. At the service of visitors there were always barbers, porters and judges who monitored the order and honesty of transactions.
The conquered peoples regularly, once every three months or every six months, paid tribute to the Aztecs. They delivered food, clothes, military vestments, polished jadeite beads and bright feathers of tropical birds to the cities of the triple alliance, and also provided various services, including escorting captives who were appointed to be sacrificed.
Traders undertook long and dangerous journeys to bring valuable goods to the Aztec cities, and many amassed considerable wealth. Merchants often served as informants and ambassadors in lands outside the empire.
social organization.
Aztec society was strictly hierarchical and was divided into two main classes - the hereditary aristocracy and the plebs. The Aztec nobility lived in luxury in opulent palaces and had many privileges, including the wearing of special robes and insignia, and polygamy, through which alliances were established with the aristocracy of other city-states. The nobility were destined for high positions and the most prestigious activities, it was made up of military leaders, judges, priests, teachers and scribes.
The lower class consisted of farmers, fishermen, artisans, merchants. in Tenochtitlan and neighboring cities they lived in special quarters called "kalpulli" - a kind of community. Each kalpulli had its own allotment of land and its own patron god, its own school, paid the community tax and exhibited warriors. Many kalpulli were formed by professional affiliation. So, for example, craftsmen in the dressing of bird feathers, stone carvers or merchants lived in special areas. Some farmers were assigned to the possessions of aristocrats, who were paid more labor and taxes than the state.
However, for all its strength, class barriers could be overcome. Most often, the path to the top was opened by military prowess and the capture of prisoners on the battlefield. Sometimes the son of a commoner, dedicated to a temple, eventually became a priest. Skillful artisans who made luxury goods, or merchants, could, despite the lack of hereditary rights, earn the favor of the ruler and get rich.
Slavery was widespread in the Aztec society. As a punishment for theft or non-payment of a debt, the guilty person could be temporarily enslaved to the victim. It often happened when a person, on agreed terms, sold himself or his family members into slavery. Sometimes slaves were bought in the markets for human sacrifice.
Education and lifestyle.
Until about the age of 15, children were educated at home. The boys mastered military affairs and learned how to manage the household, and the girls, who were often given in marriage at this age, knew how to cook, spin and manage the household. In addition, both of them received professional skills in pottery and the art of dressing bird feathers.
Most teenagers went to school at 15, although some started schooling at 8. The children of the nobility were sent to kalmekak, where, under the guidance of priests, they studied military affairs, history, astronomy, administration, social institutions, and rituals. Their duties were also charged with collecting firewood, cleanliness in temples, participating in various public works, and donating blood during religious rites. The children of commoners attended the telpochkalli of their city quarter, where they studied mainly military affairs. Both boys and girls also went to schools called "kuikakalli" ("house of song"), designed to teach liturgical chants and dances.
Women, as a rule, were engaged in raising children and housekeeping. Some were trained in crafts and midwifery, or initiated into religious mysteries, after which they became priestesses. Upon reaching the age of 70, men and women were surrounded by honor and received a number of privileges, including permission to drink pulque without restrictions.
Belief in life after death was accompanied by certain ideas about what awaits the deceased. A warrior who died in battle or was sacrificed was expected to be honored to accompany the Sun on its path from sunrise to zenith. Women who died in childbirth - on their battlefield, so to speak - accompanied the Sun from zenith to sunset. The drowned and those killed by lightning fell into a blooming paradise, the abode of the rain god Tlalocan. Most of the deceased Aztecs, it was believed, did not go beyond the lowest underworld, Mictlana, where the god and goddess of death ruled.
Conquest wars and empire management.
Each Aztec city-state had one or more rulers called "tlatoani" ("orator"). Power was hereditary and passed from brother to brother or from father to son. However, the inheritance of honorary titles did not occur automatically, but required the approval of the highest circles of the city nobility. Thus, the legitimacy of the power of each new ruler was ensured both by the divine right of succession and by the public recognition of his merits. The rulers lived in luxury, but not in idleness, as they were obliged to exercise control, pass verdicts in difficult legal cases, oversee the proper execution of religious rituals, and protect subjects. Since some city-states fell under the rule of others, some rulers were considered higher than others, and the ruler of Tenochtitlan was recognized as the main one.
In the service of the rulers were advisers, commanders, priests, judges, scribes and other officials. Imperial conquests required an expansion of the bureaucracy with tribute collectors, governors, and garrison commanders. The conquered peoples enjoyed relative freedom. City-states were generally allowed to maintain ruling dynasties on the condition that tributes were carefully paid. New territories were included in the empire in various ways - some peoples conquered tenochki and forced them to pay regular tribute, others were persuaded to an alliance by negotiations, marriage ties and gifts. The city-states conquered by the triple alliance in the early era of its existence, by the beginning of the 16th century. were already deeply integrated into the imperial structure. Their rulers participated in tenochki wars of conquest, receiving rewards in the form of titles and lands.
War was the most important sphere of life of the Aztecs. Successful wars enriched the empire and provided an opportunity for individual warriors to move up the social ladder. The main virtue was the capture of a prisoner for sacrifice; a warrior who captured four enemy soldiers rose in rank.
Religion.
The Aztec polytheistic pantheon included many gods and goddesses. The demiurge gods are represented by the mysterious unpredictable Tezcatlipoca ("Smoking Mirror"), the god of fire Xiuhtecutli and the famous Quetzalcoatl ("Feathered Serpent"), "who gave people maize". Since the life of the Aztecs largely depended on agriculture, they worshiped the gods of rain, fertility, maize, etc. The gods of war, such as the Huitzilopochtli of the Tenochki, were associated with the Sun.
The Aztecs erected temples for each deity, where priests and priestesses worshiped him. The main temple of Tenochtitlan (46 m high) was crowned with two sanctuaries dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and the rain god Tlaloc. This temple rose in the middle of a vast enclosed area containing other temples, warriors' chambers, a priestly school, and a ritual ball court. Sophisticated religious rituals included festivities, fasting, chants, dances, burning incense and rubber, as well as ritual dramatic performances, often with human sacrifices.
According to Aztec mythology, the universe was divided into thirteen heavens and nine underworlds. The created world went through four epochs of development, each of which ended with the death of the human race: the first - from jaguars, the second - from hurricanes, the third - from the universal fire, the fourth - from the flood. The modern Aztec era of the "Fifth Sun" was supposed to end with terrible earthquakes.
Human sacrifice, which was an essential part of the Aztec religious rites, was practiced in order to supply the gods with energy and thereby delay the inevitable death of the human race. Sacrifices, the Aztecs believed, were necessary to maintain a sustainable life cycle; human blood nourished the Sun, caused rains and ensured the earthly existence of man. Some forms of sacrifice were limited to bloodletting through the thorns of the maguey plant, but often the priests killed the victim by ripping open the chest with a knife and tearing out the heart. In some rites, a chosen one was sacrificed, who had the honor of embodying a deity, while in others many captives were killed.
Achievements of science and art.
The Aztecs had a cyclic account of time. They combined the solar 365-day calendar with the ritual 260-day calendar. According to the first, the year was divided into 18 months of 20 days each, to which 5 so-called. unlucky days. The solar calendar was applied to the agricultural cycle and major religious rites. The ritual calendar used for prophecies and predictions of human fate contained 20 names of the days of the month (“rabbit”, “rain”, etc.) in combination with numbers from 1 to 13. A newborn, along with the name of his birthday (like “Two Deer "or" Ten Eagle ") also received a prediction of his fate. So, it was believed that Two Rabbits would be a drunkard, and One Snake would earn fame and fortune. Both calendars were combined into a 52-year cycle, at the end of which the lived years disappeared, just as the wind carries away a bundle of 52 reeds, and a new cycle began. The end of each 52-year cycle threatened the death of the universe.
The Aztecs created an extensive body of oral literature, represented by the genres of epic, hymn and lyric poetry, religious chants, drama, legends and tales. In terms of tone and subject matter, this literature is also very diverse and varies from chanting of military prowess and the exploits of ancestors to contemplation and reflection on the essence of life and the destiny of man. Poetic exercises and disputes were constantly practiced among the nobility.
The Aztecs showed themselves as the most skillful builders, sculptors, stone carvers, potters, jewelers, weavers. The art of making products from the bright feathers of tropical birds enjoyed special honor. Feathers were used to decorate warriors' shields, clothes, standards, and headdresses. Jewelers worked on gold, jadeite, rock crystal and turquoise, showing extraordinary skill in creating mosaics and ornaments.
“In the XII century, the power of the Toltecs fell under the blows of the northern wild tribes. Thus, the end of the second (after Teotihuacan) Mesoamerican civilization came to an end. The surviving Toltec farmers, who had a wealth of knowledge, assimilated with their conquerors and continued to move south. The merger of the barbarian northern tribes with the Toltecs served as the basis for the creation of the last powerful civilization of Central America - the Aztec Empire. The latter absorbed all the knowledge and traditions of their predecessors.”
Aztecs or tenochki were one of the last northern tribes who, by the beginning of the 13th century, settled in the territory Mesoamerica, in the valley mexico city. The very origin of this Indian tribe is shrouded legends. It is only known for certain that in terms of the level of development they stood a little higher than other northern tribes and were no less warlike than the same chichimeca. Settled in new lands Mexico(as the Aztecs called themselves) was a complete disappointment. This area was home to several tribes. In addition, there was a struggle for supremacy between 3 city-states - Azcapotsalco, Culhuacan and Texcoco. Despite their reputation as brave warriors, at that time the Aztecs were few in number. tribe and were not a serious force. In the conditions of fierce competition, it was required not only to occupy a dominant position, but also to survive. Mexiki skillfully took advantage of the situation, offering the services of soldiers for hire and going over to the side of the winning side. At the beginning Aztecs were mercenaries of the tribe Tepanec, centered on the city of Azcapotzalco. Tenochki served them faithfully for a little less than 50 years, and in 1298 they transferred to the service of the leader of Culhuacan. Aztecs were so devoted to the new owner that in 1323 the ruler of Culhuacan married his daughter (from the Toltec family) to marry the leader of the Aztecs. However, the priests of the bloody Aztec god Huitzilopochtli forced the groom to sacrifice the bride. Upon learning of what had happened, the leader of Culhuacan drove the former vassals out of the city. The long journey led the Aztecs to desert island at a lake Texcoco. According to the myth, the god Huitzilopochtli, having heard the requests of his people, ordered them to settle where an eagle with a snake in its beak would sit on a cactus. Such a place, most likely, turned out to be an island by the lake. It was here that the foundations of the city were laid. Tenochtitlan- the capital of the future Aztec empire. Toponym Tenochtitlan from the Indian language nahua is translated as "a place of cactus fruits."
The Aztecs were in dire need of building materials to build the city. The terrain was marshy, and the lake water was salty and undrinkable. Aztecs I had to solve these problems not without the help of neighbors from the coast, who provided the Mexicans with everything they needed, and they protected them. By the middle of the XIV century, 2 city-states coexisted peacefully near Lake Texcoco. Separated from the Aztecs group - tlatelolca built a city in the north of the island Tlatelolco, and tenochki in the south of the city Tenochtitlan. Due to family ties, at one time there was no sharp territorial struggle between the parties. However, the peace did not last long. In 1373, the more developed southerners subjugated their northern neighbors by force. coastal city Texcoco also fell victim to the warlike Aztecs. A confederation was formed between the 3 city-states in 1427, which together continued further territorial conquests.
Tenochtitlan over its almost two-century history, it has gone from a small settlement with miserable reed huts to a large center of the empire, built of stone and adorned with precious metals. In the capital Aztecs construction work did not stop until the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. In 1427, the Aztecs, along with their allies, began to seize neighboring territories. By the beginning of the XVI century. Aztec empire located on an area equal to 200 thousand km2, which was inhabited by approximately 7 million people. The end of the great power came in 1521. After a three-month assault on the capital Aztecs was captured and destroyed by the Spanish conquistadors, led by Hernan Cortes. On the ruins of the city, the Spaniards built Mexico City, which became the center of Spanish expansion in Mesoamerica. The fate of the last ruler of the Aztecs, Montezuma, was very dramatic. The greedy Spaniards demanded a huge ransom in gold for the captured king of the Mexicans. Even having received such a huge payment, the soldiers of Cortes defiantly executed the Aztec ruler. On the site of the palace Montezuma built the residence of Hernan Cortes. In the future, the future capital of Mexico was rebuilt more than once. Traces of the last great civilization remained deep underground. Only the construction work that began at the beginning of the 20th century made it possible to discover the wonders of Aztec culture to the world.
Of particular interest is lifestyle Mexico. Social inequality was very clearly manifested in housing being built in the capital of the empire. Thanks to the preserved records of the Spaniards, it is known that for the construction of dwellings and pyramids the Aztecs used lime mortar, adobu (dried brick), fired brick and stone. Cedar and pine were used to decorate palaces and pyramids. Before the arrival of the conquistadors, the houses of the poor looked like small shacks built of burnt bricks. The dwellings of the noble Aztecs were built mainly of stone.
Like older civilizations Mayan And Toltecs), the Aztecs were also popular ball game tlachtli, which had a religious character. Special stadiums were built for sporting events. With their religious cult and rites Mexico slightly different from their predecessors. The main deities of the Aztecs were: Huitzilopochtli- the god of war and the sun, as well as the patron saint of the capital, Quetzalcoatl- god of knowledge, winds, Tezcatlipoca- predictor of the future. Moreover, by subjugating neighboring lands, along with local population their deities also fell into slavery. IN Tenochtitlan there was a large number of temples, and on the territory of their number was thousands. Not a single day among the Aztecs was complete without rituals. The performers of these events were the priests, who had great authority among the Aztec people. The clergy in the Aztec empire was divided into black and white priests. The former were forbidden to enter into relationships with members of the weaker sex and generally monitor their appearance. The priests took part in the ceremony of accession to the throne tlatoani(rulers) of the empire.
The army played a special role in increasing the prestige of the Aztec capital. In addition to Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlatelolco took part in joint campaigns. Weapon Mexico mainly used for protection. Aztecs they did not seek to destroy the conquered peoples, but took them prisoner for use in sacrificial rites. Military campaign stopped as soon as the winners captured main temple defeated enemy. The conquered peoples recognized the power of the Aztec ruler and had to visit the capital every month with expensive gifts. Mexico. To create weapons, wood, leather, fabrics, metal and stone components were used, and the blood of wild animals was also added. Long spears tipped with obsidian or copper, bow and arrows, bow and arrows, and darts were widely used in combat. Leather armor and a wooden shield served as protection.
Aztecs, like their predecessors, were also excellent artists. Among Mexico there were many architects, sculptors, artists, stone carvers, jewelers and representatives of other professions. Using the experience of previous Indian peoples, they created beautiful architectural structures and adorned with precious metals. pyramids, built by the Aztecs, like those of previous civilizations, were tetrahedral. At their top were temples where the sacrificial ceremony and other important events were held. Like the Toltecs, the Mexican calendar had a cycle of 52 years, 260 days each. The year consisted of 13 months of 20 days each. At the end of the next cycle, the Aztecs expected some kind of natural disaster.
Many samples have survived to this day. Aztec civilization. An example of the skill of sculptors is a three-meter basalt statue of the goddess of fertility and earth discovered in 1790. Coatlicue. Today, this historical monument is stored in the National Museum of Anthropology of the capital Mexico. At the beginning of the 20th century, stone slabs were discovered on one of the streets of Mexico City during construction work, which were fragments of the main temple of T enochtitlan, as well as sculptures of various sizes. In the 70-80s. 20th century near presidential residence and during the construction of the metropolitan metro, the sanctuaries of the gods were opened Huitzilopochtli And Tlaloc, as well as fresco products with paintings. Another find was the Calendar stone ( sun stone), which has pictographic characters. This stone proves that the Aztecs had their own script, consisting of pictograms and symbols reminiscent of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. The excavations also unearthed jewelry, pottery, figurines of deities, necklaces and more.
Thus, it can be argued that Aztecs, taking in all best qualities their great predecessors, managed to create their own rich civilization. The last civilization in Central America. Found valuable finds confirm this statement.
The Aztecs are the dominant culture of the Postclassic period. They densely populated the Mexico Basin, and began to control vast areas of Central America north to the Tehuantepec Strait.
Towards fate
Aztecs had every reason to be proud of themselves. In less than 200 years, they have gone from a nomadic tribe to formidable rulers of the Mexico Valley and its surrounding regions. Such success they attributed to their patron god, Huitzilopochtli, and composed a myth celebrating their years of wandering in the wilderness. They were very fond of telling this story and kept repeating it with unflagging pleasure and pride. Artists have recreated it in books now called codices; the narrative was conveyed through a series of pictures and glyphs. As shown in codes that have come down to us, the Aztecs' path to glory began in a dry, cactus-covered land located northwest of the Valley of Mexico, at a place called Chicomozoc, or "Seven Caves", in a cave on the Colhuatepec Hill (see pic. left). This place was legendary: other tribes, like the Toltecs before them, claimed to have originated from the same place. Why the Aztecs had to leave this area is unknown. Perhaps they were driven back by stronger tribes, although they preferred to believe that Huitzilopochtli ordered them to go. As the Aztecs slowly moved south, the legend became reality. By the time they reached the place where they were to establish their capital, which was foreshadowed by an eagle perched on a cactus, each episode can be dated with sufficient accuracy.
Although there were thousands of Aztec codices, none of them survived the Spanish invasion. Most were destroyed by the Spaniards, who zealously planted a new faith and eradicated pagan ideas. However, even then the tradition of writing codes was preserved among some
groups of Indians, to which some enlightened Spaniards contributed a lot. The masters left behind amazing pages that allow you to understand and feel how the Aztecs themselves imagined their own history.
Beginning of the Tenochtitlan Empire
Having settled in Chapultepec, the Aztecs became subjects of the Colhuacans and served them as mercenaries. Over time, they began to be weary of their subordinate position and incurred the wrath of the Kolhua leaders. Forced to flee, the Aztecs ended up in the swampy lands of Lake Tezcoco. Here they founded their city of Tenochtitlan, because they saw the sign predicted by Huitzilopochtli - a rock, where the cactus grew, on which the eagle sat. Hence the name of the city - "the place where the cactus grows", and its emblem. (The same image can be seen on the flag of modern Mexico, only now the eagle holds a snake in its beak.).
This eagle perched on a cactus is also depicted on the frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza (see figure below). On 16 beautifully illustrated pages, the book reproduces year after year the history of the Aztecs from 1325 until the arrival of the Spaniards. It is probable that this codex was commissioned to the artists by the first king of New Spain, Don Antonio de Mendoza, after whom it is named. The codex covers the reign of all rulers, from the legendary founder of the city, the priest Tenoch, to Motskusoma II. Every event, each victorious conquest of neighboring peoples is captured in detail. Especially for Spanish readers, the images are accompanied by inscriptions in Spanish.
Along the edges of the frontispiece is a band of glyphs representing the years of the Aztec calendar. The 4 signs shown on the right are the basis of the calendar system, they repeat every 4 years. Dots from I to 13 represent specific years. After 52 years, the cycle repeats. The beginning of the cycle was always considered the 2nd year of Kamysh. It was celebrated with a ceremony of extinguishing old ritual fires and lighting new ones, marked by a special device for making fire, as can be seen on the frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza (3rd sign from the bottom left).
Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza (Aztec Codes)
The frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza symbolically depicts the rise of Tenochtitlan's power. The founding fathers pay homage to the symbol of the city, located on top of the Aztec shield. Crossing blue lines represent channels that divide the city into 4 blocks. The two burning temples below represent the victories over two rival cities, Colhuacan and Tenayuca, won even when the Aztecs served as mercenaries for the Tepanecs.
On the page on the left briefly tells about the life and reign of the first of the Aztec hereditary rulers, who came to power in 1376 and ruled for 21 years, which follows from the calendar glyphs in the margins. His name was Akamapichtli - "The hand that clutches the reed arrows" according to the glyph located above his head. During his reign, he conquered 4 cities, symbolically marked by the heads of the leaders. The last city of Xochimilco - "Flowers on arable land" paid a generous tribute.
On the right side of the page depicts the third ruler of Tenochtitlan, Chimalpopoca, or "Smoking Shield", whose reign was stained with the shame of defeat. During the attack on a place called Chalco, the locals sank 4 Aztec war canoes and killed many Aztec warriors, which is conveyed by the images of 5 severed heads. Chimalpopoca, executed by the Tepanecs, is shown first alive, and then with his body leaning forward and his voice subdued. His death caused the Aztecs to revolt against their masters.
On the page on the left, depicting the reign of Motekusoma II, who won a number of glorious victories, as befits a man with his name - "Wrathful Lord". His victories provided a large influx not only of tribute, but also of captives sacrificed on the altars of Tenochtipian. Three unpainted calendar glyphs mark the inglorious end of his reign - the arrival of the Spaniards, the death of the ruler, the founding of New Spain on the ruins of the Aztec empire.
Traditional dress of the Aztec warriors
According to the number of captured enemies, the Aztec warriors depicted above could dress in more and more magnificent robes. Before the battle, the warriors changed their "ceremonial" costumes for those more suitable for battle, retaining the insignia and headdresses indicating their status.
To satisfy bloodthirsty gods' appetite, a constant influx of prisoners captured on the battlefield was needed. The warriors who delivered the prisoners were awarded special insignia, such as the capes and headdresses depicted above. They pointed not only to the valor of the warrior, but also to his rank, directly determined by the number of captured prisoners. When a young warrior brought his first victim with him, the ruler rewarded him with a cloak depicting a scorpion or flowers. The fighter who brought the second prisoner received a cape with a red border. If this happened for the third time, he was rewarded with a richly decorated cloak called eekailakackoskatl- "a precious stone twisted by the wind." If the account of the Aztec warrior was 4 prisoners, then he joined the ranks of veterans and could wear a special hairstyle. He was also awarded special insignia and vestments. When a warrior became a tekuiua - an honorary veteran, he could join the ranks of one of the Eagle or Jaguar military associations and wear a special uniform. Over time, he could rise to the rank of commander or adviser to the ruler. There was also a considerable risk associated with promotion - bright insignia made him an excellent target on the battlefield.
The term "Aztec" comes from the name of their legendary ancestral home - the country of Aztlan, where they lived until 1068. For unknown reasons, they were forced to leave their homeland and after long wanderings, the Aztecs approached the shores of Lake Texoco, decided to settle here and laid the city of Tenochtitlan. They called themselves "meshika" in memory of their legendary leader Meshitli.
Neighboring tribes were hostile to the Aztecs as they stole their men for human sacrifice and women for themselves.
The Aztec state was constantly growing at the expense of conquered tribes, who were subject to tribute and erected temples to the Aztec gods. At the same time, the Aztecs deliberately regulated the number of conquered peoples, leaving potential opponents for battles and getting prisoners, who were sacrificed. Usually the rite of sacrifice consisted in tearing out the heart from one victim or several. The sacrifices were necessary to give the sun god a life-giving drink - human blood, since, according to the Aztecs, the movement of the Sun in the sky, and therefore the existence of the world, depended on it.
For sacrifices from among the prisoners of war they chose a physically perfect tall, slender man, with a clean body and quick movements. During the year, dressed up, singing and dancing, he freely walked around the capital, accompanied by his retinue, so that everyone could see the living incarnation of God. This "chosen one" was given four wives - goddesses of fertility. Together with them, of his own free will, he ascended to the top of the temple and gave himself into the hands of the priests. The captives destined for sacrifice did not resist their fate, were not afraid to die and did not run away, since they saw their duty in sacrificial death, showed obedience to the gods and gave them their life energy with dignity.
Capital of the Aztec state Tenochtitlan was founded between 1325 and 1345. At that time, the city was a cluster of huts huddled on an island surrounded on all sides by marshes and reed beds. In the next two centuries, Tenochtitlan became the main Cultural Center Aztecs. The city, located on two islands lying in the middle of the salt lake Texcoco, had a strict layout, extensive network canals and bridges, two main roads. At their intersection was a fenced "sacred quarter". Roads divided the city into four districts, each with its own ritual center and market. The districts were subdivided into 20 small blocks or more. The city's large market was located on neighboring island Tlatelolco. The islands were connected to the mainland by three stone dams, each of which had three or four passages with a wooden bridge to drain water from one part of the lake to another. The lake provided the city with natural protection.
In the center of the city, behind a huge wall decorated with the heads of hundreds of feathered snakes, there were 18 large buildings and many smaller ones. All together they constituted the "sacred quarter". Its most significant building was the Great Temple of Theocalli, in the form of a pyramid, on top of which were two twin temples, one dedicated to the god of war, Huitzilopochtli, and the other to the god of rain, Tlaloc. Among other buildings of the "sacred quarter" stood out a round temple of the main god of the Aztecs - Quetzalcoatl. There was also a ball court there. Since the time of the Olmecs, this game has had an important religious significance among the Aztecs.
Aztec religion
Religious views The Aztecs were based on the identification of celestial bodies with supernatural beings who were simultaneously responsible for both the good and the evil of human actions. The pantheon of the Aztec gods included 63 deities. Among them were three great gods, four creators, 15 gods of fertility, six gods of rain, three gods of fire, four gods of pulque, 12 gods of planets and stars, six gods of death and earth, four polyfunctional deities. The Aztecs worshiped their gods daily in cult centers, next to which schools of priests operated. The tasks of the priests were to manage the spiritual life of society and strengthen the religious basis of power.
Temples were works of original architectural art. They were built in the form of pyramids, to the open upper platforms of which steps led. Such stepped pyramids were called teokalli.
Residential buildings ordinary people built on a platform and had a gable roof. The house was usually two-roomed, without windows, with an earthen floor, woven reeds and plastered walls (adobe architecture) erected on a stone foundation. The houses of aristocrats differed in size, number and decoration of rooms, the purpose of the interior.
Aztec art
Aztec art was utilitarian and realistic in form, infused with religious symbolism. In the Aztec world, there was a special group of people - “experts in things”, which included painters, sculptors, philosophers, musicians, astrologers, etc. Their purpose was to lead a righteous life with a pronounced individuality, pray, make sacrifices, temper spirit and body. Most of all, this applied to the artists of the word - writers, who occupied a special position among other "experts in things."
historical prose was the most widespread genre of Aztec literature. It included records of the wanderings of mythical ancestors, epic works, for example, the epic about the origin of the Indians, the floods, and the divine Quetzalcoatl. A variety of prose were considered didactic treatises - collections of short speeches or sayings of moralistic content, summarizing the experience of the Aztecs in various areas of life. Aztec literature, as in everything ancient world, had ritual origins, sacred meaning and was associated with the cults of various deities.
Poetry played a major role in literature. According to the Aztecs, its main purpose was to develop the human soul and prepare it for a meeting with God. Therefore, the poetry of the Aztecs was deeply religious, the individual psychology of the author is poorly expressed in it and there is practically no love theme. Aztec poetry is represented by "songs of the god" - spells that call on the deity to appear right here and now and can make him perform the necessary actions; songs of "eagles and jaguars", praising military exploits; "songs of sorrow and compassion", as well as songs for women and children.
