History of physical culture of the ancient Incas. Fall of the Inca Empire. Athens city - the capital of Greece

LECTURE

The Art of American Civilizations. pre-Columbian era. Aztecs. Mayan. The Incas.

M. Stingl. Secrets of the Indian pyramids., M .: Progress, 1982.

M. Stingl. Star worshipers. In the footsteps of the disappeared Peruvian states, M.: Progress, 1983.

M. Stingl. State of the Incas. Glory and death of the “sons of the Sun”, Moscow: Progress, 1986.

One of the characteristic features of the art of pre-Columbian America is the existence of a huge number of different cultures, each of which had a special, unique style. Only in the territory of Mexico there were about 11 thousand of them.

Among these cultures, the three most significant are:

· Aztec culture (Central Mexico);

· Mayan culture ( Southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras);

· Inca culture (Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador).

Aztec culture.

Culture has evolved over nearly four centuries, beginning with XII V. Until 1521, when the Spanish conquistadors (conquerors) destroyed the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan (ancient Mexico City). Cartes, the leader of the conquistadors, fell in love with Marina (a name that came to Europe from the Aztecs), the daughter of the last leader of the Aztecs, Mantesula. It was only by chance that Cartes managed to defeat the Aztecs. Wounded, he snatched a spear from the leader, and the Aztec troops began to obey him.

Most of the stone buildings of the Aztecs have come down to us badly damaged. These are primarily tetrahedral pyramids, on which temples or palaces were located. The Aztecs believed that every half century begins new period in the development of the world, and in accordance with this they renovated temples and palaces. The previously built temple, together with the pyramid, was covered with several layers of masonry, so that it turned out to be inside the updated pyramid, on top of which another temple was built. In one of the pyramids in Tenayuca, 8 successively walled-up temples were found. Sometimes palaces and temples on the peaks were built of wood, but they have not been preserved.

Aztec sculpture is distinguished by rigor and schematism. They created huge cult statues, sometimes remotely resembling a person and made up of symbolic images: corn cobs, fangs, etc. For example, the statue of the goddess of the Earth and Fertility Coatlicue.

Few paintings have survived. Bright decorative “mosaics” made of feathers glued onto dense fabric and works of the finest jewelry art have come down to us.

On the territory of Mexico, the bloodiest cult in the history of mankind associated with the planet Venus appeared. A wall of skulls covered with clay was found here.

Uxmal is a complex of ancient American culture. The Palace of the Rulers in Uxmal is located on an artificial platform 200´ 170 m. height 12m. The palace itself has the following dimensions 98 12 8.5 m. The upper part of the Supreme Palace is decorated with a huge relief. The main character of the relief is the god of Rain and Fertility Chak. Chuck is a mediator deity between God and man, this is a guardian dwarf.

There was a cult of the Feathered Serpent among the Teotihuacans, Toltecs, then the Aztecs. People worshiped him as the giver of civilization.

Mayan culture.

A vibrant culture created by the Mayan peoples. Already in II-III centuries AD Mayan tribes founded small city-states headed by priests and aristocracy.

Like the Aztecs, the Maya built their buildings on stone foundations. Two types of structures are more common: temples on top of the pyramids; vast palaces on high stone pillars(bases) that formed around an open courtyard. Mayan houses were usually built on the ledges of a natural or artificial hill, which made their buildings seem to be multi-story. Maya architecture is more picturesque and richer decorated than that of the Aztecs. The facades of buildings were decorated with geometric ornaments, reliefs and masks of deities. Sometimes the mass of the wall is completely hidden under the stone lace. Columns are often used. Notable monuments of this culture: the temple of the Sun in Palenque, the temple of the Jaguars and the temple of the Warriors in Chichen Itza. Four staircases of 91 steps lead to the top of the Kukulkan pyramid in Chichen Itza (91´ 4=364). At the top of the sanctuary of Kukulkan - Quetzalcoatl there is another 365th step. The pyramid is decorated with 52 reliefs. The Toltecs introduced the Venusian calendar and the highest calendar cycle - 52 years (365 days each) into the Mayac culture

Sculpture has reached a high development. In accordance with the very complex Mayan calendar, stone steles with reliefs were erected every 20 years. On the front side of the stele, a figure of a deity or ruler was depicted. The remaining three sides were covered with hierographic inscriptions.

Mayan culture reached its peak in VIII - IX centuries AD At this time, complex reliefs with multi-figure compositions appeared (stele of Piedras Negras, 795). The Maya had palaces, temples, monasteries, observatories, court yards, markets, ceremonial grounds, and steam bath buildings. They created underground stone reservoirs - Chultuny. Reservoirs were carved into the rocks, connected by canals and served to accumulate rainwater. The Maya built roads - sakbe (covering - lime concrete, compacted with a stone skating rink), but they did not know the wheel.

The Maya have no central government, no capital, all cities are equal.

The best examples of Maya painting are the frescoes of the temple in Bonampak (opened in 1946). Three rooms of the temple are covered with murals depicting preparation for battle, the battle and the celebration after the battle. Masters used pure, bright colors. The color was associated with a certain symbolism. The ancient inhabitants of Mexico, noticing a red figure in the composition, knew that it was about the god of the Earth Xipetoteca, thus, about the eastern sky with its meanings of sunrise, youth and spring.

Above the sacrificial priests, the prophet-priests and the Sun-priests, stood the high priest of the Mayacian state. He was also Master of Hierographic Writing, Chief Astrologer and Astronomer.

Inca culture.

The Inca Empire existed for a relatively short time from the beginning XV V. until 1532, when the country was captured by the Spanish conquerors. The writing of the Incas is not fully deciphered. The capital was the city of Cusco, famous for its Golden Garden (perhaps the masters who created it were from the Chimu people).

The architecture is simple and unadorned. Temples, dwellings, fortresses are made of huge boulders (up to 350 tons in weight) very precisely fitted to each other, but not fastened with binding solutions (Saxahuaman fortress). The houses had powerful stone walls and cramped interior spaces. Most of the houses have no windows and are lit through the doors. According to the descriptions of travelers, the buildings were originally decorated with wide belts of thick gold plates. The use of precious metals not as money, but as a decorative material is typical of the Incas. For example, in the Temple of the Sun in the city of Cusco, several rooms are decorated with images of the Sun, Moon, rainbows and stars made of gold, silver and precious stones. Unlike Central America, the Incas built pyramids up to 40m high. not for temples, but for burials. Trapezoidal entrances and niches are characteristic features of Inca architecture.

Stone sculpture almost did not develop among the Incas.

The art of making and painting ceramics has been developed. It is conditionally divided into several periods. In the first period, scenes of battle, fishing, mythological scenes are depicted on the vessels. In the second period, the paintings practically disappear, but the vessels themselves turn into real sculpture. Most often, the vessels were made in the shape of a human head, sometimes conveying individual features. Later vessels appear in the form of animals, fruits and plants.

The main food of the Incas is potatoes (including canned ones), corn, and pumpkins. The Incas cultivated coca, a narcotic plant. In the empire, there was a clear division of the population into the elite and the bulk of the inhabitants. By law, the Inca (ruler of the empire) married his sister, who became his legal wife and, as a rule, the mother of the heir. In addition to the main wife, he had a harem and could live with any of the nuns of the monasteries, as he was the incarnation of the sun god on Earth. The heir was appointed during the life of the ruler by the rite of public hair cutting. The future heir helped his father and learned management. There were 10 age groups of the population, each of which had certain rights and obligations. Group 1: infants. Group 2: children under 2 years old. Group 3: children playing. Group 4: children 9-12 years old. Group 5: teenagers 12-18 years old. Group 6: 18-25 years old - serving in the army. Group 7: 25-50 years old - married and running a household. Group 8: 50-80 years old - old people. Group 9: 80 years and older - deaf old people. 10 group: sick.

There were no uprisings in the state. This social system provided provision for old age. It is therefore sometimes called "Indian socialism". There was no money in the empire, only barter in the market. Gold is used as decoration. The army is well trained and equipped (maces with stone or metal ends). There were excellent roads and a post office. The messengers ran from parking to parking for about two kilometers, as a result of the relay race, 2000 km were overcome in 3 days. The Incas composed poems that were later written down by the Jesuits. Quipu knot writing is widespread, on which you can count up to 1,000,000. Nobles studied at universities for 4 years, where she studied the Quechua language, solar religion, quipu knot writing, history and military affairs. The Incas wove dense fabrics, with a density of 80´ 45 threads/cm (modern parachute fabric has a density of 60´ 30 threads/cm). They performed operations, including trepanation of the skull.

the last Inca name was Tupac Omaru.

Additional information.

The oldest cultures of Peru are related to III millennium BC

Close to Lima there was a culture at that time, whose representatives did not know about the existence of metals, but erected clay and stone temples on artificial platforms. The Temple of the Crossed Hands is famous. Later, this gesture-sign is found in Colombia.

culture Chavin associated with the cult of the Jaguar was common at the end II - the middle of the I millennium BC

culture Nazca(middle II V. BC) corresponds to the valleys of the rivers Ica, Pisco and Nazca. Here was found the "wooden Stonehenge of Peru" - the sanctuary of Escuqueria. It consists of hundreds of dried mesquite trunks. The center of the composition is a square formed by 12 rows of 12 columns each. Found gigantic images in the Nazca desert. The Pampa de Nasca Gallery is platforms, lines, spirals, human and animal "figuras" (geoglyphs). The head of a giant bird (length 120m) is directed to the point of sunrise on the day of the winter solstice. According to M. Stingl, the Indians buried the deceased with a triangular-shaped balloon. The deceased at sunset was placed in a wicker basket, balloon rose above the sea and disappeared over the horizon.

culture Mochica ( I - VII centuries BC) left behind the pyramids of the Sun and the Moon. In Pampa Grande. The Pyramid of the Sun has a base of 342´ 159 m. Gold items are unique. The legend of the existence of a golden garden has come down to us and eyewitness accounts of a room with five thousand golden butterflies, each of which weighed less than a gram and soared in the air with slight fluctuations in the air. Butterflies were melted down by the conquerors. As a result, they received 4 kg 700 g of pure gold. Around Lake Titicaca, many chulpas were found - burial towers of rectangular and cylindrical, expanded upwards.

According to legend, the founder of the Chimu culture sailed to Peru from the north with his detachment on rafts. His name is Naimlan. "Naym" means "bird" or "flight". Chimu built the city of Chan Chan with an area of ​​18 square meters. km. The city is surrounded by two rows of defensive walls and is divided into 10 quarters 450´ 300 m. In many respects, the customs that prevailed in the state of Chimu differed little from the customs XXV V. Incas. In the 1460s Two cultures collided - the coastal culture of Chimu, worshiping the moon, and the mountain culture of the Incas, worshiping the Sun. The victory remained for the second. Clay reliefs depicting birds, fish, lizards, foxes, and ornaments have been preserved from the Chimu culture. Since ancient times, the supreme deity in Peru has been depicted framed by a snake arch, surrounded by predators. The arch symbolized the rainbow, the Milky Way, thunder, the firmament.

culture Olmec- one of the cultures ancient mexico. San Lorenzo - the capital of the Olmecs - was abandoned for unknown reasons in 900. The second capital of the "jaguar" Indians was La Venta. Huge stone heads found in La Venta.

Tribes Chol and Zelltal left in Palenque (Mexico) the famous ensemble, in which the tower of the palace, a 4-storey building, was also an observatory.

Interesting culture of the Toltecs. The Pyramid of the Morning Star in Tula (Tollan) has been preserved.

Inca culture Inca culture

(Spanish inca), the culture of a slave state founded in 1438 by a group of Indian tribes of the Quechua language group and occupying the territory of modern Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, northern part Chile and northwestern Argentina. The Incas, who created one of the oldest civilizations in South America, called their state Tahuantinsuyu (Four connected cardinal directions), and their capital - Cusco (Navel of the Earth). The ruling Inca dynasty, which subsequently subjugated the surrounding tribes, was founded c. 1200 by the legendary leader Manco Capac. At the head of the empire was the supreme ruler Sapa-Inca (The Only Inca), who was called the "Son of the Sun". Sapu-Inca was deified during his lifetime, his power was not bound by any laws. The regions of the empire were connected by a developed system of roads. The Incas built bridges and irrigation systems. They possessed a high level of knowledge in the fields of agronomy, engineering, astronomy and medicine. Skilled potters, weavers and jewelers were considered public servants and were paid by the ruler. The most skillful works were used for sacred ceremonies and for the needs of the ruler, who generously distributed gifts to distinguished subjects.

Ruins of the Machu Picchu fortress. 15th c.

The supreme deity of the Inca pantheon was the sun god Inti, to whom most of the temples are dedicated. Inca architecture is characterized by power and monumentality; buildings were made of huge polished stones, which were fastened with spikes, ledges or copper staples. The walls of all buildings were slightly tilted inward, towards the center: probably, the possibility of earthquakes was taken into account. The towers looked like a truncated cone, the temples looked like a truncated pyramid. The Incas had practically no stone sculpture, architectural decor was simple. Impregnable fortresses were erected all over the country. The famous fortress of Machu Picchu (15th century) was built in the mountains at an altitude of 2450 m. It has not yet been established how the Incas, who did not know wheeled carts and cement, managed to deliver stone blocks to a great height, grind and fit them to each other. friend almost without gaps. Artisans were famous for the highest skill, who knew how to melt metal and made magnificent works of art from tin, lead, copper, bronze, gold and platinum. Precious and semi-precious stones (emeralds, turquoise, rock crystal, corals, etc.), various types of clay, cotton, reed, reeds, dye plants, wool, animal skins and fur, animal bones and fangs, shells and even human hair were also used. from which the finest fabrics were woven. These materials were used to make jewelry, clothing, weapons, musical instruments, baskets, canoes, fine figurines and crockery. Inca pottery was characterized by large vessels with a narrow neck, reminiscent of Greek amphoras.
The rich culture created by the Incas was destroyed by the Spanish conquerors-conquistadors (1532-36). Jewelry became a loot for them, most of which was melted down into gold bars.

(Source: "Art. Modern Illustrated Encyclopedia." Under the editorship of Prof. A.P. Gorkin; M.: Rosmen; 2007.)

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Long before the discovery of the American continent by Europeans, the cultural civilizations of the Olmecs, Aztecs, Maya and Incas arose in Central and South America, which had an original and distinctive character. It is possible to understand this originality only taking into account the historical features under which the artistic culture of the so-called pre-Columbian America was formed and developed (until 1492, the time when Christopher Columbus discovered the American mainland).

largest center Meso-America, which included the territory of modern Mexico (except for the desert in the north) and stretched south to about Nicaragua, became an artistic culture. This unique civilization, which is the greatest asset of world culture, was an amazing constellation of nations, city-states, ceremonial, political and economic centers known to the whole world today: Tenochtitlan, Teotiucan, Palenque, Chichen Itza.

Structure and meaning artistic language Mesoamerica provides an opportunity to comprehend the ideas and ideas that underlie the complex picture of the world, in which myth and man are inextricably linked. In this cultural area, a unique architectural style, inextricably linked with other types of art and reflecting ideas about the structure of the universe and the movement of stars.

What is characteristic of the art of these peoples? First of all, the assertion of the omnipotence and greatness of the sacred deity, the cult of ancestors, the glorification of victories over enemies, the exaltation of rulers and the supreme nobility.

Art culture classical period*

The oldest civilization of pre-Columbian America was the culture of the Olmecs, who lived on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in the II-I millennium BC. e. Studies have shown that the Olmecs had well-planned cultural centers and stepped pyramids, stone sculpture, arts and crafts, hieroglyphic writing, and a ritual calendar. Olmec architecture is poorly preserved, as earth and rubble covered with a thick layer of plaster were used as building materials.

The sculpture of the Olmecs, represented by huge stone heads up to 3 m high and weighing up to 40 tons, gained world fame. Their purpose is still not known exactly, but, most likely, they were of a cult nature. These gigantic heads, discovered during excavations, still amaze with their monumentality, craftsmanship, and realistic reproduction of the individual features of famous personalities of that time.

One of the well-known sculptures depicts a young man with a wide and flat nose, as if flattened in the middle, thick lips and almond-shaped eyes, slightly covered with heavy

yellow eyelids. The height of the sculpture is 2.41 m, the weight is 25 tons. On the young man's head is a tight-fitting and decorated with a relief pattern helmet with headphones.

Youth. 1000-800 AD BC e.

Archaeological park La Venta, Mexico

By the beginning of the new era, the Olmec culture had disappeared. What caused its decline is unknown, but it was replaced by new civilizations, and above all the city of Teotihuacan in Central America (II century BC - VII century AD). In this city, located near modern Mexico City, two main temples dedicated to the Sun and the Moon have been preserved from the heyday. They are located at the top of a huge stepped pyramid. The temples were decorated with colorful paintings and brightly colored statues of the gods. The eyes of the statues are inlaid with precious stones and mother-of-pearl.

Pyramid of the Sun. Middle of the 7th century Mexico

The most grandiose architectural structure is the Pyramid of the Sun (Mexico), which currently has a height of 64.6 m (in all likelihood, it was even higher in antiquity). Unlike other pyramidal structures that had a stepped shape, the Pyramid of the Sun consists of four large, decreasing truncated pyramids, placed one on top of the other. On one side of the pyramid is a system of gradually narrowing ramps that lead to the sanctuary in the temple. The planes between the terraces of the building were constructed in such a way that the spectators, who were at the foot of the large staircase, could not see what was happening on its top. The pyramid was built from a huge amount of raw bricks and lined with stone plastered slabs.

Most likely, the pyramid simultaneously served as a "sun clock", accurately marking the onset of the equinox. On March 20 and September 22, an amazing sight could be observed here: at exactly noon, the sun's rays caused the gradual disappearance of a direct shadow on the lower step of the western facade. The transition time from complete darkness to illumination took exactly 66.6 seconds. Of course, in order to achieve such a visual effect, it was necessary to have perfect knowledge in the field of mathematics, astronomy and geodesy.

Around the Pyramid of the Sun, several small stepped pyramids were symmetrically located, emphasizing the monumentality of the main building. In the architectural decor, there are decorations in the form of huge snake heads painted with white paint. On the head of each snake was a feather rim, symbolizing a particularly revered deity of light.

In the middle of the ninth century the city was abandoned by the inhabitants and turned into a heap of ruins. The civilizations of the classical period were destroyed by the invasion of peoples from the north, first by the Toltecs. and in the 11th century new conquerors - the Aztecs, who created their own civilization.

Artistic culture of the Aztecs

The main feature of the art of the hunting tribes of the Aztecs was the worship of the gods. Surviving legends and traditions tell of numerous campaigns and bloody battles of this warlike people before they created a powerful empire with a highly developed culture. The main places of worship for the gods were temples, which, by the beginning of the conquest by the Spaniards in the 16th century. there were more than 40 thousand.

Tenochtitlan is the capital of the Aztecs. Reconstruction. II millennium BC e.

The capital of the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan (“fruit tree growing from stone”), or Mexico City, now the capital of Mexico (after the main god of war, Mechitli), was especially striking in its splendor. The city center was located on an island in the middle of a picturesque lake, it was surrounded by buildings on piles and dams cut by canals. In case of danger, the bridges thrown over the canals were raised, and the city turned into impregnable fortress. Alas, Tenochtitlan did not escape the sad fate: at the beginning of the XVI century. the city was conquered and destroyed by the Spanish conquerors - the conquistadors.

Statue of Coatlicue. Reconstruction of the XII century.

We know very little about Aztec architecture, as many structures were destroyed or completely rebuilt. Information about them was preserved only in the descriptions of Spanish eyewitnesses. It is known that in the center of Tenochtitlan there were three palaces of the Aztec rulers and the main temple of the supreme god of war. Two small wooden temples were erected on top of the stepped pyramid.

Aztec funeral mask

Aztec sculpture reached its peak. Monumental statues of deities are abstract and conditional. An example is huge statue Coatlicue - the goddess of the earth and spring fertility - the mother of the supreme deity of war. This statue only remotely resembles a human figure: it has no face, no head, no arms, no legs. It is made of various materials: corn cobs, claws and fangs of jaguars, human skulls and palms, feathers, writhing snakes, paws of eagles, etc. All this pile of various objects is strictly symmetrical and balanced.

The funeral masks of the Aztecs, reflecting the facial features of the buried, are of a different nature. Noteworthy in this regard is the basalt head of the “eagle warrior”, in which the strong-willed face of a young warrior is skillfully conveyed. Works of small plastic arts also attract attention - graceful figurines of a frightened rabbit crouching on its hind legs, curled up in a ball of a snake, a grasshopper preparing to jump, smoking pipes, decorated with a seated figure of the god of fire. The few surviving works of jewelry art amaze with their craftsmanship. Necklaces, pendants, earrings, chest plates are distinguished by the elegance of workmanship and the subtlety of modeling.

A bell in the form of a warrior-eagle. Gold. Aztecs.

Hermitage Museum. Saint Petersburg

Mayan artistic culture

The Mayan civilization achieved particular success. Long before the conquest by the Spanish conquerors in the IX-X centuries. The Maya invented an accurate solar calendar, determined the length of the year, used the concept of zero in mathematics a thousand years earlier than European civilization, accurately predicted solar and lunar eclipses, and invented a developed hieroglyphic writing system. The art of the Mayan peoples was distinguished by sophistication and perfection.

One of the most eloquent evidence of this culture is architecture: majestic pyramids, magnificent palaces and white-stone cities, lost in the impenetrable jungles of Central America. Beautiful monuments of sculpture, unique multicolored frescoes, paintings on vessels, graceful figurines, jewelry, wonderful works made in the technique of carving wood, bone and mother-of-pearl should be added to the achievements of architecture.

The origin of the Maya civilization is shrouded in a veil of mystery. Its appearance dates back to the turn of our era, when the legions of Caesar subjugated all new lands to the power of Rome, its rapid flowering falls on the 7th-8th centuries. n. e. Only towards the end of the IX century. the majestic cities froze, the palaces were empty, the echo of human voices fell silent in the wide squares of the Mayan cities.

What caused the death of a once prosperous civilization is still unknown. There are several versions of this: an earthquake, a sharp climate change, the depletion of previously fertile lands, epidemics of terrible diseases, foreign invasion, endless wars...

Of the monuments of the Mayan artistic culture, works of architecture are best preserved to our time. They amaze with an amazing sense of proportions, majestic monumentality, and a variety of architectural forms. These are not only pyramids and palaces, these are astronomical observatories, ball courts, colonnades, stairs, triumphal arches and steles.

Unlike Egyptian pyramids, four-sided stepped pyramids were built here, on the truncated top of which a temple with two or three rooms was erected. A long wide staircase led from the foot of the pyramid to the door of the sanctuary, sometimes such stairs were located on all four sides of the pyramid.

One of the pinnacles of Mayan architecture is Palace complex in the city of Palenque on the Yucatan Peninsula. Twenty-five buildings scattered across a hilly plain covered with dense tropical forest, grouped around four courtyards and communicated with each other by narrow corridors and stairs. The main decorations of the complex are the palace and the step pyramid of the Inscriptions (692). To the southeast there are three more temples - the Sun, the Cross (642) and the Leaf Cross (692). This is how the French traveler M. Pessel described his first meeting with the city: “The ruins of Palenque, arising so unexpectedly among the endless forest ocean, were simply amazing. Here before me appeared the riddle of centuries, the riddle of a civilization that died and disappeared, but still miraculously continues to live in these grandiose buildings - witnesses of its former power and glory.

The palace in Palenque (now heavily destroyed) stands on a natural plateau, rising above the plain by almost 70 m. Inside the palace there are courtyards surrounded by galleries. Richly decorated with carvings and sculptures and inscriptions, the palace has a four-story square tower, which probably served as an astronomical observatory for the Mayan priests.

Palace complex in Palenque. 7th century Mexico

Temple of the Inscriptions and Temple of the Red Queen (right) in Palenque. Mexico

The Temple of the Inscriptions is a 9-step pyramid, rising above the ground to a height of about 24 m. A rectangular temple was erected on its upper platform, to which a staircase of 69 steps leads. The walls of the temple are decorated with panels, richly decorated with bas-reliefs and relief hieroglyphic inscriptions, thanks to which the temple got its name.

As you know, step pyramids with a flat top often served as the tombs of revered people. That is why kings and priests performed rituals here in order to establish a magical connection with the spirits of their ancestors. Inside the pyramid, at a depth of 25 m, in 1952, a magnificent tomb of one of the Mayan rulers was discovered. The relief on the lid of the sarcophagus of this ruler managed to tell scientists a lot. Ancient masters reproduced in stone the Seven Caves - the ancestral home of many Mexican tribes and the world tree connecting the underworld and the upper world. Many symbols associated with Mayan beliefs were woven into the image of the tree (for example, a large quetzal bird with a wide-open beak, symbolizing the connection between the worlds, reviving the souls of the dead).

No less original are the so-called stadiums - structures with playgrounds for the iconic ball game. They are two inclined massive walls running parallel to each other. Between them was placed a playground for playing ball. Competitors were not allowed to touch the ball with their hands or feet. It was possible to play only with elbows, shoulders and sides. The team that first threw the ball into the round hole made in the stone wall, located on the outside, won.

Playground for. games, ball. 8th century Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico

Fans were located on the tops of two walls, on which they climbed stairs,

Mayan art also had its own characteristics. There was a canon in it, which was determined by the cult of the deified ruler and his ancestors. He achieved special perfection in the works of sculpture. The Mayan ruler was most often depicted in military scenes or seated on a throne. The main attention of the sculptors was attracted not by the individual features of his appearance or inner spiritual

Ruler on the throne. Terracotta. Mayan.

VI-IX centuries National Museum anthropology, Mexico City

quality, but accurate and careful reproduction of a magnificent costume, headdress and other attributes of power. Before the viewer appeared a kind of idealized person, frozen in a motionless pose, devoid of feelings and character traits. His face conveyed indifference and calm majesty. It instilled fear in the conquered captives. They, unlike the ruler, were aware of human feelings: grief, pain from wounds, silent obedience ... The image of the ruler was accompanied by a short hieroglyphic text containing information about his birth, reign, military victories and other successes.

The artistic culture of the Mayan peoples had a huge impact on the American culture of subsequent eras.

5.4. Artistic culture of the Incas*

One of the most famous South American civilizations was the Inca Empire - an Indian people who lived from the 11th century. in present-day Peru. This empire also included the lands of modern Bolivia, southern Ecuador, northern Chile and Argentina. The legends of the Incas have survived, telling about the emergence of the world, the first deities and people. At the head of the Inca empire was the Supreme Inca - the Son of the Sun, and the Incas themselves considered themselves "sons of the Sun." The image of the luminary in the form of a golden disk with a human face was the subject of an official cult.

One of the oldest legends tells that when the spouses came out of Lake Titicaca, having received a magic golden rod from their father the Sun, they were predicted to found a city and a country in a certain place. For a long time they were looking for this place, and then one day, after a long search, the staff suddenly disappeared into the ground. It was here that the capital of the Inca Empire, Cusco, arose, the ruins of which can still be seen today.

The Incas entered the history of world art thanks to the beauty and grandeur of their temples. On the coast of Peru, many pyramids have survived to this day, but, unlike other civilizations of America, they served for collective burials of the embalmed bodies of the dead. Some step pyramids were not rectangular in plan, but round.

Temple of the Sun. 15th century Peru

One of the most outstanding buildings of the Inca period is the main temple of the Sun - the "Golden Fence". According to the descriptions, it was surrounded by a triple wall, which had a circumference of about 380 m. The perfectly hewn stones were tightly fitted to each other without the use of a binder. The wall was decorated with a belt of gold plates “four palms wide and four fingers thick,” as one eyewitness testifies. IN main wall there was the only entrance leading from the Square of the Sun directly to the sanctuary of the deity. In the central hall of the sanctuary, an image of the sun god was erected in the form of a huge golden disk adorned with precious stones. An unquenchable fire was constantly maintained in front of him.

Relief on the Gate of the Sun at Tiahuanaco

Around the main buildings were the premises of the priests and servants of the temple and the world-famous "Golden Garden" of the Incas. Its dimensions reached approximately 220 x 100 m, and the garden itself and all its inhabitants - people, birds, lizards, insects - were made in full size from pure gold and silver.

Inca pottery

The Incas also achieved some success in sculpture. One of the most significant sculptural monuments is a relief on the Gate of the Sun at Tiahuanaco. On the front side of a huge monolithic stone block, a relief depicting the supreme deity is carved. The deity stands on a dais with wands in both hands. His headdress resembles radiating snakes. The figure of the deity is squat, he has unnaturally small legs, and his face is wide and square. On either side of him are three rows of minor deities, or winged geniuses, facing him. The relief gives the impression of calm grandeur and strength of power. The most mysterious thing about this structure is the frieze calendar depicting human figures, animals and ornaments. Among the many animals carved on the Gates of the Sun, you can even find an elephant.

Works of ceramics have survived to our time. Inca craftsmen created gold jewelry, exquisite luxury items, in which they used bizarre graphic ornaments on mythological stories about the creation of the world, the struggle of heroes against fantastic monsters, as well as episodes from Everyday life(hunting, fishing, weaving).

Before the 15th century, the Andean region was inhabited by various tribes of people. Under the military leadership of Pachacuti and his son Topa Inca, who ruled between 1438 and 1493, the Inca state expanded into a great empire.

WITH geographic point view of the Inca Empire was not a very attractive place to live. Northwestern border - coastal region Pacific Ocean, which is the driest desert on earth. The lack of rain began there over 500 years before the Incas. The high Andes Mountains rise to the east of the desert with steep slopes that pose serious problems for agriculture. The Incas solved that problem by creating terraces and filling them with fertile earth raised from mountain valleys. To the east of the Andes lie the vast and humid jungles of the Amazon Basin, inhabited by fierce tribes that the Incas never succeeded in conquering.

Story

The Quechua peoples inhabited the Andes as early as 1000 BC. Up to 1200 AD the tribes lived separately, but around 1250, Inca Manco Capac from the banks of the Titicaca founded the city of Cuzco and began to develop an empire, conquering people after people. The second round of the development of the empire began with the reign of the Inca Pachacuti (Pachacutec), marked by the active conquest of more and more new lands. At its peak, the empire spanned from north to south from present-day southern Colombia to central Chile, and from east to west from the Pacific Ocean to the deep jungle.

Chronology of Inca rule:

1. Sinchi Roca
2. Luque Yupanqui
3. Maita Capac
4. Capac Yupanqui
5. Inca Roca
6. Yauar Huakak
7. Pachacutec Yupanqui
8. Tupac Yupanqui
9. Huayna Capac
10. Huascar
11. Atahualpa

The Inca Empire and their culture were destroyed by the Spaniards in the most brutal conquest ever to take place on the American continent. The last stronghold The Incas had strongholds in , Saxahuiman in . Under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro, the Spaniards stole more than 280,000 kilograms of gold, and the works of art were melted down into bullion. The Spaniards for the sake of conquering the Indians banned all expressions of their native religion and culture. But still, many traditions managed to survive in the myths and crafts of Peru, Ecuador and Colombia.

The modern Quechua-speaking peoples of the Andes are descendants of the Incas. They make up almost 45 percent of Peru's population. The Indians live in close-knit communities and practice traditional agriculture. Most of the agricultural work is done jointly. Even though Catholicism is now the official religion in these places, in practice there is a very noticeable mixture of Western and native Andean religion and culture.

Religion of the Incas

The Incas have completely unique religious beliefs. The Incas believe that the supreme god Viracocha created everything that exists, including the main god for worship - the sun god Inti. From someone, as it is believed, the great Inca family descended, the first of which was Manco Capac. The Incas divided the world into three zones: underworld, the earthly world and the higher world of the gods, in which Viracocha, Inti, Mama Kocha, Pacha Kamak, Mama Kilja lived. Since the Inca Empire included a large number of different peoples, their faiths are strongly intertwined, and therefore it is quite difficult to clearly define the mythological hierarchy of the gods.

Pachacuti decisively reorganized the religion of the Incas. He claimed to be a direct descendant of Inti, the Sun God, and this made his people extremely obedient. Their daily work has become almost a religious duty. Pachacuti created around himself and Inti, the god of the sun, a real cult. Every day the emperor wore new clothes, the old ones from the previous day had to be burned, and he ate only from golden dishes. Inca society was theocratic, meaning that politics and religion were completely intertwined. The religion of the Incas combined the functions of animism, fetishism and worship of the gods of nature, representing the forces of nature. Inca rituals included elaborate forms of divination and human and animal sacrifice.

Society, economics and politics

Pachacuti and his son Topa Inca succeeded in transforming a very disparate area inhabited by more than 100 different tribes of people into a political union that could feed and clothe millions of people, carry out very serious building plans and supply a large army. He invented new scheme governments, the social system, the rules of the economy and religion. He was one of the most powerful single rulers that has ever existed in world history. He did not depend on the council of elders, making all decisions on his own.

The Inca emperor Pacacuti, in the first place, appointed himself as a holy emperor. He claimed to be a direct descendant of the creator god Pachacamac (also called Viracocha). Under his reign, Cuzco became a holy place dedicated to Inti, the god of the sun. Pacacuti broke down the old mud buildings and rebuilt the entire city in stone. He built the Koricancha temple dedicated to Inti and, at the same time, to himself. Its walls were covered with a huge amount of gold.

One of the problems of the government was the distribution of food and clothing. The grain, potatoes and cotton needed by millions of people were all produced in different areas of the empire. The Inca solved this by developing a form of practical socialism. Each village produced what its ecosystem allowed and gave the surplus to other villages in different areas. In turn, the poorer villages, farming in the barren mountain terraces, received food they could not grow themselves. Part of the surplus was set aside to feed the soldiers or labor teams who built temples or roads. This was called the system of reciprocity, which is why the Incas had no markets. Everyone supplied and received essentials through this system of reciprocity.

The Incas didn't just produce different crops where they were more productive. The Incas also conducted research on which crops were more hardy and productive, using special concentric terraces, such as those in Morai. On different height was different temperature which allowed crop selection. So we can say that the Incas developed science, as well as education.

Inca culture

Every Inca citizen was assigned a very clear role in life, related to their age, gender and social position. For example, children over five years of age carried the task of transporting water to areas where adults were growing crops. And women older than fifty had to weave cloth in order to make clothes. Even people with physical and mental disabilities were given daily tasks that were tailored to their abilities. For example, chew on corn or grains and spit into a large bowl. It all fermented and the Incas made their own special grain beer called Chicha, which they drank on holidays.

All individual tasks were recorded by officials through a system that replaced the script called Kipu. It was a complex form of communication using woven ropes, dyed in a certain sequence, and tied into various knots. Emperor Pakakuchi also created religious holidays for his people. Six times a month the whole empire celebrated holidays, held parades, listened to sermons.

The Incas were incredible builders and architects. Their irrigation systems, palaces, temples and fortifications are still found throughout the Andes. They had an extensive road system which was mainly used for government and military purposes. Couriers carried quipu-shaped messages throughout the empire. Unfortunately, this road network was also used by the Spaniards, which greatly facilitated their conquest of the Inca Empire.

Textile

The art of Inca textiles developed in symmetrical geometric patterns, symbolism. The priority colors were white, red, black and yellow. According to the established rules, the style of the Inca ponchos strictly corresponded to the occupation and social status its owner. The Incas also made beautiful cloaks from alpaca and vicuna wool, which are so common in the Andes.

Ceramics

Inca pottery was created on the basis of the art of conquered peoples, such as Chimu or. The predominant colors of the coloring were black, white, yellow, orange and red. As a rule, geometric decorative elements were depicted on polished surfaces. Inca pottery was distinguished by a wide variety of different utensils. Both sides of the product were often painted.

Gold

The Incas, according to the Spanish conquistadors, mined a lot of gold. Most of the gold went to decorate temples and other religious purposes. When the Incas ransomed Atahualpa, Francisco Pizarro ordered that the sickly room be filled to the top with gold. As a result, the Incas brought about 6 tons of gold items. At that time, it was the largest production in the history of mankind. Nevertheless, Atahualpa was executed. After that, as it is believed, the Incas hid their remaining gold, far exceeding in volume everything stolen by the Spaniards, somewhere in the jungle. Until now, expeditions from all over the world are trying to find Inca gold, but so far to no avail.

Fortunately, not all Inca gold was melted down by the Spaniards into bullion. Many works of art can still be seen in numerous museums in Peru, South America and around the world. In gold items, the Incas depicted their gods, animals, and simply beautiful ornaments.

History of the Inca Empire

The Inca Empire is the largest of all that existed in ancient times. South America states that existed from the 11th to the 16th century AD. Its territory was very extensive - it occupied land from the modern Colombian city of Pasto to the Maule River in Chile. In general, it included the entire territory of the modern states of Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, except for its eastern regions, overgrown with insurmountable jungle. It also included part of modern Chile, Argentina and Colombia. For the first time, Europeans came here after the ruin of the Aztec Tenochtitlan in Central America - the Portuguese Alejo Garcia arrived here in 1525. The Inca Empire managed to hold out under the blows of the conquistadors, who became interested in new lands, until 1572, but already in 1533 the Inca power lost most of its territory. Today there is a hypothesis according to which the ancient Incas managed to hide in the undiscovered city of Paititi until the middle of the 18th century.

According to archaeologists, the Incas did not independently become one of the most developed (relatively) peoples in the Americas. Most of their achievements, the ancient Incas adopted from the former peoples, as well as from those peoples that they subjugated. Before the Incas established their control over a large part of South America, other civilizations took place on this continent. In particular, the Moche culture, which developed irrigation systems, Huari, which most resembled the emerging power of the Incas, the Chimu culture with unique architecture and many others.

Near the Andean mountain range and on the coast adjacent to it in the period from the first millennium BC. before the first millennium AD relatively advanced civilizations appeared, the economic basis of which was agriculture. The history of the Inca state began in the 12th century AD. on the coast of Lake Titicaca, a people declared itself, the ruler of which was the Inca, who gave the name to his people. The Incas lived in the old place briefly, not for long. The supreme ruler decided to move his people to the city of Cusco, which marked the beginning of the history of the Incas and their expansion to the surrounding lands. By the 15-16th century, the Inca civilization had spread to a significant part of the territory of the present-day states of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, and even reached modern Colombia.

The Inca leader Manco Capacu, thanks to whom the history of the Inca state began, built the city of Cusco at an altitude of more than 3.4 thousand meters above sea level. The city is spread out in a deep valley between two chains of mountain ranges. Under his rule, the territory of the state gradually increased. Subsequent chieftains began to bear the title of Inca as meaning king. Inca Yahuar Huakak organized in the empire something like a regular army, which, however, became the largest force in all of South America. However, the greatest conquests occurred during the reign of Inca Pachacuti, thanks to which the history of the Incas passed into the period of the empire.

However, in the 15th century, the Incas, in short, were not friendly with each other. After the reign of the eleventh Inca - Huayna Capac, two sons remained, who started a war among themselves, dividing the empire into two opposing camps. The war ended with Atahualpa's victory over Huascar, shortly before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors.

Carrying out their conquests, the Incas equally effectively used both their army and politics - they persuaded the elite to cooperate in those places that were subject to conquest. At the same time, before the attack, the Incas sent several times to the rulers of certain lands a proposal to join the empire. The civilization of the Incas, spreading further and further across the continent, forced all conquered peoples to learn their language. Laws and customs were also imposed on the occupied territories. However, they did not prohibit local beliefs, provided that the conquered peoples would worship the supreme Inca deity - Inti. In addition, folk crafts were actively supported, each conquered people wore their own outfits. This was done so that the status and origin of any inhabitant of the Inca empire could be determined by clothing.

The Inca country was distinguished by a clear division of society into warriors and those who were not them. Only representatives of the ruling elite of the empire, or their proteges, who must necessarily belong to the Inca ethnic group, could lead the armies of the Incas. Interestingly, the Inca country was not completely monarchical - power in it belonged not only to the ruler of the Inca, but also to the governor capital city Cusco. According to the historian Juan de Betanzos, he was engaged in economic affairs in the empire, and provided the army with everything necessary.

Section 2 - Temple of the Incas

This short article will tell about the ancient temple of the Inca civilization

Section 3 - City of the Incas

Although the center of the Inca empire was in the city of Cusco, in popular culture Another Inca city became widespread - Machu Picchu