Political development of Japan in the second half of the 20th century. Questions for self-control. Formation of the samurai class

Japan 1950–1960s.

After the crisis phenomena of 1953-1954. In Japan, an economic boom began, which received the name "prosperity of Jimmu". It lasted until 1957 and had a significant impact on the formation of the structure of the country's post-war economy.

In 1952, in order to protect small-scale production from an economic downturn, the Small Business Stabilization Act allowed for the first time the cartelization of industrial and commercial associations. In the same year, the Law on Export-Import Transactions was adopted, which authorized the creation of export-import cartels. In 1966, a law was passed to stimulate special industries, aimed at consolidating enterprises by merging and merging them in the petrochemical, automotive, and electronics industries. In order to increase the international competitiveness of Japanese goods, the government carried out forced cartels. The Ministry of Foreign Trade and Industry had the right to come up with a proposal to harmonize prices for the same products of different enterprises, as well as to choose one firm from several claiming to export homogeneous products to the same country. In the 60s. there is a liberalization of the import of foreign goods and capital into Japan, which accelerated the growth of mergers of large Japanese enterprises to create a counterbalance to foreign competitors. During these years, the 10 leading Japanese trading houses concentrated more than half of the total volume of domestic trade operations, half of all exports and 60% of the country's imports passed through them. The post-war weakening of the “anti-monopoly legislation” contributed to a change in the organizational forms of Japanese financial capital and the creation of a new monopolistic market structure based on several financial and industrial groups - Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Fuji, Sumitomo, Sanwa. In the hierarchical structure of the pre-war zaibatsu, the parent company held shares in all firms belonging to the group and exercised centralized management, while banks controlled the financial and trading companies controlled the trading aspects of the concern. In contrast to the pre-war "zaibatsu", the presidents of the parent companies of modern financial and industrial groups formally began to have equal rights. In fact, the main voice in this case belonged to the most influential firm, which controlled the entire group. However, modern groups began to outwardly rely on “democratic and decentralized foundations,” which gave them greater maneuverability to circumvent existing anti-monopoly rules. The following factors contributed to economic growth in these years: low labor costs; military orders from the Japanese government (especially American military orders during the Korean and Vietnam Wars); small military spending from the state budget (less than 1%). In the early post-war years, the United States financed Japan's military spending by 80%, which created a favorable environment for Japanese monopoly capital. In general, the development of the Japanese military, especially the nuclear missile industry, took place with the participation of American monopolies; the diversified structure of concerns, which provided the possibility of maneuvering capital, raw materials, labor, depending on changes in the external market conditions; planning. An Economic Planning Committee was created under the Cabinet of Ministers, which was engaged in studying the situation in the external and internal markets, compiling operational scientific and technical information not only for government circles and bodies, but also for private companies, regulating public investment for the development of the most important industries and financing scientific and technological research work in new industries (nuclear industry, rocket science, etc.); purchase of licenses, scientific and technological revolution; renewal of fixed capital associated with the transition to the latest equipment. The process of replacing obsolete equipment, which began during the years of the Korean War, covered all branches of industry; export development. Until 1965, Japan imported more, but since the mid-60s. its foreign trade balance became active; psychological factor - common interests. Socio-economic development of Japan in 1970 - 1980 - gg. At this time there is a reduction in the number of ministries. The role of the state is changing, minimal interference in the affairs of the economy is practiced. The “administrative leadership” is becoming a mechanism for regulating the market - holding official and unofficial consultations between government bodies and representatives of big business, using indirect financial and economic levers to regulate economic activity. The existing highly monopolized market structure in the 70s. created a pricing mechanism that stimulated inflation. There was a loss of “downward elasticity”, prices moved only upwards, and the number of speculative transactions grew. The increase in the number of speculative transactions with land and real estate in the 1970s - 80s. stimulated by government taxation. During these years, the tax rate on land ownership was 1.4% of the price of land (3% in the USA). Prior to the Second World War, Japanese landowners paid 3.8% of the price of the land in the form of a tax on their land, and no distinction was made between agricultural land and residential area. In the 1970s - 80s. in areas belonging to Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, a tax was collected from agricultural land, which is approximately 1/200 of the corresponding figure for residential areas. At the same time, the government recommended returning to the pre-war order, which would encourage landowners, including peasants, plots that fell within the boundaries of expanding cities, to widely sell land or build housing on it with subsequent leasing. The government believed that such a mechanism would cause a decrease in land prices in these areas, which would lead to a general reduction in the cost of housing construction, the cost of cooperative apartments by about 2 times, since in areas located not far from the center of the capital, 90% of the cost of such an apartment accounted for the payment for land and 10% for construction costs. In 1971, the term “ economic security ” and after the oil crisis of 1973 it becomes the most important component of the concept “ National security". At the same time, the economic vulnerability of Japan, due to the high level of external resource dependence (up to 80%), was taken into account. One of the consequences of the 1973 oil crisis was the adoption in the country of the Preliminary Plan economic development for 1975 - 1985, where the problem of the country's economic security was specifically identified and the need to solve it in connection with the provision of Japan with raw materials, energy and food resources was emphasized. The medium-term New Seven-Year Plan for Economic and Social Development (1979) clearly indicated the obligation to implement internal and foreign policy considering economic security. In December 1980, the Council for Comprehensive Security was established under the Cabinet of Ministers of Japan, which defined economic security as protecting the country's economy from any external threat. For Japan, it was important not only to achieve a guaranteed supply of raw materials, energy and food, but also to contribute to the improvement of world demand and supply through joint developments with other countries in the search for alternative energy sources, assisting in the development of the agricultural base in countries - suppliers, cooperation in technology and finance. In the field of ensuring the energy security of Japan for the 1970s - 80s. measures were taken to create strategic reserves of oil (crude). Starting from 1976, private entrepreneurs, and from 1978 government agencies, began to create storage facilities for oil and oil products of a strategic nature. Stocks were created on the basis of self-sufficiency on a national scale up to 90 days, later up to 70 days. 10 strategic land, underground and sea-based storage facilities were created, in which in 1994 reserves of oil and oil products in the amount of 80 million cubic meters were concentrated. During these years, energy resources alternative to oil, primarily nuclear energy, appeared in the energy balance of the country. From 1975 to 1993, the share of nuclear energy in the country's energy balance increased from 1.5% to 11.1%. the standard of living of the Japanese grew 7 times faster than that of the Americans, the rate of economic growth in 1960-70. amounted to 10%, in the 80s. – 4.4% per year. The GNP of Japan was 3 trillion. dollars, USA - 4.6 trillion. USD In 1987, GNP per capita in Japan was 19.2 thousand dollars, and in the USA - 18.2 thousand dollars. In the mid 1980s. Japan ranks first in the world in the number of patents causing the greatest interest. In 1986, Japan became the largest creditor country in the world, coming out on top in the total amount of foreign investment and loans to foreign partners, which amounted to 200 billion dollars. The US has become a debtor. The decrease in the competitiveness of American goods in foreign markets was one of the reasons that in these years the US foreign trade deficit constantly increased, reaching 172.2 billion dollars in 1986. From 1986 to 1991, Japanese investment in the United States increased 5 times, and Japanese businessmen came in third place in the list of citizens foreign countries who own capital in the United States. In the late 1980s - early 90s. Japan accounted for 40 of the 70 billion US foreign trade deficit. Approximately 1 million Americans worked in "pure" Japanese or mixed enterprises. Of the 10 banks in California, the most dynamic part of the US, three were owned by the Japanese. In the list of the largest banks in the world, the first lines were occupied by Japanese banks. In the 80s. There were frictions on the basis of Japan's imbalance in trade with partners from developed countries, primarily with the United States. This situation was largely influenced by the consequences of the special behavior of the Japanese and the structural features inherent in the “Japanese economic model”: the situation of “underconsumption” - a low level of consumption compared to other developed countries, which made it possible to allocate “underconsumed resources” to expand foreign trade. This social behavior was a consequence of the post-war renaissance and rapid economic growth with its austerity and high levels of accumulation. In the mid 1980s. As a result of targeted efforts by the government and pressure from Washington, domestic consumption in Japan increased and the country approached international standards economically developed countries of the world. However, the share of GNP consumption still became in the late 1980s. decrease and in 1991 amounted to 56%, and in developed countries – 60 %;

In the eyes of the ruling elite of Japan, a significant foreign trade surplus has become a kind of guarantee of the situation in Japan. modern world their country, which has neither military nor great political influence; the financial reserves accumulated by Japan due to trade imbalances were needed by the country to provide effective assistance to third world countries; the Japanese market closed to foreign capital. Back in the 60s. Japan introduced protectionist barriers against foreign direct investment and allowed the operation of special Japanese financial-industrial groupings that oppose the access of "foreigners".

In 1970 - 1980. Japanese society created a modern information system. Japan was turning into a technotronic society, freeing people for service operations. The theory of “human limits” has emerged, suggesting the creation of thinking and decision-making cyborgs. Japanese management developed. The most striking manifestation of the Japanese organization management system, along with others, was the theory of “optimal groups”, which are formed as a part of 12-15 people in kindergartens and develop into production groups.

AND . Its share in the world gross product in the 90s amounted to 14% (USA - 22%), and all other states included in the Organization economic cooperation and Development (OECD), - 31% As of 1994, Japan's GNP - 4.6 trillion. am. Doll.

By the beginning of the 90s, Japan had a more advanced production and technical base than the United States and other countries Western Europe, which gave her certain advantages in the development of the latest technology. The growth rate of production in 1998 was 4.1% (in the USA it was 2.2%). Japan is the third largest trading power in the world after the USA. Development Japanese economy without foreign trade exchange is impossible. Japan's exports in 1993 amounted to $360.9 billion and imports to $240.6 billion.

What is the reason for the Japanese "economic miracle" - the rapid exit of the defeated country with the remnants of feudalism to leading place in the economy of the world?

At the "start" a huge role was played by the development of a carefully thought-out national strategy for economic development, taking into account local conditions. First of all, one cannot ignore the specifics of the historical and cultural development people. The relative isolation of Japan from the centers of Eastern and Western civilization has led the Japanese to try to borrow various aspects of foreign, more advanced cultures and then adapt them to their traditional values. into active orbit economic activity almost the entire adult population was involved.

After the Second World War, the Japanese rulers set the task of using the US development model, first of all, such aspects of it that would increase the economic power of Japan. The US provided Japan the latest technology and technology. American assistance saved Japan huge material and financial resources, and most importantly, the time needed to carry out scientific developments and create new technologies. Moreover, they adapted to the Japanese traditional culture. For many centuries, wealth has not become a criterion of human dignity in Japanese society, it has been replaced by such values ​​as conscientious work and knowledge, the common tasks of a group of people are always more important than the personal interests of each person.

In the recent period, the country faced the task of a sharp increase in national income based on the development of the economy and increasing the competitiveness of goods. To expand production, a stable and skilled workforce is needed. It was on this basis that the principles of "lifetime employment" of skilled workers and "growth of wages in accordance with the increase in length of service" were born, which became the social basis of the Japanese "economic miracle".

Thrift is a traditional feature of the Japanese way of life. At the first opportunity, they put it off for a rainy day. These savings of millions of Japanese, averaging 20% ​​of income, were an important source of financing for the development of the Japanese economy.

In Japan, compared with other countries, relatively low military spending, the introduction of innovations and the latest technology in civilian industries are an important factor in the competitiveness of Japanese products.

Military alliance with the United States and the creation of Japanese territory American military bases contribute to the revival of the Japanese armed forces. In Japan, the military-industrial complex is developing, which receives orders for weapons and ammunition worth more than 1 trillion. yen.

In exchange for participating in the American military-political strategy, Japan received the opportunity to import raw materials important to it from the United States, latest technology, the country has acquired a huge market that accounts for 30% of its exports.

The rise of the Japanese economy is also facilitated by the fact that Japan, which is actually deprived of its own raw materials, has the opportunity to import raw materials and, above all, oil at a very low prices and thus obtain cheap energy.

19 technopolises, new cities of science with universities, research institutes develop the most knowledge-intensive industries. An exceptional role is played by the Japanese education system - one of the best in the world, as well as the limitation of military spending (according to the constitution, they could not exceed 1% of the country's national income).

Today, the main factors that ensure the high dynamism of the country's economy are:

- high growth rates of labor productivity based on high technical equipment with modern equipment and the introduction of energy and resource-saving technologies;

– development of own scientific research and creation of scientific and industrial complexes and scientific and industrial zones, such as TSUKUBA, KEIKHIN;

- export of capital, which exceeded 200 billion dollars;

— 0.5 million people are employed in R&D, and the cost of developing science is 4% of GDP.

- qualified labor force;

— sale of high-quality and competitive products of science-intensive industries on the world market;

- huge capital investments (39% of GDP) and renewal of fixed production assets (every 5.5 years).