Where is the Indian Ocean on the map. Indian Ocean: on the map, seas, currents, photo, islands, depressions, fish, geography, ecology, depth, size, area

Ocean area - 76.2 million square kilometers;
Maximum depth - Sunda Trench, 7729 m;
Number of seas - 11;
The largest seas are the Arabian Sea, the Red Sea;
Most big bay– Bay of Bengal;
Most big islands- the island of Madagascar, Sri Lanka;
The strongest currents:
- warm - South Tradewind, Monsoon;
- cold - Western Winds, Somali.

The Indian Ocean is the third largest in terms of size. Most of it is in the Southern Hemisphere. In the north it washes the shores of Eurasia, in the west - Africa, in the south - Antarctica, and in the east - Australia. The coastline of the Indian Ocean is slightly indented. On the north side, the Indian Ocean seems to be shrouded in land, as a result of which it is the only one of the oceans that is not connected with the North Arctic Ocean.
The Indian Ocean was formed as a result of the split of the ancient mainland Gondwana into parts. It is located on the border of three lithospheric plates - Indo-Australian, African and Antarctic. The Arabian-Indian, West Indian, and Australo-Antarctic mid-ocean ridges are the boundaries between these plates. Underwater ridges and elevations divide the ocean floor into separate basins. The shelf zone of the ocean is very narrow. Most of the ocean is within the boundaries of the bed and has a significant depth.

From the north, the Indian Ocean is reliably protected by mountains from the penetration of cold air masses. Therefore, the temperature of surface waters in the northern part of the ocean reaches +29 ˚С, and in the summer in the Persian Gulf it rises to +30…+35 ˚С.
An important feature of the Indian Ocean is the monsoon winds and the monsoon current created by them, which changes its direction seasonally. Hurricanes are frequent, especially around the island of Madagascar.
The coldest regions of the ocean are in the south, where the influence of Antarctica is felt. Icebergs are found in this part of the Pacific Ocean.
The salinity of surface waters is higher than in the oceans. The salinity record was recorded in the Red Sea - 41%.
The organic world of the Indian Ocean is diverse. Tropical water masses are rich in plankton. The most common fish include: sardinella, mackerel, tuna, mackerel, flounder, flying fish and numerous sharks.
Shelf areas and coral reefs are especially saturated with life. In the warm waters of the Pacific Ocean there are giant sea ​​turtles, sea snakes, a lot of squid, cuttlefish, starfish. Closer to Antarctica there are whales and seals. In the Persian Gulf near the island of Sri Lanka, pearls are mined.
Important shipping routes pass through the Indian Ocean, mostly in its northern part. The Suez Canal, dug at the end of the 19th century, connects the Indian Ocean with mediterranean sea.
The first information about the Indian Ocean was collected as far back as 3 thousand years BC by Indian, Egyptian and Phoenician navigators. The first sailing routes in the Indian Ocean were compiled by the Arabs.
Vasco da Gama, after the discovery of India in 1499, Europeans began to explore the Indian Ocean. English navigator James Cook during the expedition made the first measurements of the depth of the ocean.
A comprehensive study of the nature of the Indian Ocean begins at the end of the 19th century.
Nowadays, the warm waters and picturesque coral islands of the Indian Ocean, which attract the attention of tourists from around the world, are carefully studied by numerous scientific expeditions from all over the world.

The Indian Ocean is 20% of the world's oceans by volume. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west, and Australia to the east.

In the zone of 35 ° S passes the conditional border with the Southern Ocean.

Description and characteristics

The waters of the Indian Ocean are famous for their transparency and azure color. The fact is that few freshwater rivers, these "troublemakers," flow into this ocean. Therefore, by the way, the water here is much saltier than in others. The Red Sea, the saltiest sea in the world, is located in the Indian Ocean.

And the ocean is rich in minerals. The region near Sri Lanka has been famous for its pearls, diamonds and emeralds since ancient times. And the Persian Gulf is rich in oil and gas.
Area: 76.170 thousand sq. km

Volume: 282.650 thousand cubic km

Average depth: 3711 m, greatest depth— Sunda Trench (7729 m).

Average temperature: 17°C, but in the north the waters warm up to 28°C.

Currents: two cycles are conditionally distinguished - northern and southern. Both move clockwise and are separated by the Equatorial Countercurrent.

Major currents of the Indian Ocean

Warm:

Northern Tradewind- originates in Oceania, crosses the ocean from east to west. Beyond the peninsula, Hindustan is divided into two branches. Part flows to the north and gives rise to the Somali current. And the second part of the flow goes south, where it merges with the equatorial countercurrent.

South Passatnoye- begins at the islands of Oceania and moves from east to west up to the island of Madagascar.

Madagascar- branches off from the South Tradewind and flows parallel to the Mozambique from north to south, but slightly east of the Madagascar coast. Average temperature: 26°C.

mozambican is another branch of the South Tradewind Current. It washes the coast of Africa and merges with the Agulhas in the south. The average temperature is 25°C, the speed is 2.8 km/h.

Agulhas, or the course of Cape Agulhas- a narrow and fast current that runs along east coast Africa from north to south.

Cold:

Somali- a current off the coast of the Somali peninsula, which changes its direction depending on the monsoon season.

The course of the West winds encircles the globe in southern latitudes. In the Indian Ocean, from it is the South Indian Ocean, which, near the coast of Australia, passes into the West Australian.

Western Australian- moves from south to north along the western coast of Australia. As you get closer to the equator, the water temperature rises from 15°C to 26°C. Speed: 0.9-0.7 km/h.

Underwater world of the Indian Ocean

Most of the ocean is located in the subtropical and tropical zones, and therefore is rich and diverse in terms of species.

The coast of the tropics is represented by vast thickets of mangroves, home to numerous colonies of crabs and amazing fish - mudskippers. Shallow waters are a great habitat for corals. And in temperate waters, brown, calcareous and red algae (kelp, macrocysts, fucuses) grow.

Invertebrates: numerous mollusks, a huge number of species of crustaceans, jellyfish. Lots of sea snakes, especially venomous ones.

Sharks of the Indian Ocean are a special pride of the water area. The largest number of shark species live here: blue, gray, tiger, great white, mako, etc.

Of the mammals, dolphins and killer whales are the most common. And the southern part of the ocean is natural environment habitats of many species of whales and pinnipeds: dugongs, seals, seals. Most of the birds are penguins and albatrosses.

Despite the richness of the Indian Ocean, the seafood industry is poorly developed here. The catch is only 5% of the world. They harvest tuna, sardines, rays, lobsters, lobsters and shrimp.

Indian Ocean exploration

Coastal countries of the Indian Ocean - pockets ancient civilizations. That is why the development of the water area began much earlier than, for example, the Atlantic or the Pacific Ocean. Approximately 6 thousand years BC. the waters of the ocean were already plowed by shuttles and boats of ancient people. The inhabitants of Mesopotamia sailed to the shores of India and Arabia, the Egyptians carried on a lively maritime trade with the countries of East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.

Key dates in the history of ocean exploration:

7th century AD - Arab sailors draw up detailed navigational charts of the coastal zones of the Indian Ocean, explore the water area near the eastern coast of Africa, India, the islands of Java, Ceylon, Timor, and the Maldives.

1405-1433 - Zheng He's seven sea voyages and exploration of trade routes in the northern and eastern parts of the ocean.

1497 - Vasco de Gama sails and explores the east coast of Africa.

(Expedition of Vasco de Gama in 1497)

1642 - two raids by A. Tasman, exploration of the central part of the ocean and the discovery of Australia.

1872-1876 - the first scientific expedition of the English corvette "Challenger", the study of the biology of the ocean, relief, currents.

1886-1889 - expedition of Russian explorers led by S. Makarov.

1960-1965 - International Indian Ocean Expedition, established under the auspices of UNESCO. The study of hydrology, hydrochemistry, geology and biology of the ocean.

1990s - present: studying the ocean with the help of satellites, compiling a detailed bathymetric atlas.

2014 - after the crash of the Malaysian Boeing, detailed mapping of the southern part of the ocean was carried out, new underwater ridges and volcanoes were discovered.

The ancient name of the ocean is Eastern.

Many species of wildlife in the Indian Ocean have an unusual property - they glow. In particular, this explains the appearance of luminous circles in the ocean.

In the Indian Ocean, ships are periodically found in good condition, however, where the entire crew disappears remains a mystery. Over the past century, this has happened to three ships at once: the ship "Cabin Cruiser", the tankers "Houston Market" and "Tarbon".

Our planet is luxurious in every way: a huge variety of vegetation, an incalculable richness of the animal world and an endless abundance of aquatic life. All this and much more is contained on our most beautiful Earth.

Surely everyone knows that there are four vast oceans on our planet. All of them are great in their own way. The Pacific, for example, is the largest, the Atlantic is salty, the Arctic is cold, and the Indian is the warmest. It is to the latter that we will devote our article.

Did you know that the Indian Ocean is considered the third largest? Its area is no less than 76.17 million km, which is 20% of the entire globe. So what secrets does our enigmatic hero keep? Let's find out below.

General information about the location

In the north the ocean washes mysterious Asia, in the east - adventurous Australia, in the west - sunny Africa, and in the south - frosty Antarctica. At 30 about the meridian of northern latitude, the most high point Indian Ocean. It is located in the Persian Gulf. At 20 about the meridian of eastern longitude, the border with the Atlantic Ocean passes, with the Pacific - at 146 about 55 of the same longitude. The length of the Indian Ocean is 100,000 km.

A few words about history

Some areas of ancient civilizations were located precisely on the banks of our hero. Researchers claim that one of the very first voyages was carried out on the waters of the Indian Ocean, about 6 thousand years ago. Arab sailors described the ocean route in detail. The first geographical information appeared in the 90s of the 15th century, during the lifetime of Vasco de Gama himself, who was the first in history to overcome the path from Europe to India. It was he who spoke about the innumerable water beauties provided by the Indian Ocean.

The depth of the ocean was first measured by the world-famous navigator James Cook, famous for his round the world expeditions and numerous discoveries in the field of geography. In the 19th century, members of one of the famous English expeditions began to study the ocean in all respects.

Which countries border the Indian Ocean?

This giant washes a huge number of states, both mainland and island.

Mainland countries of the Indian Ocean:

Australia;

Thailand;

Saudi Arabia;

Indonesia;

Pakistan;

Malaysia;

Mozambique;

Bangladesh;

Island countries of the Indian Ocean:

Mauritius;

Maldives;

Sri Lanka;

Madagascar;

Seychelles.

Here is such a vast Indian Ocean.

ocean depth

The Indian Ocean has five seas. They form the depth and area of ​​our hero. For example, the Arabian Sea is one of the deepest in the Indian Ocean. A significant point is located on the mid-ocean ridge, in its center, where the rift valley is located. The depth above it is nothing less than 3600 m. The deepest point of the Indian Ocean is located near the island of Java, in the Java Depression, and is 7455 m. Unlike the Pacific Ocean, this is small, because its maximum depth is 11022 m. ( Mariana Trench).

Climate of the Indian Ocean

Most of the ocean lies in the tropical, equatorial and subequatorial zones, only its southern region is located in high latitudes.

The climate is represented by monsoons and seasonal winds in the northern part of the ocean. There are two seasons in this area: a warm, calm winter and a hot, rainy, cloudy, stormy summer. Closer to the south is dominated by the southeast trade wind. In temperate latitudes, a strong westerly wind constantly dominates. The maximum amount of precipitation is observed in (about 3000 mm per year). The minimum - off the coast of the Red Sea, Arabia, in the Persian Gulf.

Salinity

The maximum salinity of the surface waters of the Indian Ocean is in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf (41%). Also, a fairly high salinity coefficient is observed in the southern tropics in the eastern part. As we move towards the Bay of Bengal, the figures decrease significantly - up to 34%.

The increase in the salinity coefficient largely depends on precipitation and evaporation.

The minimum indicators are typical for the territory of Antarctic waters. As a rule, this coefficient in this area is affected by the melting of glaciers.

Temperature

The temperature of the Indian Ocean on the surface of the water is +29 o C. This is the highest figure. Less observed off the African coast, where the Somali current lies - + 22-23 ° C. At the equator, the average surface water temperature is + 26-28 ° C. If you move further south, it reaches -1 ° C (off the coast of Antarctica).

Icebergs also contribute to temperature changes, which in rare cases swim into the territory of southern latitudes.

As seen, average temperature The Indian Ocean is generally high, which is why our hero was awarded the title of "the warmest ocean in the world."

gulfs

The Indian Ocean has 19 bays (3 of them belong to the Red Sea):

Bays of the Indian Ocean of the Red Sea

1. Aqaba. IN last years acquired a resort value. Length - 175 km, width - 29 km. The west coast belongs to Egypt, the east - to Saudi Arabia, the north - to Jordan and Israel.
2. Makadi. It attracts tourists with its amazing coral shores. It is a bay stretching for 30 km along the coast of the Red Sea.
3. Separates the Asian Sinai Peninsula from Africa. Length - 290 km, width - 55 km.

Relief

The relief of the Indian Ocean is characterized by the presence at its depth of a ridge called the Indian central range. It stretches along the western coast of Hindustan. On average, the depth above it is 3.5 km. In some places it decreases and is already about 2.4 km. After that, the ridge forks. The first branch goes east and reaches the territory of the Pacific Ocean, almost touching Antarctica, and ends at the Australo-Antarctic Rise, the depth above which is 3.5 km.

Another branch goes to Antarctica to the south and ends with a ridge called Karguelen-Gausberg, the minimum depth over which is 0.5 km, the maximum is 2.3 km.

The Central Indian Ridge divides the ocean into two parts of different size: western and eastern. On the eastern territory there is the Indian-Australian and South Australian basins, the depths above which vary from 500 to 7455 m. In the northeastern part of the Indian-Australian basin there is the most deep depression, which is located in the Indian Ocean. The depth of the ocean, more precisely, its maximum point, is located near (7455 m).

The bottom of the Indian Ocean in the western relief part differs significantly from the eastern part, it is more complex in its structure. This is explained by the fact that on the latter quite often there is a significant increase in the bottom (due to this, in most cases small islands are formed) and an uneven arrangement of basins.

To the north of the island of Madagascar is a basin called the Somali, the depth above which is 5.2 km. South of the island there is a plateau called Crozet, surrounded on all sides by hollows. The depth above it is 2.5 km. If you move to the northeast, the Central Indian Basin appears. The depth above it is 5.5 km. Between Madagascar and Crozet, a little to the north, there is a hollow called Madagascar with a depth of 5.78 km. To the south - a basin belonging to Cape Agulhas, the depth above which is 5.5 km. The relief of the Indian Ocean in the direction of the Antarctic is characterized by the presence of bottom subsidence. The depth over this area reaches 5.8 km.

Flora and fauna

The nature of the Indian Ocean is diverse and very interesting. Animals and plants that are accustomed to regular droughts and floods live here.

Many tropical shores of the Indian Ocean are represented by mangroves, or rhizophores. Of the animals in this area, numerous varieties of crabs live. A fish called mudskipper inhabits almost the entire territory of the mangrove region of the Indian Ocean.

In shallow areas of tropical waters, corals have taken root with fish and numerous invertebrates living on them.

In temperate zones, brown, blue-green grow and most of them are kelp, microcystis and fucus. Among the phytoplankton, diatoms predominate, and in the tropical zones - peridinea.

The most famous crayfish, which are more prevalent in the Indian Ocean, are copepods. Now there are more than 20 thousand species. In second place among the animals living in this ocean are jellyfish and squid. Among the fish known are tuna, sailboats, dolphins and light anchovies.

Loved the territory of the ocean and dangerous species animals. Sharks, crocodiles and venomous snakes regularly intimidate the locals.

Mammals in the Indian Ocean are dominated by dolphins, whales, dugongs and fur seals. The birds are penguins, albatrosses and frigatebirds.

Pool

The Indian Ocean basin is quite diverse. It includes African rivers - Zambezi and Limpopo; the largest Asian rivers are the Irrawaddy, Salween; Euphrates and Tigris, which merge with each other just above the confluence with the Persian Gulf; The Indus flows into the Arabian Sea.

Fishing and marine industry

The coastal population has been engaged in economic activities for a long time. To this day, fishing and seafood is of great importance for the economy of many countries that are washed by the Indian Ocean. The depth of the ocean provides rich gifts to people, for example, in Sri Lanka, in the north-west of Australia and in the Bahrain Islands, there is an intensive mining of mother-of-pearl and pearls.

Near Antarctica, people are actively engaged in whaling, and near the equator, tuna fishing is carried out.

The Persian Gulf contains rich sources of oil, both onshore and underwater.

Environmental problems of the Indian Ocean

Human activity has led to horrendous consequences. The waters of the ocean have become significantly polluted, which gradually leads to the extinction of some species. marine life. For example, several varieties of cetaceans at the end of the 20th century were under the threat of complete extinction. The number of sei whales and sperm whales has been greatly reduced.

In the 80s of the 20th century, the Whaling Commission introduced a complete ban on hunting them. Violation of the moratorium was strictly punished by law. But in 2010, under the influence of countries such as Japan, Denmark, Iceland, the ban, unfortunately, was canceled.

A great danger for marine life is the pollution of ocean waters with oil products, all kinds of waste from the nuclear industry and heavy metals. Also, the paths of oil tankers pass through the ocean, which deliver oil from the Persian Gulf to European countries. If an accident occurs suddenly on such a transport, it will lead to the mass death of underwater inhabitants.

Studying geography is quite interesting, especially when it comes to sea ​​beauties and inhabitants. The 7th grade of a comprehensive school studies the Indian Ocean in the most detail. Children enthusiastically listen to everything that the teacher tells about this beautiful and mysterious giant, which is teeming with a variety of vegetation and the richness of the animal world.

Less extensive than Quiet and. Its area is 76 million km2. This ocean is widest in the Southern Hemisphere, and in the Northern Hemisphere it looks like a large sea, deeply cutting into the land. Exactly major sea the Indian Ocean was presented to people from ancient times up to.

The shores of the Indian Ocean are one of the areas of ancient civilizations. Scientists believe that navigation in it began earlier than in other oceans, about 6 thousand years ago. The Arabs were the first to describe ocean routes. The accumulation of information about the Indian Ocean began from the time of the voyage (1497-1499). At the end of the 18th century, the first measurements of its depths were made by English navigator. A comprehensive study of the ocean began at the end of the 19th century. The largest studies were carried out by the British expedition on board the Challenger. Nowadays, dozens of expeditions from different countries are studying the nature of the ocean, revealing its riches.

The average depth of the ocean is about 3700 meters, and the maximum reaches 7729 meters in the Yavan Trench. An underwater ridge stretches in the western part of the ocean, connecting to the south with the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Deep faults, areas and at the bottom of the ocean are confined to the center of the ridge in the Indian Ocean. These faults continue into and out on land. The ocean floor is crossed by numerous uplifts.

Location: The Indian Ocean is bounded from the north by Eurasia, from the west by the east coast of Africa, from the east by the western coast of Oceania and from the south by the waters of the South Sea, the border of the Atlantic and Indian oceans runs along the 20th meridian of east. D., between the Indian and Pacific Oceans - along the 147th meridian of E. d.

Square: 74.7 million km2

Average depth: 3 967 m.

Maximum depth: 7729 m (Zonda, or Yavansky, trench).

: from 30‰ to 37‰.

Additional Information : in the Indian Ocean there are islands, Sri Lanka, Socotra, Laccadive, Maldives, Andaman and Nicobar, Comoros, and some others.

INDIAN OCEAN, the third largest ocean on Earth (after the Pacific and Atlantic), part of the World Ocean. Located between Africa in the northwest, Asia in the north, Australia in the east and Antarctica in the south.

Physical-geographical sketch

General information. The border of the Indian Ocean in the west (with the Atlantic Ocean south of Africa) is drawn along the meridian of Cape Agulhas (20 ° east longitude) to the coast of Antarctica (Queen Maud Land), in the east (with the Pacific Ocean south of Australia) - along the eastern border of the Bass Strait to the island of Tasmania , and then along the meridian 146 ° 55' east longitude to Antarctica, in the northeast (with the Pacific basin) - between the Andaman Sea and the Strait of Malacca, further along the southwestern shores of the island of Sumatra, the Sunda Strait, the southern coast of the island of Java, the southern the borders of the Bali and Savu Seas, the northern border of the Arafura Sea, the southwestern shores of New Guinea and the western border of the Torres Strait. The southern high-latitude part of the Indian Ocean is sometimes referred to as the Southern Ocean, which combines the Antarctic sectors of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. However, such geographical nomenclature is not universally recognized, and, as a rule, the Indian Ocean is considered within its usual boundaries. The Indian Ocean is the only one of the oceans that is located mostly in the Southern Hemisphere and is limited in the north by a powerful landmass. Unlike other oceans, its mid-ocean ridges form three branches, diverging in different directions from the central part of the ocean.

The area of ​​the Indian Ocean with seas, bays and straits is 76.17 million km 2, the volume of water is 282.65 million km 3, the average depth is 3711 m (2nd place after the Pacific Ocean); without them - 64.49 million km 2, 255.81 million km 3, 3967 m. The greatest depth in the deep-water Sunda Trench is 7729 m at 11 ° 10 'south latitude and 114 ° 57 ' east longitude. The shelf zone of the ocean (conditionally depths up to 200 m) occupies 6.1% of its area, the continental slope (from 200 to 3000 m) 17.1%, the bed (over 3000 m) 76.8%. See map.

Seas. There are almost three times fewer seas, bays and straits in the Indian Ocean than in the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean, they are mainly concentrated in its northern part. Seas of the tropical zone: Mediterranean - Red; marginal - Arabian, Laccadive, Andaman, Timor, Arafura; Antarctic zone: marginal - Davis, D'Urville, Cosmonauts, Riiser-Larsen, Commonwealth (see separate articles about the seas). The largest bays: Bengal, Persian, Aden, Oman, Great Australian, Carpentaria, Prydz. Straits: Mozambique, Babel Mandeb, Bass, Hormuz, Malacca, Polk, Tenth Degree, Great Channel.

Islands. Unlike other oceans, the islands are few in number. The total area is about 2 million km2. Most major islands mainland origin - Socotra, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, Tasmania, Sumatra, Java, Timor. Volcanic islands: Reunion, Mauritius, Prince Edward, Crozet, Kerguelen and others; coral - Laccadive, Maldivian, Amirant, Chagos, Nicobar, most of the Andaman, Seychelles; coral Comoros, Mascarene, Cocos and other islands rise on volcanic cones.

coast. The Indian Ocean is relatively indented coastline with the exception of the northern and northeastern parts, where most of the seas and the main large bays; there are few convenient bays. The shores of Africa in the western part of the ocean are alluvial, poorly dissected, often surrounded coral reefs; in the northwestern part - indigenous. In the north, low, slightly dissected coasts with lagoons and sand bars, places with mangroves, bordered by coastal lowlands (Malabar coast, Coromandel coast) prevail, abrasion-accumulative (Konkan coast) and deltaic coasts are also common. In the east, the shores are indigenous, in Antarctica they are covered with glaciers descending to the sea, ending in ice cliffs several tens of meters high.

Bottom relief. In the topography of the bottom of the Indian Ocean, four main elements of geotecture are distinguished: the underwater margins of the continents (including the shelf and the continental slope), transitional zones, or zones of island arcs, the ocean floor, and mid-ocean ridges. The area of ​​the underwater margins of the continents in the Indian Ocean is 17660 thousand km2. The underwater margin of Africa is characterized by a narrow shelf (from 2 to 40 km), its edge is located at a depth of 200-300 m. Only near the southern tip of the mainland, the shelf expands significantly and in the region of the Agulhas plateau extends up to 250 km from the coast. Significant areas of the shelf are occupied by coral structures. The transition from the shelf to the continental slope is expressed by a clear inflection of the bottom surface and a rapid increase in its slope up to 10-15°. The underwater margin of Asia off the coast of the Arabian Peninsula also has a narrow shelf, gradually expanding on the Malabar coast of Hindustan and off the coast of the Bay of Bengal, while the depth at its outer border increases from 100 to 500 m. 4200 m, Sri Lanka). The shelf and the continental slope in some areas are cut by several narrow and deep canyons, the most pronounced canyons, which are underwater continuations of the channels of the Ganges rivers (together with the Brahmaputra River, it annually carries out into the ocean about 1200 million tons of suspended and entrained sediments, which formed a layer of sediments over 3500 m thick ) and Ind. The underwater margin of Australia is distinguished by an extensive shelf, especially in the northern and northwestern parts; in the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Arafura Sea up to 900 km wide; the greatest depth is 500 m. The continental slope to the west of Australia is complicated by underwater ledges and separate underwater plateaus ( highest altitude 3600 m, Aru Islands). On the underwater margin of Antarctica, everywhere there are traces of the influence of the ice load of a huge glacier covering the mainland. The shelf here belongs to a special glacial type. Its outer boundary almost coincides with the 500 m isobath. The width of the shelf is from 35 to 250 km. The continental slope is complicated by longitudinal and transverse ridges, separate ridges, valleys and deep trenches. At the foot of the continental slope, almost everywhere there is an accumulative plume composed of terrigenous material brought by glaciers. The largest slopes of the bottom are noted in the upper part; with increasing depth, the slope gradually flattens out.

The transition zone at the bottom of the Indian Ocean is distinguished only in the area adjacent to the arc of the Sunda Islands, and represents the southeastern part of the Indonesian transition region. It includes: the basin of the Andaman Sea, the island arc of the Sunda Islands and deep-sea trenches. The most morphologically expressed in this zone is the deep-water Sunda Trench with slopes of 30° or more. Relatively small deep-sea trenches stand out southeast of Timor Island and east of the Kai Islands, but due to the thick sedimentary layer, their maximum depths are relatively small - 3310 m (Timor Trench) and 3680 m (Kai Trench). The transition zone is extremely seismically active.

The mid-ocean ridges of the Indian Ocean form three submarine mountain ranges, diverging from the area with coordinates 22 ° south latitude and 68 ° east longitude to the northwest, southwest and southeast. Each of the three branches is divided according to morphological features into two independent ridges: the northwestern one - into the Middle Aden Ridge and the Arabian-Indian Ridge, the southwestern one - into the West Indian Ridge and the African-Antarctic Ridge, the southeastern one - into the Central the Indian Ridge and the Australo-Antarctic Rise. Thus, the median ridges divide the bed of the Indian Ocean into three large sectors. The median ridges are vast uplifts fragmented by transform faults into separate blocks with a total length of over 16 thousand km, the foot of which are located at depths of about 5000-3500 m. The relative height of the ridges is 4700-2000 m, the width is 500-800 km, the depth of the rift valleys is up to 2300 m .

In each of the three sectors of the ocean floor of the Indian Ocean, characteristic relief forms are distinguished: basins, individual ridges, plateaus, mountains, trenches, canyons, etc. In the western sector, the largest basins are: Somali (with depths of 3000-5800 m), -5300 m), Mozambique (4000-6000 m), Madagascar Basin (4500-6400 m), Agulhas (4000-5000 m); underwater ridges: Mascarene Ridge, Madagascar, Mozambique; Plateau: Agulhas, Mozambique Plateau; separate mountains: Equator, Africana, Vernadsky, Hall, Bardin, Kurchatov; Amirant Trench, Mauritius Trench; canyons: Zambezi, Tanganyika and Tagela. In the northeastern sector, basins are distinguished: Arabian (4000-5000 m), Central (5000-6000 m), Cocos (5000-6000 m), North Australian (5000-5500 m), West Australian basin (5000-6500 m), Naturalista (5000-6000 m) and the South Australian Basin (5000-5500 m); underwater ranges: Maldives Ridge, East Indian Ridge, West Australian; Cuvier mountain range; Exmouth Plateau; upland Mill; separate mountains: Moscow State University, Shcherbakov and Afanasy Nikitin; East Indian Trench; canyons: rivers Indus, Ganges, Seatown and Murray. In the Antarctic sector - basins: Crozet (4500-5000 m), African-Antarctic basin (4000-5000 m) and Australo-Antarctic basin (4000-5000 m); plateau: Kerguelen, Crozet and Amsterdam; separate mountains: Lena and Ob. The shapes and sizes of the basins are different: from round ones with a diameter of about 400 km (Komorskaya) to oblong giants 5500 km long (Central), the degree of their isolation and the bottom topography are different: from flat or gently undulating to hilly and even mountainous.

Geological structure. The peculiarity of the Indian Ocean is that its formation occurred both as a result of the split and subsidence of continental masses, and as a result of the expansion of the bottom and the neoformation of the oceanic crust within the mid-ocean (spreading) ridges, the system of which was repeatedly rebuilt. The modern system of mid-ocean ridges consists of three branches, converging at the point of the triple junction of Rodriguez. In the northern branch, the Arabian-Indian Ridge continues to the northwest of the Owen transform fault zone with the rift systems of the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea and connects with the inland rift systems. East Africa. In the southeastern branch, the Central Indian Ridge and the Australo-Antarctic Rise are separated by the Amsterdam Fault Zone, with which the plateau of the same name is connected with the volcanic islands of Amsterdam and St. Paul. The Arabian-Indian and Central Indian ridges are slow-spreading (the spreading rate is 2-2.5 cm/year), have a well-defined rift valley, and are crossed by numerous transform faults. The wide Australo-Antarctic Rise does not have a pronounced rift valley; spreading rate on it is higher than in other ridges (3.7-7.6 cm/year). South of Australia, the uplift is broken by the Australo-Antarctic fault zone, where the number of transform faults increases and the spreading axis shifts along the faults to the south. The ridges of the southwestern branch are narrow, with a deep rift valley, and are densely crossed by transform faults oriented at an angle to the strike of the ridge. They are characterized by a very low spreading rate (about 1.5 cm/year). The West Indian Ridge is separated from the African-Antarctic Ridge by the Prince Edward, Du Toit, Andrew Bain and Marion faults, which shift the axis of the ridge almost 1000 km to the south. The age of the oceanic crust within the spreading ridges is predominantly Oligocene-Quaternary. The West Indian Ridge, which intrudes into the structures of the Central Indian Ridge as a narrow wedge, is considered the youngest.

The spreading ridges divide the ocean floor into three sectors - the African in the west, the Asian-Australian in the northeast, and the Antarctic in the south. Within the sectors there are various types of intra-oceanic uplift, represented by "aseismic" ridges, plateaus and islands. Tectonic (blocky) uplifts have a block structure with different thicknesses of the crust; often include continental remnants. Volcanic uplifts are mainly associated with fault zones. Uplifts are natural boundaries deep sea basins. The African sector is distinguished by the predominance of fragments of continental structures (including microcontinents), within which the thickness of the earth's crust reaches 17-40 km (the Agulhas and Mozambique plateaus, the Madagascar ridge with the island of Madagascar, individual blocks of the Mascarene plateau with the bank of the Seychelles and the bank of Saya de -Malya). Volcanic uplifts and structures include the Comoros underwater ridge, crowned with archipelagos of coral and volcanic islands, Amirante Range, Reunion Islands, Mauritius, Tromelin, Farquhar massif. In the western part of the African sector of the Indian Ocean ( West Side the Somali Basin, the northern part of the Mozambique Basin), adjacent to the eastern submarine margin of Africa, the age of the earth's crust is predominantly Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous; in the central part of the sector (Mascarene and Madagascar basins) - Late Cretaceous; in the northeastern part of the sector (eastern part of the Somali Basin) - Paleocene-Eocene. Ancient spreading axes and transform faults crossing them have been identified in the Somali and Mascarene basins.

The northwestern (Asian) part of the Asian-Australian sector is characterized by meridional "aseismic" ridges of a block structure with an increased thickness of the oceanic crust, the formation of which is associated with a system of ancient transform faults. These include the Maldives Ridge, crowned with archipelagos of coral islands - Laccadive, Maldives and Chagos; the so-called 79° ridge, the Lanka ridge with Mount Athanasius Nikitin, the East Indian (the so-called 90° ridge), Investigator, etc. Thick (8-10 km) sediments of the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers in the northern Indian Ocean partially overlap in this direction, the ridges, as well as the structures of the transition zone of the Indian Ocean - the southeastern outskirts of Asia. The Murri Range in the northern part of the Arabian Basin, which limits the Oman Basin from the south, is a continuation of the folded land structures; enters the Owen Fault Zone. To the south of the equator, a sublatitudinal zone of intraplate deformations up to 1000 km wide was revealed, which is characterized by high seismicity. It stretches in the Central and Coconut basins from the Maldives Range to the Sunda Trench. The Arabian Basin is underlain by the crust of the Paleocene-Eocene age, the Central Basin - by the crust of the Late Cretaceous - Eocene age; the bark is the youngest in the southern part of the basins. In the Coconut Basin, the age of the crust varies from Late Cretaceous in the south to Eocene in the north; an ancient spreading axis was established in its northwestern part, separating the Indian and Australian lithospheric plates until the middle Eocene. The Cocos Rise, a latitudinal uplift with numerous seamounts and islands (including the Cocos Islands) rising above it, and the Ru Rise, adjacent to the Sunda Trench, separate the southeastern (Australian) part of the Asian-Australian sector. The West Australian basin (Wharton) in the central part of the Asian-Australian sector of the Indian Ocean is underlain in the northwest by the Late Cretaceous crust, in the east by the Late Jurassic. Submerged continental blocks (marginal plateaus of Exmouth, Cuvier, Zenith, Naturalist) divide the eastern part of the basin into separate depressions - Cuvier (north of the Cuvier plateau), Perth (north of the Naturalist plateau). The crust of the North Australian Basin (Argo) is the most ancient in the south (Late Jurassic); becomes younger in a northerly direction (to the early Cretaceous). The age of the crust of the South Australian Basin is Late Cretaceous - Eocene. The Broken Plateau is an intra-oceanic uplift with an increased (from 12 to 20 km, according to various sources) crustal thickness.

In the Antarctic sector of the Indian Ocean, there are mainly volcanic intra-oceanic uplifts with an increased thickness of the earth's crust: the Kerguelen Plateau, Crozet (Del Cano) and Conrad. Within the limits of the largest plateau Kerguelen, supposedly laid down on an ancient transform fault, the thickness of the earth's crust (according to some data, the Early Cretaceous age) reaches 23 km. Towering above the plateau, the Kerguelen Islands are a multiphase volcanoplutonic structure (composed of alkaline basalts and syenites of the Neogene age). On Heard Island - Neogene-Quaternary alkaline volcanic rocks. In the western part of the sector, there are the Konrad Plateau with the Ob and Lena volcanic mountains, as well as the Crozet Plateau with a group of volcanic islands Marion, Prince Edward, Crozet, composed of Quaternary basalts and intrusive massifs of syenites and monzonites. The age of the earth's crust within the African-Antarctic, Australo-Antarctic basins and the Crozet basin is Late Cretaceous - Eocene.

The Indian Ocean is characterized by the predominance of passive margins (the continental margins of Africa, the Arabian and Hindustan peninsulas, Australia, and Antarctica). The active margin is observed in the northeastern part of the ocean (the Sunda zone of the Indian Ocean-Southeast Asia transition), where subduction (underthrust) of the ocean lithosphere occurs under the Sunda island arc. The subduction zone limited in length - Makranskaya - was identified in the northwestern part of the Indian Ocean. Along the Agulhas Plateau, the Indian Ocean borders the African continent along a transform fault.

The formation of the Indian Ocean began in the middle of the Mesozoic during the breakup of the Gondwana part (see Gondwana) of the Patea supercontinent, which was preceded by continental rifting during the Late Triassic - Early Cretaceous. The formation of the first sections of the oceanic crust as a result of the separation of continental plates began in the Late Jurassic in the Somali (about 155 million years ago) and North Australian (151 million years ago) basins. In the Late Cretaceous, the bottom expansion and the neoformation of the oceanic crust experienced the northern part of the Mozambique Basin (140-127 million years ago). The separation of Australia from Hindustan and Antarctica, accompanied by the opening of basins with oceanic crust, began in the Early Cretaceous (about 134 million years ago and about 125 million years ago, respectively). Thus, in the early Cretaceous (about 120 million years ago), narrow oceanic basins arose, cutting into the supercontinent and dividing it into separate blocks. In the middle of the Cretaceous period (about 100 million years ago), the ocean floor began to grow intensively between Hindustan and Antarctica, which led to the drift of Hindustan in a northerly direction. In the time interval of 120-85 million years ago, the spreading axes that existed to the north and west of Australia, off the coast of Antarctica and in the Mozambique Channel, died off. In the Late Cretaceous (90-85 million years ago), a split began between Hindustan with the Mascarene-Seychelles block and Madagascar, which was accompanied by bottom spreading in the Mascarene, Madagascar and Crozet basins, as well as the formation of the Australo-Antarctic Rise. At the turn of the Cretaceous and Paleogene, Hindustan separated from the Mascarene-Seychelles block; the Arabian-Indian spreading ridge arose; spreading axes died off in the Mascarene and Madagascar basins. In the middle of the Eocene, the Indian lithospheric plate merged with the Australian one; the still developing system of mid-ocean ridges was formed. The Indian Ocean acquired a close to modern appearance at the beginning - middle of the Miocene. In the middle of the Miocene (about 15 million years ago), during the breakup of the Arabian and African plates, a new formation of oceanic crust began in the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea.

Recent tectonic movements in the Indian Ocean have been noted in mid-ocean ridges (associated with shallow-focus earthquakes), as well as in individual transform faults. The area of ​​intense seismicity is the Sunda island arc, where deep-focus earthquakes are due to the presence of a seismofocal zone plunging northward. eastbound. During earthquakes on the northeastern margin of the Indian Ocean, the formation of a tsunami is possible.

Bottom sediments. The rate of sedimentation in the Indian Ocean is generally lower than in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The thickness of modern bottom sediments varies from discontinuous distribution on mid-ocean ridges to several hundred meters in deep-water basins and 5000-8000 m at the foot of continental slopes. The most widespread are calcareous (mainly foraminiferal-coccolithic) muds covering over 50% of the ocean floor area (on continental slopes, ridges and the bottom of basins at depths up to 4700 m) in warm oceanic regions from 20° north latitude to 40° south latitude from high biological productivity of waters. Polygenic sediments - red deep oceanic clays - occupy 25% of the bottom area at depths of more than 4700 m in the eastern and southeastern parts ocean from 10° north latitude to 40° south latitude and in areas of the bottom remote from islands and continents; in the tropics, red clays alternate with siliceous radiolarian silts that cover the bottom of deep-water basins of the equatorial belt. In deep-sea sediments, ferromanganese nodules are present as inclusions. Siliceous, mainly diatomaceous, oozes occupy about 20% of the bottom of the Indian Ocean; extended to great depths south of 50° south latitude. The accumulation of terrigenous sediments (pebbles, gravel, sands, silts, clays) occurs mainly along the coasts of the continents and within their underwater margins in the areas of river and iceberg runoff, significant wind removal of material. Sediments covering the African shelf are mainly of shell and coral origin; phosphorite concretions are widely developed in the southern part. Along the northwestern periphery of the Indian Ocean, as well as in the Andaman Basin and in the Sunda Trench, bottom sediments are mainly represented by deposits of turbidity (turbid) flows - turbidites with the participation of products of volcanic activity, underwater landslides, landslides, etc. Sediments of coral reefs are widespread in the western parts of the Indian Ocean from 20 ° south latitude to 15 ° north latitude, and in the Red Sea - up to 30 ° north latitude. IN rift valley Outcrops of metal-bearing brines with temperatures up to 70°C and salinity up to 300‰ have been found in the Red Sea. In the metal-bearing sediments formed from these brines, the content of non-ferrous and rare metals is high. On continental slopes, seamounts, mid-ocean ridges, outcrops of bedrocks (basalts, serpentinites, peridotites) are noted. Bottom sediments around Antarctica stand out as a special type of iceberg deposits. They are characterized by the predominance of various clastic material, ranging from large boulders to silts and fine silts.

Climate. Unlike the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, which have a meridional strike from the coast of Antarctica to the Arctic Circle and communicate with the Arctic Ocean, the Indian Ocean in the northern tropical region is bordered by a land mass, which largely determines the characteristics of its climate. The uneven heating of the land and ocean leads to a seasonal change in the vast minima and maxima of atmospheric pressure and to seasonal displacements of the tropical atmospheric front, which retreats southward to almost 10 ° south latitude in the winter of the Northern Hemisphere, and is located in the foothill regions of southern Asia in summer. As a result, over northern part The Indian Ocean is dominated by a monsoon climate, which is primarily characterized by a change in wind direction during the year. The winter monsoon with relatively weak (3-4 m/s) and stable northeasterly winds operates from November to March. During this period, north of 10 ° south latitude, calms are not uncommon. The summer monsoon with southwesterly winds is observed from May to September. In the northern tropical region and in the equatorial zone of the ocean, the average wind speed reaches 8-9 m/s, often reaching storm strength. In April and October, the baric field is usually restructured, and in these months the wind situation is unstable. Against the background of the prevailing monsoonal atmospheric circulation over the northern part of the Indian Ocean, individual manifestations of cyclonic activity are possible. During the winter monsoon, there are cases of cyclones developing over the Arabian Sea, during the summer monsoon - over the waters of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Strong cyclones in these areas are sometimes formed during the periods of monsoon change.

At about 30° south latitude in the central part of the Indian Ocean, there is a stable area of ​​high pressure, the so-called South Indian High. This stationary anticyclone, an integral part of the southern subtropical high pressure region, persists all year round. The pressure at its center varies from 1024 hPa in July to 1020 hPa in January. Under the influence of this anticyclone, in the latitudinal band between 10 and 30 ° south latitude, stable southeast trade winds blow throughout the year.

South of 40° South latitude, atmospheric pressure in all seasons decreases uniformly from 1018-1016 hPa at the southern periphery of the South Indian High to 988 hPa at 60° South latitude. Under the influence of the meridional pressure gradient in the lower layer of the atmosphere, a stable westerly transport of air is maintained. The highest average wind speed (up to 15 m/s) is observed in the middle of winter in the Southern Hemisphere. For the higher southern latitudes of the Indian Ocean, storm conditions are typical throughout almost the entire year, under which winds with speeds of more than 15 m/s, causing waves with a height of more than 5 m, have a frequency of 30%. South of 60° south latitude along the coast of Antarctica are commonly observed east winds and two to three cyclones per year, most often in July - August.

In July, the highest air temperatures in the near layer of the atmosphere are observed at the top of the Persian Gulf (up to 34°C), the lowest - off the coast of Antarctica (-20°C), over the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, on average 26-28°C. Over the water area of ​​the Indian Ocean, the air temperature changes almost everywhere in accordance with the geographical latitude.

In the southern part of the Indian Ocean, it gradually decreases from north to south by about 1°C for every 150 km. In January, the highest air temperatures (26-28°C) are observed in the equatorial zone, near the northern coasts of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal - about 20°C. In the southern part of the ocean, the temperature drops evenly from 26°C in the Southern Tropic to 0°C and somewhat lower at the latitude of the Antarctic Circle. The amplitude of annual fluctuations in air temperature over most of the Indian Ocean is on average less than 10°C, and only off the coast of Antarctica increases to 16°C.

The greatest amount of precipitation per year falls in the Bay of Bengal (over 5500 mm) and off the eastern coast of the island of Madagascar (over 3500 mm). In the northern coastal part of the Arabian Sea, the least amount of precipitation falls (100-200 mm per year).

The northeastern regions of the Indian Ocean are located in seismically active areas. The eastern coast of Africa and the island of Madagascar, the coasts of the Arabian Peninsula and the Hindustan Peninsula, almost all island archipelagos of volcanic origin, the western coasts of Australia, especially the arc of the Sunda Islands, in the past were repeatedly exposed to tsunami waves of various strengths, up to catastrophic ones. In 1883, after the explosion of the Krakatoa volcano in the Jakarta region, a tsunami with a wave height of over 30 m was recorded, in 2004 a tsunami caused by an earthquake in the region of Sumatra had catastrophic consequences.

hydrological regime. Seasonality in changes in hydrological characteristics (primarily temperature and currents) is most clearly manifested in the northern part of the ocean. The summer hydrological season here corresponds to the time of the southwest monsoon (May - September), the winter - the northeast monsoon (November - March). A feature of the seasonal variability of the hydrological regime is that the restructuring of the hydrological fields is somewhat late relative to the meteorological fields.

Water temperature. In the winter of the Northern Hemisphere, the highest water temperatures in the surface layer are observed in the equatorial zone - from 27°C off the coast of Africa to 29°C or more east of the Maldives. In the northern regions of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, the water temperature is about 25°C. In the southern part of the Indian Ocean, a zonal distribution of temperature is characteristic everywhere, which gradually decreases from 27-28 ° С at 20 ° south latitude to negative values ​​\u200b\u200bat the edge of drifting ice, located approximately at 65-67 ° south latitude. In the summer season, the highest water temperatures in the surface layer are observed in the Persian Gulf (up to 34°С), in the northwest of the Arabian Sea (up to 30°С), in the eastern part of the equatorial zone (up to 29°С). In the coastal regions of the Somali and Arabian peninsulas, abnormally low values ​​\u200b\u200bare observed at this time of the year (sometimes less than 20 ° C), which is the result of the rise to the surface of cooled deep waters in the Somali Current system. In the southern part of the Indian Ocean, the distribution of water temperature throughout the year retains a zonal character, with the difference that its negative values ​​\u200b\u200bin the winter of the Southern Hemisphere are found much further north, already at about 58-60 ° south latitude. The amplitude of annual fluctuations in water temperature in the surface layer is small and averages 2-5°C, only in the region of the Somali coast and in the Gulf of Oman of the Arabian Sea exceeds 7°C. The water temperature rapidly decreases vertically: at a depth of 250 m, it drops below 15°C almost everywhere, and below 1000 m - below 5°C. At a depth of 2000 m, temperatures above 3°C are observed only in the northern part of the Arabian Sea, in the central regions - about 2.5°C, in the southern part it decreases from 2°C at 50° south latitude to 0°C off the coast of Antarctica. Temperatures in the deepest (over 5000 m) basins range from 1.25°С to 0°С.

The salinity of the surface waters of the Indian Ocean is determined by the balance between the amount of evaporation and the total amount of precipitation and river runoff for each area. The absolute maximum of salinity (over 40‰) is observed in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, in the Arabian Sea everywhere, except for a small area in the southeastern part, salinity is above 35.5‰, in the band of 20-40 ° south latitude - more than 35‰ . The area of ​​low salinity is located in the Bay of Bengal and in the area adjacent to the arc of the Sunda Islands, where fresh river flow is large and the greatest amount of precipitation falls. In the northern part of the Bay of Bengal in February, salinity is 30-31‰, in August - 20‰. An extensive tongue of waters with a salinity of up to 34.5 ‰ at 10 ° south latitude extends from the island of Java to 75 ° east longitude. In Antarctic waters, salinity is everywhere below the average oceanic value: from 33.5‰ in February to 34.0‰ in August, its changes are determined by slight salinization during the formation of sea ice and the corresponding desalination during the period of ice melting. seasonal changes salinity is noticeable only in the upper, 250-meter layer. With increasing depth, not only seasonal fluctuations, but also the spatial variability of salinity fade, deeper than 1000 m it fluctuates between 35-34.5‰.

Density. The highest water density in the Indian Ocean is noted in the Suez and Persian Gulfs (up to 1030 kg / m 3) and in cold Antarctic waters (1027 kg / m 3), the average - in the warmest and most saline waters in the northwest (1024-1024, 5 kg / m 3), the smallest - in the most fresh waters in the northeastern part of the ocean and in the Bay of Bengal (1018-1022 kg / m 3). With depth, mainly due to a decrease in water temperature, its density increases, sharply increasing in the so-called jump layer, which is most pronounced in the equatorial zone of the ocean.

Ice regime. The severity of the climate in the southern part of the Indian Ocean is such that the process of formation of sea ice (at air temperatures below -7 ° C) can occur almost all year round. The maximum development of the ice cover reaches in September - October, when the width of the drifting ice belt reaches 550 km, the smallest - in January - February. The ice cover is characterized by high seasonal variability and its formation is very fast. The ice edge moves to the north at a speed of 5-7 km/day, just as quickly (up to 9 km/day) retreats to the south during the melting period. Fast ice is established annually, reaches an average width of 25-40 km and almost completely melts by February. Drifting ice near the coasts of the mainland moves under the influence of katabatic winds in the general direction to the west and northwest. Near the northern edge, the ice drifts eastward. A characteristic feature of the Antarctic ice cover is a large number of icebergs breaking off from the outlet and ice shelves of Antarctica. Table-shaped icebergs are especially large, which can reach a gigantic length of several tens of meters, towering 40-50 meters above the water. Their number rapidly decreases with distance from the coast of the mainland. The duration of the existence of large icebergs is on average 6 years.

currents. The circulation of surface waters in the northern part of the Indian Ocean is formed under the influence of monsoon winds and therefore changes significantly from summer to winter. In February, from 8° north latitude Nicobar Islands to 2 ° north latitude off the coast of Africa there is a surface winter monsoon current with speeds of 50-80 cm / s; with a core passing approximately along 18 ° south latitude, the South Equatorial Current propagates in the same direction, having average speed on the surface about 30 cm/s. Connecting off the coast of Africa, the waters of these two streams give rise to the Inter-trade countercurrent, which carries its waters to the east with velocities in the core of about 25 cm/s. Along the North African coast with a general direction to the south, the waters of the Somali current move, partially passing into the Intertrade countercurrent, and to the south, the Mozambique and Cape of Needle currents, going south at speeds of about 50 cm / s. Part of the South Equatorial Current off the east coast of the island of Madagascar turns south along it (the Madagascar Current). South of 40 ° south latitude, the entire water area of ​​the ocean is crossed from west to east by the flow of the longest and most powerful West Wind Current in the World Ocean (Antarctic Circumpolar Current). The velocities in its rods reach 50 cm/s, and the flow rate is about 150 million m 3 /s. At 100-110 ° east longitude, a stream branches off from it, heading north and giving rise to the West Australian Current. In August, the Somali current follows in a general direction to the northeast and, at a speed of up to 150 cm / s, draws water into the northern part of the Arabian Sea, from where the Monsoon current, skirting the western and southern coasts of the Hindustan peninsula and the island of Sri Lanka, carries water to the shores of the island Sumatra, turns south and merges with the waters of the South Trade Wind. Thus, an extensive clockwise circulation is created in the northern part of the Indian Ocean, consisting of the Monsoon, South Equatorial and Somali currents. In the southern part of the ocean, from February to August, the pattern of currents changes little. Off the coast of Antarctica in a narrow coastal strip, a current is observed all year round, caused by katabatic winds and directed from east to west.

water masses. In the vertical structure of the water masses of the Indian Ocean, according to hydrological characteristics and depth of occurrence, surface, intermediate, deep and bottom waters are distinguished. Surface waters are distributed in a relatively thin surface layer and occupy the upper 200-300 m on average. From north to south, water masses stand out in this layer: Persian and Arabian in the Arabian Sea, Bengal and South Bengal in the Bay of Bengal; further south of the equator - Equatorial, Tropical, Subtropical, Subantarctic and Antarctic. As the depth increases, the differences between neighboring water masses decrease and their number decreases accordingly. So, in intermediate waters, the lower limit of which reaches 2000 m in temperate and low latitudes and up to 1000 m in high latitudes, Persian and Red Sea in the Arabian Sea, Bengal in the Bay of Bengal, Subantarctic and Antarctic intermediate water masses are distinguished. Deep waters are represented by the North Indian, Atlantic (in the western part of the ocean), Central Indian (in the eastern part), and Circumpolar Antarctic water masses. Bottom water everywhere, except for the Bay of Bengal, is represented by one Antarctic bottom water mass, which fills all deep-water basins. The upper limit of bottom water is located on average at a horizon of 2500 m off the coast of Antarctica, where it forms, up to 4000 m in the central regions of the ocean and rises to almost 3000 m north of the equator.

Tides and excitement. Semidiurnal and irregular semidiurnal tides are most widespread on the shores of the Indian Ocean. Semi-diurnal tides are observed on the African coast south of the equator, in the Red Sea, off the northwestern shores of the Persian Gulf, in the Bay of Bengal, off the northwestern coast of Australia. Irregular semidiurnal tides - off the Somali Peninsula, in the Gulf of Aden, off the coast of the Arabian Sea, in the Persian Gulf, off the southwestern coast of the Sunda island arc. Diurnal and irregular diurnal tides are observed near the western and southern shores Australia. The highest tides are off the northwestern coast of Australia (up to 11.4 m), in the mouth zone of the Indus (8.4 m), in the mouth zone of the Ganges (5.9 m), off the coast Mozambique Channel(5.2 m); V open ocean tides vary from 0.4 m near the Maldives to 2.0 m in the southeastern Indian Ocean. The excitement reaches its greatest strength in temperate latitudes in the zone of action of westerly winds, where the frequency of waves with a height of over 6 m is 17% per year. Near Kerguelen Island, waves 15 m high and 250 m long were recorded, off the coast of Australia, 11 m and 400 m, respectively.

Flora and fauna. The main part of the Indian Ocean is located within the tropical and southern temperate zones. The absence of the northern high-latitude region in the Indian Ocean and the action of monsoons lead to two differently directed processes that determine the characteristics of the local flora and fauna. The first factor hinders deep-sea convection, which negatively affects the renewal of deep waters in the northern part of the ocean and the increase in oxygen deficiency in them, which is especially pronounced in the Red Sea intermediate water mass, which leads to depletion of the species composition and reduces the total zooplankton biomass in the intermediate layers. When oxygen-poor waters in the Arabian Sea reach the shelf, local kills occur (death of hundreds of thousands of tons of fish). At the same time, the second factor (monsoons) creates favorable conditions for high biological productivity in coastal areas. Under the influence of the summer monsoon, water is driven along the Somali and Arabian coasts, which causes a powerful upwelling that brings waters rich in nutrient salts to the surface. The winter monsoon, although to a lesser extent, leads to seasonal upwelling with similar effects in west coast peninsulas of Hindustan.

The coastal zone of the ocean is characterized by the greatest species diversity. The shallow waters of the tropical zone are characterized by numerous 6- and 8-ray madrepore corals, hydrocorals, which, together with red algae, can create underwater reefs and atolls. The richest fauna of various invertebrates (sponges, worms, crabs, mollusks, sea ​​urchins, brittle stars and starfish), small but brightly colored coral reef fish. Most of the coasts are occupied by mangroves. At the same time, the fauna and flora of the beaches and rocks that dry out at low tide are quantitatively depleted due to the depressing effect of the sun's rays. In the temperate zone, life on such stretches of coasts is much richer; dense thickets of red and brown algae (kelp, fucus, macrocystis) develop here, various invertebrates are abundant. According to L. A. Zenkevich (1965), over 99% of all species of bottom and bottom animals living in the ocean live in the littoral and sublittoral zones.

For open spaces The Indian Ocean, especially for the surface layer, is also characterized by rich flora. The food chain in the ocean begins with microscopic unicellular plant organisms - phytoplankton, which inhabits mainly the uppermost (about 100-meter) layer of ocean waters. Among them, several species of peridinium and diatom algae predominate, and in the Arabian Sea - cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), often causing the so-called water bloom during mass development. There are three areas of the highest phytoplankton production in the northern Indian Ocean: the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. The greatest production is observed off the coast of the Arabian Peninsula, where the number of phytoplankton sometimes exceeds 1 million cells/l (cells per liter). Its high concentrations are also observed in the subantarctic and antarctic zones, where there are up to 300,000 cells/l during the spring flowering period. The lowest phytoplankton production (less than 100 cells/l) is observed in the central part of the ocean between parallels 18 and 38° south latitude.

Zooplankton inhabits almost the entire thickness of oceanic waters, but its number rapidly decreases with increasing depth and decreases by 2-3 orders of magnitude towards the bottom layers. The food for most of the zooplankton, especially those living in the upper layers, is phytoplankton, so the patterns of spatial distribution of phyto- and zooplankton are largely similar. The highest rates of zooplankton biomass (from 100 to 200 mg/m3) are observed in the Arabian and Andaman Seas, the Bengal, Aden and Persian Gulfs. The main biomass of ocean animals is copepods (more than 100 species), somewhat less pteropods, jellyfish, siphonophores and other invertebrates. Of the unicellular, radiolarians are typical. In the Antarctic region of the Indian Ocean, a huge number of euphausian crustaceans of several species, united under the name "krill", is characteristic. Euphausiids form the main food base for the largest animals on Earth - baleen whales. In addition, fish, seals, cephalopods, penguins and other bird species feed on krill.

Organisms that move freely in the marine environment (nekton) are represented in the Indian Ocean mainly by fish, cephalopods, and cetaceans. Of the cephalopods in the Indian Ocean, cuttlefish, numerous squids and octopuses are common. Of the fish, the most abundant are several species of flying fish, luminous anchovies (dollfish), sardinella, sardine, mackerel pike, notothenia, sea bass, several types of tuna, blue marlin, grenadier, sharks, rays. Sea turtles and poisonous sea snakes live in warm waters. The fauna of aquatic mammals is represented by various cetaceans. Of the baleen whales, the following are common: blue, sei whale, fin whale, humpback whale, Australian (Cape) Chinese. Toothed whales are represented by sperm whales, several species of dolphins (including killer whales). In the coastal waters of the southern part of the ocean, pinnipeds are widespread: Weddell seal, crabeater seal, seals - Australian, Tasmanian, Kerguelen and South African, Australian sea lion, sea leopard, etc. Among the birds, the most characteristic are the wandering albatross, petrels, large frigate, phaetons , cormorants, gannets, skuas, terns, gulls. South of 35 ° south latitude, on the coasts of South Africa, Antarctica and the islands, there are numerous colonies of several species of penguins.

In 1938, a unique biological phenomenon was discovered in the Indian Ocean - the living lobe-finned fish Latimeria chalumnae, which was considered extinct tens of millions of years ago. The "fossil" coelacanth lives at a depth of more than 200 m in two places - near the Comoros and in the waters of the Indonesian archipelago.

Research History

The northern coastal regions, especially the Red Sea and deeply incised bays, began to be used by man for navigation and fishing already in the era of ancient civilizations, several thousand years before our era. 600 BC Phoenician sailors , who were in the service of the Egyptian pharaoh Necho II, circled Africa by sea. In 325-324 BC, Alexander the Great's colleague Nearchus, commanding a fleet, sailed from India to Mesopotamia and compiled the first descriptions of the coast from the mouth of the Indus River to the top of the Persian Gulf. In the 8th-9th centuries, the Arabian Sea was intensively explored by Arab navigators, who created the first sailing directions and navigational guides for this area. In the first half of the 15th century, Chinese navigators led by Admiral Zheng He made a series of voyages along the Asian coast to the west, reaching the coast of Africa. In 1497-99, the Portuguese Gama (Vasco da Gama) laid a sea route for Europeans to India and the countries of Southeast Asia. A few years later, the Portuguese discovered the island of Madagascar, the Amirante, Comoros, Mascarene and Seychelles. Following the Portuguese, the Dutch, French, Spanish and British entered the Indian Ocean. The name "Indian Ocean" first appeared on European maps in 1555. In 1772-75, J. Cook penetrated the Indian Ocean to 71° south latitude and made the first deep-sea measurements. Oceanographic studies of the Indian Ocean began with systematic measurements of water temperature during the round-the-world voyages of the Russian ships Rurik (1815-18) and Enterprise (1823-26). In 1831-36, an English expedition took place on the Beagle ship, on which Charles Darwin carried out geological and biological work. Comprehensive oceanographic measurements in the Indian Ocean were carried out during the British expedition on board the Challenger in 1873-74. Oceanographic work in the northern part of the Indian Ocean was carried out in 1886 by S. O. Makarov on the ship Vityaz. In the first half of the 20th century, oceanographic observations began to be carried out regularly, and by the 1950s they were carried out at almost 1500 deep-sea oceanographic stations. In 1935, the monograph "Geography of the Indian and Pacific Oceans" by P. G. Schott was published - the first major publication that summarized the results of all previous studies in this region. In 1959, the Russian oceanographer A. M. Muromtsev published a fundamental work - "The main features of the hydrology of the Indian Ocean." In 1960-65, the Scientific Committee on Oceanography of UNESCO conducted the International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE), the largest of those previously operating in the Indian Ocean. Scientists from more than 20 countries of the world (USSR, Australia, Great Britain, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Portugal, USA, France, Germany, Japan, etc.) took part in the MIOE program. ). During the MIOE, major geographical discoveries were made: the underwater West Indian and East Indian ridges, tectonic fault zones - Owen, Mozambique, Tasman, Diamantina, etc., seamounts - the Ob, Lena, etc., deep-sea trenches - Ob, Chagos, Vima, Vityaz, etc. In the history of the study of the Indian Ocean, the results of research carried out in 1959-77 by the Vityaz research vessel (10 voyages) and dozens of other Soviet expeditions on ships of the Hydrometeorological Service stand out and the State Committee for Fisheries. Since the early 1980s, ocean research has been carried out within the framework of 20 international projects. The research of the Indian Ocean became especially active during the International World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE). Since its successful completion in the late 1990s, the amount of modern oceanographic information for the Indian Ocean has doubled.

Economic use

The coastal zone of the Indian Ocean is characterized by an exceptionally high population density. Over 35 states are located on the coasts and islands of the ocean, in which about 2.5 billion people (over 30% of the world's population) live. The bulk of the coastal population is concentrated in South Asia (more than 10 cities with a population of over 1 million people). In most countries of the region, the problems of gaining living space, creating jobs, providing food, clothing and housing, and medical care are acute.

The use of the Indian Ocean, as well as other seas and oceans, is carried out in several main areas: transport, fishing, mining, and recreation.

Transport. The role of the Indian Ocean in maritime transportation increased significantly with the creation of the Suez Canal (1869), which opened a short sea route of communication with the states washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. The Indian Ocean is a region of transit and export of all kinds of raw materials, in which almost all major seaports are of international importance. In the northeastern part of the ocean (in the Straits of Malacca and Sunda) there are routes for ships going to the Pacific Ocean and back. The main export item to the USA, Japan and the countries of Western Europe is crude oil from the Persian Gulf region. In addition, agricultural products are exported - natural rubber, cotton, coffee, tea, tobacco, fruits, nuts, rice, wool; wood; mineral raw materials - coal, iron ore, nickel, manganese, antimony, bauxite, etc.; machinery, equipment, tools and hardware, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, textiles, cut gems and jewellery. The Indian Ocean accounts for about 10% of the world's shipping traffic; at the end of the 20th century, about 0.5 billion tons of cargo per year was transported through its waters (according to IOC). According to these indicators, it ranks third after the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, yielding to them in terms of the intensity of shipping and total volumes of cargo transportation, but surpassing all other sea transport communications in terms of oil transportation. The main transport routes passing through the Indian Ocean are directed to the Suez Canal, the Strait of Malacca, the southern ends of Africa and Australia and along north coast. Shipping is most intensive in the northern regions, although it is limited by storm conditions during the summer monsoon, less intensive in the central and southern regions. The growth in oil production in the Persian Gulf countries, in Australia, Indonesia and other places contributed to the construction and modernization of oil ports and the emergence of giant tankers in the Indian Ocean.

The most developed transport routes for the transportation of oil, gas and oil products: the Persian Gulf - the Red Sea - the Suez Canal - the Atlantic Ocean; Persian Gulf - Strait of Malacca - Pacific Ocean; the Persian Gulf - the southern tip of Africa - the Atlantic Ocean (especially before the reconstruction of the Suez Canal, 1981); The Persian Gulf - the coast of Australia (the port of Fremantle). Mineral and agricultural raw materials, textiles, precious stones, jewelry, equipment, computer equipment are transported from India, Indonesia, and Thailand. Australia transports coal, gold, aluminium, alumina, iron ore, diamonds, uranium ores and concentrates, manganese, lead, zinc; wool, wheat, meat products, as well as internal combustion engines, cars, electrical products, river boats, glass products, rolled steel, etc. Industrial goods, cars, electronic equipment, etc. predominate in oncoming flows. ocean is occupied by the carriage of passengers.

Fishing. Compared to other oceans, the Indian Ocean has a relatively low biological productivity; fish and other seafood accounts for 5-7% of the total world catch. The catch of fish and non-fish objects is concentrated mainly in the northern part of the ocean, and in the west it is twice as large as the catch in the eastern part. The largest production volumes of bioproducts are observed in the Arabian Sea off the western coast of India and off the coast of Pakistan. Shrimps are harvested in the Persian and Bengal bays, and lobsters are harvested off the east coast of Africa and on tropical islands. In the open areas of the ocean in the tropical zone, tuna fishing is widely developed, which is carried out by countries with a well-developed fishing fleet. In the Antarctic region, nototheniids, ice fish and krill are mined.

Mineral resources. Deposits of oil and natural combustible gas or oil and gas shows have been discovered practically throughout the shelf area of ​​the Indian Ocean. Actively developed oil and gas fields are of the greatest industrial importance in the bays: Persian (Persian Gulf oil and gas basin), Suez (gas basin of the Gulf of Suez), Cambay (Kambay oil and gas basin), Bengal (Bengal oil and gas basin); off the northern coast of the island of Sumatra (North Sumatra oil and gas basin), in the Timor Sea, off the northwestern coast of Australia (gas-bearing Carnarvon basin), in the Bass Strait (gas-bearing Gippsland basin). Gas deposits have been explored in the Andaman Sea, oil and gas bearing areas - in the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, along the coast of Africa. Coastal-marine placers of heavy sands are being developed off the coast of the island of Mozambique, along the southwestern and northeast coasts India, off the northeastern coast of Sri Lanka, along the southwestern coast of Australia (mining of ilmenite, rutile, monazite and zircon); in the coastal regions of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand (cassiterite mining). Industrial accumulations of phosphorites have been discovered on the shelves of the Indian Ocean. Large fields of ferromanganese nodules, a promising source of Mn, Ni, Cu, and Co, have been established on the ocean floor. In the Red Sea, metal-bearing brines and sediments have been identified as potential sources for the extraction of iron, manganese, copper, zinc, nickel, etc.; there are deposits of rock salt. In the coastal zone of the Indian Ocean, sand is mined for construction and glass production, gravel, limestone.

Recreational resources. Since the 2nd half of the 20th century, the use of recreational resources ocean. Old resorts are being developed and new ones are being built on the coast of the continents and on numerous tropical islands in the ocean. The most visited resorts are in Thailand (the island of Phuket, etc.) - over 13 million people a year (together with the coast and islands of the Gulf of Thailand in the Pacific Ocean), in Egypt [Hurghada, Sharm el-Sheikh (Sharm el-Sheikh), etc. ] - over 7 million people, in Indonesia (the islands of Bali, Bintan, Kalimantan, Sumatra, Java, etc.) - over 5 million people, in India (Goa, etc.), in Jordan (Aqaba), in Israel (Eilat) , on Maldives, in Sri Lanka, on Seychelles, on the islands of Mauritius, Madagascar, in South Africa, etc.

Sharm El Sheikh. Hotel "Concord".

Port cities. On the shores of the Indian Ocean there are specialized oil loading ports: Ras-Tannura (Saudi Arabia), Kharq (Iran), Ash-Shuaiba (Kuwait). The largest ports of the Indian Ocean: Port Elizabeth, Durban (South Africa), Mombasa (Kenya), Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), Mogadishu (Somalia), Aden (Yemen), El Kuwait (Kuwait), Karachi (Pakistan), Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Kandla (India), Chittagong (Bangladesh), Colombo (Sri Lanka), Yangon (Myanmar), Fremantle, Adelaide and Melbourne (Australia).

Lit .: Geological and geophysical atlas of the Indian Ocean. M., 1975; Kanaev VF Relief of the bottom of the Indian Ocean. M., 1979; Indian Ocean. L., 1982; Udintsev GB Regional geomorphology of the ocean floor. Indian Ocean. M., 1989; Lithosphere of the Indian Ocean: according to geophysical data / Ed. A. V. Chekunov, Yu. P. Nepronov. K., 1990; Neiman V. G., Burkov V. A., Shcherbinin A. D. Dynamics of the waters of the Indian Ocean. M., 1997; Pushcharovsky Yu. M. Tectonics of the Earth. Fav. works. M., 2005. Vol. 2: Tectonics of the oceans.

M. G. Deev; N. N. Turko (geological structure).