Great Britain: economic geography. Great Britain

The full official name of the country is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Territory - 242.5 thousand sq. km. Population - 57,826,000: English (80%), Scots, Irish, Welsh. The capital is London (with suburbs 6.9 million people). Largest cities: Birmingham (993 thousand people), Leeds (712 thousand people), Glasgow (689 thousand people). Administrative-territorial division: England (Area - 130,420 sq. km. Capital - London - 6,680,000), Wales (Area - 20,770 sq. km. Capital - Cardiff - 279,000), Northern Ireland (Area - 14,120 sq. km. .km Capital - Belfast - 284,000), Scotland (Area - 77,170 sq.km. Capital - Edinburgh - 438,000), Greater London, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.

The national holiday is the Queen's Birthday, the date of celebration of which is annually determined by the decision of the government: in 2000 - June 18th. The official language is English. The state religion is Anglican in England and Wales (the head of the church is the monarch), Presbyterian in Scotland (headed by the General Assembly, which includes representatives of both priests and laity).

Since 1931, the Commonwealth (Commonwealth) of historically related countries has developed around the United Kingdom, which now includes 54 independent states. Under the direct control of London remain 13 "dependencies" - mostly small islands with a total population of less than 200 thousand people.

The United Kingdom consists of England, Scotland and Wales, located on the island of Great Britain, as well as the province of Northern Ireland, which consists of six districts and is located on the island of Ireland. In addition, the United Kingdom has close political and economic ties with self-governing territories such as the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea and the Channel Islands, off the northwest coast of France, in the English Channel. The United Kingdom is an industrialized country with a large population for its size. However, in addition to populous cities, you can also see beautiful rural landscapes here: the heather-covered valleys of the Scots, the dells and mountains of Wales, the hills and green meadows of England and Northern Ireland. Due to the mild humid climate, the lands here are fertile.

The sea has always played an important role in the history of this people. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the British navy was the most powerful in the world. Through its dominance of the sea, Britain built up a vast empire and developed into a great trading power. Today, the United Kingdom is still a highly industrialized country, however, these days it no longer has such a great influence on world politics, like before. Although the United Kingdom is a monarchy, the real political power lies in the hands of Parliament. In recent years, many people in Scotland and Wales have advocated the creation of independent parliaments. Part of the Irish population demands the accession of Northern Ireland to the Republic of Ireland. This sparked a brutal civil war that began in 1961, but a ceasefire reached in 1994 gives hope for a peaceful solution to the issue.

Geography

The United Kingdom occupies most of the British Isles, which lie some distance off the northwest coast of Europe. The two main islands among the many smaller ones are Great Britain and Ireland. The unstable but mild climate of the British Isles is determined by the currents Atlantic Ocean. On the western coasts of the country, sea winds bring frequent and heavy rains, while in the east the climate is drier.

The highlands in the north of Scotland are picturesque and wild. Here are the highest mountain peaks of the country and long narrow lakes. in the Atlantic Ocean, near West Bank Scotland, the double chain of the Hebrides stretches. To the south, the highlands descend to the large river Clyde. This hilly area is an excellent agricultural area. Higher hills and moorlands mark Scotland's border with England. Separated from Scotland by the sea, Northern Ireland has a deep indented bays coast. On its territory is the largest lake in the British Isles - Lough Neagh. The granite ridge of the Pennines stretches across the whole of Northern England. Glittering lakes stretch across the mountainous northwest of the country. Wales is a picturesque land of green valleys and meadows, meandering rivers and rugged cliffs. A significant part of Wales is occupied by the Cambrian Mountains with a huge number of small lakes and waterfalls.

Most of Central England is occupied by rolling plains, and the coast North Sea is flat land. In the densely populated south-eastern regions of the country, lime hills rise above the fertile lands. To the southwest are wide moorlands. The waves of the Atlantic break on the rocky shores of a peninsula in the southwest of England.

Mountains

Ben Nevis - highest mountainGreat Britain .

ten highest mountains Great Britain are situated in Scotland. Highest points in each part of the country

Scotland - Ben Nevis (height 1344 m)

Wales - Snowdon (height 1085 m)

England - Skyfall Pike (in the Cumberland Mountains, height 977 m)

Northern Ireland - Slieve Donard (Mountains Murne, height 852 m)

List of the most significant mountain ranges and hills:

Scotland -- Grampian Mountains, Cairhorm, Scottish Highlands, South Scottish Highlands

Wales - Cambrian Mountains, Snowdonia

England - Brecon Beacons, Exmoor, Lake District, Pennines

Northern Ireland -- Murne, Antrim Plateau

Economy

The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to make the transition from an agricultural to an industrial economy. This process began in the late 60s of the XVIII century and was called the Industrial Revolution. During the 19th century, industries such as textiles, steelmaking, shipbuilding and engineering developed in England. The fuel was coal, the deposits of which at that time were the main natural resources of the United Kingdom. Until the 1980s, these industries were the leading ones in the country's economy. The United Kingdom is still a highly industrialized country, however, it now specializes in the production of a different kind of product. New industries such as electronics, chemicals and foodstuffs are at the forefront. Most of the population works in the service sector - in the system of management, financing, healthcare, education and tourism. Today, the main natural resources of the United Kingdom are the rich oil and gas fields in the North Sea. Only two percent of the country's inhabitants are employed in agriculture, but it successfully produces agricultural products for both domestic and foreign markets. Large areas of fertile land in the south and east of England grow crops, fruits and vegetables. Dairy cattle feed on the fat pastures of the West of England, and sheep graze on the highlands of Scotland and Wales. Many of England's ancient forests have long been destroyed, but extensive plantations of coniferous trees today provide raw materials for the construction and paper industries. Fishing vessels plow the seas off the coast of the British Isles, the fishing fleet of the United Kingdom is one of the five largest states in the European Union.

Population

United Kingdom - small country, but historically it has become the homeland for many nationalities, cultures and religions. The largest group of the population is the British. It is followed by the Welsh, Scots, Irish, Jews. The country is home to numerous descendants of immigrants from the colonies of the former British Empire - India, Pakistan, Bengal, Hong Kong, Africa and the Caribbean. More than four-fifths of the total population of the United Kingdom lives in cities. On weekends and during holidays, all the main roads of the country are crowded with cars: it is the townspeople who go on vacation to the countryside or to the coast. Another favorite leisure activity is gardening and participating in sports as players or spectators. Although the United Kingdom is a modern country of airports, motorways and new suburbs, many old traditions are still honored here. Performers of comic folk dances in medieval costumes give performances on holidays such as May 1. The Welsh Bards Festival brings together poets and musicians from all over the country every year. Stormy festivities with Scottish dances are held in Scotland on New Year's Eve.

The literary and artistic heritage of the United Kingdom is unusually rich. At all times, this country has been the birthplace of many great poets, playwrights, prose writers, artists, architects and musicians. English has spread all over the world - from North America to Australia. It is universally accepted and British Isles, but in the form of numerous local dialects. In addition, Welsh, Scottish and Irish are spoken here.

Story

The United Kingdom was formed in 1801. It included England, Scotland, Wales and all of Ireland. In 1921, Southern Ireland seceded from the Union. The union of England, Scotland and Wales is known as "Great Britain". The documented history of Great Britain begins in 55 BC, when the Romans invaded it. They conquered all of Great Britain, except for its northernmost regions. Roman merchants and soldiers contributed to the spread of Christianity here and also the construction of many cities. In the 5th century A.D. e. The Roman Empire fell, and the Germanic tribes of the Angles and Saxons took over the country, which became known as England. Scandinavian Vikings devastated the northern and eastern regions of England, while Wales and Scotland remained under the rule of the Celts. In 1066, England was conquered by the Normans (Vikings who captured northern France). In the Middle Ages, England was often at war with neighboring countries. However, in the middle of the 16th century, it united with Wales, and in 1707 Scotland entered this union, as a result of which the state of Great Britain was formed. Starting from the 16th century, Great Britain began to turn into a powerful maritime empire. In the 18th century, thanks to the efforts of scientists and engineers, the country underwent a transition from agricultural production to industrial production. In the 20th century, Britain's political influence waned, although it played an important role in two world wars. By the 1960s, most of the English colonies had gained independence. In 1973, the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community (now the European Union).

Great Britain is a permanent member of the UN Security Council; member of the OSCE and the Council of Europe; is a member of NATO, WEU and ANZU; since 1973 - a member of the EU. The political system is a parliamentary monarchy. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II (since February 6, 1952). Parliament is the legislative body. Consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The government is formed by the leader of the party that wins the most seats in the election and / or enjoys the support of the majority of deputies in the House of Commons; consists of cabinet members, ministers who are not members of the cabinet, and junior ministers (about 100 people in total).

Great Britain, which is surrounded on all sides by sea and ocean, still jealously guards its traditions and customs, which may seem eccentric to many foreigners. However, it is precisely this careful attitude to traditions that has made Great Britain one of the most famous and influential countries in the world, which also has amazing nature and even seaside resorts. At the same time, "Foggy Albion" is still a mystery to many of us...

The UK is located in the northwest of Europe in the British Isles. In the north, Great Britain borders on Ireland, in the southeast, the English Channel ("English Strait"), whose width is 35 km, separates this country from France. The total area of ​​Great Britain is 244,820 km. sq. The country is washed by the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea. The most high peak Great Britain - Mount Ben Nevis in Scotland (its height is 1343 meters).

The capital of Great Britain is London, which now has a population of more than 8.2 million people. London was founded by the Romans in 43 AD.

The official language of the UK is English, which is spoken by over 95% of the population. The minority languages ​​are Scottish, Welsh, Irish, Gaelic and Cornish.

The state religion in Great Britain is the Anglican Christian Church, formed in 1534 under the influence of Protestantism. Over 10% of UK residents belong to the Roman catholic church. In addition, there are many Presbyterians and Muslims in the country.

Great Britain has been a constitutional monarchy for many centuries. The country consists of four provinces - England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

The head of state is the Queen, power is inherited. The head of government is the Prime Minister (he becomes the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons).

Legislative power belongs to the bicameral Parliament, which consists of the House of Lords (1200 seats) and the House of Commons (659 seats). The main political parties are the Conservative Party, the Labor Party and the Liberal Democrats.

The climate in the UK is temperate maritime with high rainfall. The Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea and the Gulf Stream have a decisive influence on the climate of Great Britain. average temperature in winter it is 0C, and in summer - +25C. The warmest months are July and August, while the coldest is February.

Note that although July and August are considered the warmest months in the UK, however, they are also the wettest, with high rainfall.

Great Britain is washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea. The total coastline is 12,429 km. The English Crown Lands include the islands of Jersey and Guernsey in the English Channel, as well as the Isle of Man (located in the Irish Sea).

The UK has over 20 large rivers and over 380 lakes (many of them artificial). The largest of the rivers are the Severn (354 km), the Thames (346 km), the Trent (297 km), the Great Ouse (230 km), the Wye (215 km) and the Tay (188 km).

Note that in the UK there is an extensive network of canals, most of which were built back in the Victorian era.

Archaeologists have found evidence that people lived in the territory of modern Great Britain as far back as the Neolithic era. Many historical artifacts dating back to the Bronze Age have also been found.

In 43 AD Britain, after the stubborn resistance of the local tribes, was captured by the Roman Empire, and became its province. The power of Ancient Rome over Britain lasted until 410 AD, after which the island was alternately invaded by the tribes of the Angles and Saxons from Germany, and then the Vikings from Scandinavia. The spread of Christianity in the British Isles began at the end of the 6th century.

In 1066, the famous Battle of Hastings took place, which sealed the victory of the Normans in the conquest of Britain. William of Normandy (better known as William the Conqueror) became King of England on December 25, 1066.

In the Middle Ages, on the territory of modern Britain, there were numerous wars between the British, Scots, Irish and Welsh. In 1337, the "Hundred Years War" of England against France began over the French provinces of Guyenne, Normandy and Anjou, which, in the end, ended with the victory of the French in 1453.

Immediately after this, in 1455, a bloody 30-year internecine war of the Scarlet and White Roses between the two branches of the royal seven (Yorks and Lancasters) began in England.

In 1534, King Henry III became head of the Church of England, which led to the English Reformation and the dissolution of many monasteries. The middle of the 17th century was marked by the overthrow of the monarchy, the reign of Oliver Cromwell, and then the restoration of monarchical power.

In 1707, England and Scotland signed an act of union, thus forming the Kingdom of Great Britain.

In the XVIII century, Great Britain became the largest colonial power with a huge fleet. Trade and banking developed rapidly in the country. At this time there were revolutionary changes in English industry and agriculture.

The development of Great Britain continued into the 19th century, during the so-called "Victorian era".

Great Britain played a big role during the world wars of the 20th century. In 1921, the Irish rebellion broke out, which led to the formation of an independent Ireland. As for Northern Ireland, it is still part of the UK. Now the UK is an active member of the NATO military bloc, and is also a member of the EU.

Since Great Britain consists of several "provinces" (England, Scotland, Wales and, of course, Northern Ireland), which used to be independent countries, it is clear that its culture is multi-ethnic.

The traditional English folk tales of the semi-mystical King Arthur and his knights, as well as the semi-historical tales of Robin Hood, are known all over the world. Many historians claim that such individuals did exist in Medieval England, but we only know about them from folk legends.

In general, it should be noted that traditions play a greater role in Great Britain than in many other countries of the world. The inhabitants of "Foggy Albion" are proud of their traditions, many of which seem strange and eccentric to us. For example, theaters have been closed on Sundays in the UK for more than 300 years.

Even one English tradition - in the Tower of London, according to the decree of King Charles II, 6 ravens must constantly live. The British are sure that as long as these birds live there, nothing threatens the royal power.

Some of you may know that in the House of Lords of the British Parliament, the chancellor sits on a woolsack. This custom has been going on since the time when sheep's wool made England a rich and powerful country.

Old English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish traditions may seem strange to modern Europeans, Asians or Americans, but the inhabitants of "Foggy Albion" adhere to them with enviable tenacity.

The Canterbury Tales by the English poet Geoffrey Chaucer, published in 1476, had a decisive influence on the development of literature in Great Britain. In the Middle Ages, England gave the world such talented poets, writers and playwrights as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Wyatt, John Milton and, of course, William Shakespeare.

Later came Jane Austen, Mary Shelley, John Keats, William Blake, George Byron, Charles Dickens, Oscar Wilde, Thomas Hardy, Virginia Woolf, Wodehouse, Eliot, Graham Greene, Iris Murdoch and Ian Banks.

However, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland can also boast of "loud" literary names. Perhaps the most famous of them are the Scottish poets William Dunbar and Robert Burns.

The most famous British artists are George Gower, Samuel Cooper, Joshua Reynolds, George Stubbs, John Constable, Joseph William Turner and David Hockney.

If we talk about music, then, of course, there were quite talented classical composers in Great Britain, however, this country, first of all, gave the world the legendary "Liverpool Four" - the rock group "The Beatles".

Each region of Great Britain (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) has its own traditional cuisine. In general, we can say that the food of the British is based on meat (beef, lamb, pork, chicken), fish, eggs and flour. Meat and fish are usually served with potatoes or some other vegetable.

English cuisine has traditionally been "mild-tasting", with no seasonings. However, after Great Britain captured numerous colonies (we are talking, of course, about India), various Indian seasonings began to be used more in English cuisine.

Traditional English dishes - Yorkshire pudding, Christmas pudding, roast beef, Cornish pasta, pudding and Battenberg cake.

Traditional Scottish dishes are haggis, oatmeal, pickled herring rollmops and Cranahan dessert.

Traditional Welsh dishes are bara brit yeast bread, sorrel soup, beef in beer and Welsh flatbread.

Traditional Irish dishes are Irish stew, coddle (made from sausages, bacon, potatoes and onions), yeast bread with barmbrack grapes and boxy potato pancakes.

We advise tourists in the UK to try the famous English cheeses. In general, more than 400 varieties of cheese are now produced in England. The most popular of these is cheddar (hard cheese with a strong nutty flavor). In addition, we note such varieties of English cheese as Stilton, Red Leicester and Cheshire.

Traditional British drinks are beer, cider, tea, gin and pimm (made on the basis of gin with the addition of lemonade, fruit and mint).

There are so many attractions in the UK that we will highlight only the 10 most interesting of them (in our opinion):

stonehenge
Stonehenge is a prehistoric stone circle built several thousand years ago. This monument is located in Salisbury Plain in English county Wiltshire. Historians do not know exactly for what purposes it was intended, although they are inclined to the version of a religious cult.

Tower Bridge in London
The Tower Bridge in London was built in 1894. It is considered one of the symbols of London.

Chatsworth House
This mansion was built in the English county of Devonshire in the middle of the 16th century. Considered one of the finest country houses in the UK. It was in it that the film Pride and Prejudice was filmed in 2005.

Lake Windermere
This lake is the largest in England. It is located in Cumbria. Beautiful landscapes attract thousands of tourists every year to Lake Windermere.

Village of Portmeirion
Located on the coast of North Wales. The construction of this amazing village started in 1925. Perhaps now Portmeirion is the most eccentric village in all of Britain.

Path of the Giants
The Giant's Trail is located in Northern Ireland, it consists of about 40 thousand basalt columns that appeared as a result of a volcanic eruption. According to legend, this Path was created in ancient times by the Giants who previously inhabited the Earth ...

Edinburgh
The capital of Scotland, Edinburgh, is an ancient city that has preserved a huge number of historical and architectural monuments, among which the "star" is Edinburgh Castle.

Tresco Abbey Gardens
These gardens are located on the Isle of Scilly and were planted in the 19th century. Currently, the Tresco Abbey Gardens grow flowers and trees from 80 countries, including, for example, Burma and New Zealand. Even in winter, more than 300 plants bloom here.

york cathedral
Construction of York Minster in York (Northern England) began in 1230 and continued until 1472. York Minster is considered one of the most majestic gothic cathedrals throughout Western Europe.

Project "Eden"
The Eden Project is a modern botanical garden in the UK. It is located in Cornwall. Now in this botanical garden, more than 100 thousand flowers and trees from around the world grow under two huge transparent domes.

The largest cities in the UK are London (more than 8.2 million people), Birmingham (more than 1.1 million people), Glasgow (about 600 thousand people), Belfast (more than 600 thousand people), Manchester (more than 500 thousand . people), Edinburgh (more than 500 thousand people) and Liverpool (about 500 thousand people).

For most of us, Great Britain is associated with constant rain and fog. However, in this country, it turns out, there are excellent seaside resorts. Moreover, the UK even has the English Riviera (Torbay). The most famous seaside resorts of Foggy Albion are Newport, Eastbourne and Brighton. In total, there are about 760 beaches in the UK, which are annually tested for compliance with European standards.

GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT BRITAIN

1. BRIEF INFORMATION ABOUT THE UK

The full official name of the country is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Territory - 242.5 thousand sq. km. Population - 57,826,000: English (80%), Scots, Irish, Welsh. The capital is London (with suburbs 6.9 million people). The largest cities: Birmingham (993 thousand people), Leeds (712 thousand people), Glasgow (689 thousand people). Administrative-territorial division: England (Area - 130,420 sq. km. Capital - London - 6,680,000), Wales (Area - 20,770 sq. km. Capital - Cardiff - 279,000), Northern Ireland (Area - 14,120 sq. km. .km Capital - Belfast - 284,000), Scotland (Area - 77,170 sq.km. Capital - Edinburgh - 438,000), Greater London, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.

The national holiday is the Queen's Birthday, the date of celebration of which is annually determined by the decision of the government: in 2000 - June 18. The official language is English. The state religion is Anglican in England and Wales (the head of the church is the monarch), Presbyterian in Scotland (headed by the General Assembly, which includes representatives of both priests and laity).

Since 1931, the Commonwealth (Commonwealth) of historically related countries has developed around the United Kingdom, which now includes 54 independent states. Under the direct control of London are 13 "dependent territories" - mostly small islands with a total population of less than 200 thousand people.

The United Kingdom consists of England, Scotland and Wales, located on the island of Great Britain, as well as the province of Northern Ireland, which consists of six districts and is located on the island of Ireland. In addition, the United Kingdom has close political and economic ties with self-governing territories such as the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea and the Channel Islands, off the northwest coast of France, in the English Channel. The United Kingdom is an industrialized country with a large population for its size. However, in addition to populous cities, you can also see beautiful rural landscapes here: the heather-covered valleys of the Scots, the dells and mountains of Wales, the hills and green meadows of England and Northern Ireland. Due to the mild humid climate, the lands here are fertile.

The sea has always played an important role in the history of this people. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the British navy was the most powerful in the world. Through its dominance of the sea, Britain built up a vast empire and developed into a great trading power. Today, the United Kingdom is still a highly industrialized country, however, these days it does not have as much influence on world politics as it used to. Although the United Kingdom is a monarchy, the real political power lies in the hands of Parliament. In recent years, many people in Scotland and Wales have advocated the creation of independent parliaments. Part of the Irish population demands the accession of Northern Ireland to the Republic of Ireland. This sparked a brutal civil war that began in 1961, but a ceasefire reached in 1994 gives hope for a peaceful solution to the issue.

Geography

The United Kingdom occupies most of the British Isles, which lie some distance off the northwest coast of Europe. The two main islands among the many smaller ones are Great Britain and Ireland. The unstable but mild climate of the British Isles is determined by the currents of the Atlantic Ocean. On the western coasts of the country, sea winds bring frequent and heavy rains, while in the east the climate is drier.

The highlands in the north of Scotland are picturesque and wild. Here are the highest mountain peaks of the country and long narrow lakes. In the Atlantic Ocean, not far from the western coast of Scotland, stretches the double chain of the Hebrides. To the south, the highlands descend to the large river Clyde. This hilly area is an excellent agricultural area. Higher hills and moorlands mark Scotland's border with England. Separated from Scotland by the sea, Northern Ireland has deeply indented shores. On its territory is the largest lake in the British Isles - Lough Neagh. The granite ridge of the Pennines stretches across the whole of Northern England. Glittering lakes stretch across the mountainous northwest of the country. Wales is a picturesque land of green valleys and meadows, meandering rivers and rugged cliffs. A significant part of Wales is occupied by the Cambrian Mountains with a huge number of small lakes and waterfalls.

Most of Central England is occupied by rolling plains, while the North Sea coast is a flat lowland. In the densely populated south-eastern regions of the country, lime hills rise above the fertile lands. To the southwest are wide moorlands. The waves of the Atlantic break on the rocky shores of a peninsula in the southwest of England.

Mountains

Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Great Britain.

The ten highest mountains in Great Britain are located in Scotland. Highest points in each part of the country

Scotland - Ben Nevis (height 1344 m)

Wales - Snowdon (height 1085 m)

England - Skyfall Pike (in the Cumberland Mountains, height 977 m)

Northern Ireland - Slieve Donard (Murne Mountains, height 852 m)

List of the most significant mountain ranges and hills:

Scotland - Grampian Mountains, Cairogorm, Scottish Highlands, South Scottish Highlands

Wales - Cambrian Mountains, Snowdonia

England - Brecon Beacons, Exmoor, Lake District, Pennines

Northern Ireland - Murne, Antrim Plateau

Economy

The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to make the transition from an agricultural to an industrial economy. This process began in the late 60s of the XVIII century and was called the Industrial Revolution. During the 19th century, industries such as textiles, steelmaking, shipbuilding and engineering developed in England. The fuel was coal, the deposits of which at that time were the main natural resources of the United Kingdom. Until the 1980s, these industries were the leading ones in the country's economy. The United Kingdom is still a highly industrialized country, however, it now specializes in the production of a different kind of product. New industries such as electronics, chemicals and foodstuffs are at the forefront. Most of the population works in the service sector - in the system of management, financing, healthcare, education and tourism. Today, the main natural resources of the United Kingdom are the rich oil and gas fields in the North Sea. Only two percent of the country's inhabitants are employed in agriculture, but it successfully produces agricultural products for both domestic and foreign markets. Large areas of fertile land in the south and east of England grow crops, fruits and vegetables. Dairy cattle feed on the fat pastures of the West of England, and sheep graze on the highlands of Scotland and Wales. Many of England's ancient forests have long been destroyed, but extensive plantations of coniferous trees today provide raw materials for the construction and paper industries. Fishing vessels plow the seas off the coast of the British Isles, the fishing fleet of the United Kingdom is one of the five largest states in the European Union.

Population

The United Kingdom is a small country, but historically it has been home to many peoples, cultures and religions. The largest group of the population is the British. It is followed by the Welsh, Scots, Irish, Jews. The country is home to numerous descendants of immigrants from the colonies of the former British Empire - India, Pakistan, Bengal, Hong Kong, Africa and the Caribbean. More than four-fifths of the total population of the United Kingdom lives in cities. On weekends and during holidays, all the main roads of the country are crowded with cars: it is the townspeople who go on vacation to the countryside or to the coast. Another favorite leisure activity is gardening and participating in sports as players or spectators. Although the United Kingdom is a modern country of airports, motorways and new suburbs, many old traditions are still honored here. Performers of comic folk dances in medieval costumes give performances on holidays such as May 1. The Welsh Bards Festival brings together poets and musicians from all over the country every year. Stormy festivities with Scottish dances are held in Scotland on New Year's Eve.

The literary and artistic heritage of the United Kingdom is unusually rich. At all times, this country has been the birthplace of many great poets, playwrights, prose writers, artists, architects and musicians. English has spread all over the world - from North America to Australia. It is accepted everywhere in the British Isles, but in the form of numerous local dialects. In addition, Welsh, Scottish and Irish are spoken here.

Story

The United Kingdom was formed in 1801. It included England, Scotland, Wales and all of Ireland. In 1921, Southern Ireland seceded from the Union. The union of England, Scotland and Wales is known as "Great Britain". The documented history of Great Britain begins in 55 BC, when the Romans invaded it. They conquered all of Great Britain, except for its northernmost regions. Roman merchants and soldiers contributed to the spread of Christianity here and also the construction of many cities. In the 5th century A.D. e. The Roman Empire fell, and the Germanic tribes of the Angles and Saxons took over the country, which became known as England. Scandinavian Vikings devastated the northern and eastern regions of England, while Wales and Scotland remained under the rule of the Celts. In 1066, England was conquered by the Normans (Vikings who captured northern France). In the Middle Ages, England often waged wars with neighboring countries. However, in the middle of the 16th century, it united with Wales, and in 1707 Scotland entered this union, as a result of which the state of Great Britain was formed. Starting from the 16th century, Great Britain began to turn into a powerful maritime empire. In the 18th century, thanks to the efforts of scientists and engineers, the country underwent a transition from agricultural production to industrial production. In the 20th century, Britain's political influence waned, although it played an important role in two world wars. By the 1960s, most of the English colonies had gained independence. In 1973, the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community (now the European Union).

The official name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Located off the northwest coast of continental Europe. The area is 244.8 thousand km2, the population is 59.8 million people. (July 2002). The official language is English. The capital is London (7.2 million people). Public Holiday- The Queen's Birthday (1926) is celebrated on the 2nd Saturday of June. Currency unit- pound sterling (equal to 100 pence).

Under British control are 15 overseas territories with a population of approx. 190 thousand people, incl. Gibraltar in Europe, Anguilla, Bermuda, part of the Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat, Turks and Caicos Islands, the Falkland Islands - in South and Central America, St. Helena - in Africa, Pitcairn Island - in the Pacific Ocean, territories in Antarctica.

The British monarch is the nominal head of the Commonwealth (formerly the British Commonwealth of Nations), which includes the majority former colonies and the dominions of Great Britain, a total of 54 states with a population of 1.7 billion people.

Member international organizations: UN (since 1945), IMF and World Bank (since 1947), NATO (since 1949), OECD (since 1961), EU and OBSS (since 1973), G7 (since 1975), EBRD (since 1990) , WTO (since 1995).

Landmarks of Great Britain

Geography of Great Britain

Located between 49°57' and 60°49' north latitude; 1°46′ East and 8°00′ West.

Great Britain is an island state; consists of the island of Great Britain and the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland (they are separated by a narrow North Strait), as well as smaller islands (the most significant of them are Anglesey, White, Orkney, Hebrides, Shetland). Great Britain includes the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea and the Channel Islands, located in the English Channel off the coast of France, enjoying internal autonomy. The British Isles (as Great Britain and Ireland are usually called) are washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea. They are separated from mainland Europe only by the narrow straits of the Pas de Calais (in the UK - the Strait of Dover) and the English Channel (English Channel). The UK and France are connected by a tunnel 48 km long, of which 37 km runs under the English Channel. Coastline- 12,429 km - heavily indented, replete with bays and gulfs - convenient parking for sea ​​vessels. The largest bays are Bristol, Cardigan, Solway Firth, Firth of Clyde, Moray Firth, Firth of Forth, Wash. Great Britain shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland; its length is 360 km.

Most of the UK is characterized by rugged terrain. Mountainous terrain prevails in the north and west. In the northern part of the island, mountains rise from 840 to 1300 m above sea level (the highest peak is Ben Nevis - 1340 m). The North Scottish Highlands are separated from the South Scottish Highlands by the Mid-Scottish Lowland less than 100 km wide. Mountain ranges cover almost the entire western part of the island, especially Wales and Cornwall. middle part Northern England occupy the Pennines, which separate the Lancashire lowlands in the west from the Yorkshire in the east. The southern half of Great Britain consists of plains separated by hills and uplands.

The UK has significant mineral reserves. Among them - oil, natural gas, coal, limestone, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, copper, silica. Offshore oil reserves are estimated at 1,430 million tons; most of them are located in the North Sea, east and northeast of Scotland and east of Shetland and Orkney; the largest offshore fields are Fortis and Brent, on the mainland - Witchfarm in Dorset. Natural gas reserves reach 1710 billion m3, the main deposits are located in the North Sea off the east coast of England. The main coal deposits (substantially depleted) are Yorkshire - Derby - Nottinghamshire Basin in the East Middland, Northumberland - Durham Basin in the northeast of England.

The soil cover of Great Britain is quite diverse. Brown forest, podzolic soils predominate. Carbonate, alluvial, acidic soils, peatlands are widespread.

The climate of Great Britain is temperate, humid, oceanic. Thanks to the North Atlantic Current and warm winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean, the UK generally has mild winters. But these same winds explain cloudy weather, frequent rains and fogs. The average temperature in January is 3-7°С, in July 11-17°С, the amount of annual precipitation is 550-800 mm in the southeast, 3000 mm in the mountainous western and northern regions. Most precipitation falls from October to January, less - in February-March.

The UK has a large number of rivers and lakes. The most long river- Severn (328 km) - originates in the mountains of Wales and flows into the Bristol Bay ( West Coast). The Lancashire lowlands are crossed by the Mersey, which flows into Liverpool Bay. The main river of the east coast - the Thames (336 km) - flows through the most densely populated areas of southeast England. The Mid-Scottish Lowlands are also rich in rivers. The longest of them is the Clyde (157 km), originating in the South Scottish Highlands and flowing into the Firth of Clyde (west coast), and the Fort, flowing into the Firth of Forth (east coast). There are many lakes in the north of the country. The largest is Loch Nih in Northern Ireland - 396 km2. The deepest is Loch Morir in the North Scottish Highlands (310 m).

The flora of Great Britain is diverse, 9% of the territory is covered with forests. Broad-leaved forests predominate - oak, beech, birch. There are many coniferous forests in Scotland - spruce, larch. Heathlands are widespread. In the south of the country there are evergreen Mediterranean plant species. Plants vegetate all year round.

In the UK there are approx. 30 thousand species of animals. Among them are foxes, hares, red squirrels, otters, black rats, mink, reptiles and amphibians. Of the 200 bird species, the most common are sparrows, finches, starlings, crows, kingfishers, robins, and tits. In rivers, lakes and coastal sea waters there are numerous species of fish - cod, haddock, whiting, herring, salmon, trout.

UK population

Between 1981 and 2001 the population of the UK grew by only 6%, largely due to immigrants from developing countries and their children born in the UK. At the same time, emigration continued. According to official forecasts, by 2025 the country's population will reach 65 million people. The average population density is one of the highest in the world - 242 people. per 1 km2.

Birth rate 1.3‰, mortality 10.3‰, infant mortality 5.5 people. per 1000 births (2002). Average life expectancy - 78.0 years, incl. men 75.2, women 80.8 years. In 2000, there were 838,000 more women than men in the country.

One of the most important problems of the country is the aging of the population. In 2002, persons aged 65 and over made up 15.8% of the population. The 2001 census showed that for the first time the number of people over 60 exceeded the number of children under the age of 15.

Still in con. 19th century The UK has reached a high degree of urbanization. In 1999 the urban population was 89%.

In cities with a population of St. 100 thousand people almost half of the country's population lives. The largest cities in terms of the number of inhabitants: London, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, Bristol, Coventry, Cardiff, Belfast, Nottingham. Great Britain is a multinational country. The vast majority of the population are indigenous people: English (81.5%), Scots (9.6%), Irish (2.4%), Welsh (1.9%). 1960-80s characterized by a large influx of immigrants from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Caribbean countries, and the 1990s. - from African states (Kenya, Uganda, Malawi). People from these countries in 2001 accounted for 7.1% of the population.

Along with English ca. 26% of the population of Wales speak Welsh, 80 thousand people. in Scotland - Gaelic. The people of the Channel Islands - Guernsey and Jersey - use French.

Religiously, Great Britain is predominantly a Protestant country. The Anglican Church, which enjoys the status of a state church in England, has approx. 34 million followers. A similar position in Scotland is occupied by the Presbyterian Church - 800 thousand people. There are also other Protestant groups: Methodists - 760 thousand, Baptists. Approx. 6 million Catholics. Numerous groups of Hindus, Buddhists, followers of Judaism also live. The Muslim community is growing rapidly, in 2002 there were 1.5 million adherents of Islam.

History of Great Britain

The UK is a country with a rich history. In the 1st millennium BC. The territory of modern Great Britain was inhabited by the Celts. All R. 1 in. AD The British Isles experienced the invasion of the Romans, and after their departure in the 5th-6th centuries. were conquered by the Anglo-Saxons. By the 5th-11th centuries. include the first beginnings of statehood. The conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy in 1066 led to the fall of the Anglo-Saxon dynasties and the beginning of the rule of the Norman dynasty (11th-12th centuries). During this period, the process of feudalization, political unification and centralization of state power was completed.

The first noticeable reforms to strengthen royal power were carried out by Henry II of Anjou, the first of the Plantagenet dynasty (12-14 centuries). In 1215, King John Landless signed the Magna Carta - a document that for the first time set out the basic principles of governing England and limited the power of the king in favor of chivalry, free peasantry and cities. The reign of the Plantagenets was also marked by the first convocation of Parliament, the accession of Wales. The Hundred Years War of 1337-1453 with France led to the loss of territories conquered in this country in the 12th century.

Further expansion of the rights of Parliament occurred under Henry IV - the first of the Lancaster dynasty. The development of commodity-money relations and the struggle of the peasants (the uprising of W. Tyler in 1381 and others) led to the 15th century. to the almost complete elimination of the personal dependence of the peasants. During the War of the Scarlet and White Roses - the war between the Lancasters and Yorks (1455-87), the old feudal nobility was practically destroyed. A new middle and petty nobility, connected with the development of capitalism, the gentry, gradually began to come to power. The Yorks won the war, but they managed to stay on the throne only approx. 20 years. They were replaced by the kings of the Tudor dynasty (15th-17th centuries). Henry VII (1457-1509) laid the foundations of absolutism - the unlimited power of the monarch. During the reign of the next monarch of this dynasty, Henry VIII (1491-1547), the reformation of the church was carried out: the king broke with the Roman Catholic Church and proclaimed himself the head of the Anglican (Protestant) Church. Under the reign of his son Edward VI (1537-53), Protestantism was declared the official religion in England. In 1536 the Act of Union of England and Wales was signed. In the 16th century the process of primitive accumulation of capital unfolded, the basis of which was the dispossession of the peasantry (fencing).

The last of the Tudor line was Elizabeth I (1533-1603). Without her own heirs, in 1603 she handed over the throne to the King of Scotland, James I Stuart, the son of Mary Stuart, who became the first king of England and Scotland. During the era of the Stuart dynasty (17-18 centuries), a war broke out between parliament and the monarch (1642-51). It ended with the execution in 1649 of King Charles I. In 1653-58 Oliver Cromwell ruled the country as Lord Protector. The English bourgeois revolution ensured the establishment of capitalism. In 1660 the monarchy was restored. In con. 17th century political parties took shape - the Tories and the Whigs (in the middle of the 19th century they were transformed into the conservative and liberal parties, respectively). In 1707, Scotland was annexed to the English crown - the Act of Union of England and Scotland was signed.

In the 18th century The Stuarts were replaced by the Hanoverian dynasty. The long war with France for commercial and colonial hegemony ended with the victory of Great Britain. Huge possessions in India and North America were captured. As a result of the War of Independence in North America (1775-83), 13 North American colonies separated from the mother country and formed an independent state - the United States. In 1801 the Act of Union of England and Ireland was signed. Great Britain is the organizer of a coalition against revolutionary and then Napoleonic France. In 1805, the English fleet defeated the Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar, which ensured the long-term dominance of Great Britain at sea. In this battle, the commander of the English fleet, Admiral G. Nelson, one of the outstanding naval commanders of that time, was mortally wounded. In 1815, the Anglo-Dutch troops under the command of A. Wellington, together with the Prussian troops, defeated the army of Napoleon I at Waterloo.

In con. 18-1st floor. 19th century the industrial revolution took place. In the 1830s the factory system of production was established. Great Britain becomes the most powerful industrial country in the world, its "workshop". In the 1830s-50s. the first mass movement of the proletariat, Chartism, unfolded. In 1868, the British Congress of Trade Unions was created. At 19 - beg. 20th century Great Britain was the largest colonial power in the world. She colonized Australia and New Zealand, conquered vast territories in Asia and Africa, completed the capture of India, Egypt, waged wars against China, Afghanistan, suppressed the national liberation movement in India (1857-59), uprisings in Ireland (1848, 1867 and etc.). The strengthening of the liberation movement in the colonies forced Great Britain to create dominions (the first was Canada, 1867). Colonial conquests are closely associated with the name of Queen Victoria (1819-1901), the last of the monarchs of the Hanoverian dynasty, who occupied the throne for 64 years. Since 1901, the Windsor dynasty has been in power (until 1917 it was called the Saxe-Coburg dynasty).

Already to the beginning 20th century Great Britain, which made the industrial revolution before others, lost its monopoly. In 1900, it was in 2nd place in terms of industrial production after the United States, and in subsequent decades, in terms of GDP, it shared 2nd or 3rd place with Germany. The dominant position of the pound sterling in the international monetary system and the country's position as a world carrier were undermined.

Great Britain played an active role in the creation of the Entente - the union of Great Britain, France and Russia (1904-07) and in the preparation of the 1st World War, as a result of which it received a significant part of the former German possessions in Africa and most of the territories taken from Turkey (Ottoman empire). During the liberation war of the Irish people (1919-21), the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 was concluded granting Ireland (with the exception of Northern Ireland, which remained part of Great Britain) the status of a dominion.

In the 1930s Great Britain pursued a policy of "appeasement" of Nazi Germany. The Munich Agreement signed on behalf of Great Britain by Prime Minister N. Chamberlain with A. Hitler and B. Mussolini (September 29-30, 1938) contributed to the outbreak of the 2nd World War, which Great Britain entered on September 3, 1939. In May-June 1940 to Great Britain English, parts of the French and Belgian troops, blockaded by the German army in the area of ​​the French city of Dunkirk, were evacuated. On May 10, 1940, W. Churchill headed the government. After the German attack on the USSR, in the face of the immediate threat of the invasion of fascist troops in Great Britain and the continuous bombardment of British cities from the air, it entered into a military alliance with the USSR. Together with the USSR and the USA, Great Britain became one of the main participants in the anti-Hitler coalition. In 1942-43, the British 8th Army, under the command of Field Marshal Montgomery, defeated the Italo-German troops near El Alamein in North Africa. In July-August 1943, Anglo-American troops landed on the island of Sicily. In June-July 1944, British troops, together with American troops, landed in Normandy, which marked the opening of a second front. W. Churchill participated in the conferences of the three heads of powers - winners in World War II: Yalta (February 1945) and Potsdam (July-August 1945); at the end of the Potsdam Conference, he was replaced by the head of the Labor Party, K. Attlee, who won the election. These conferences determined the basic principles of the post-war order of the world.

State structure and political system of Great Britain

Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy. Unlike most countries in the world, in the UK there is no Constitution, which would be a single document, it consists of various acts of parliament - statutes, judgments and constitutional customs. The constitution may be amended by an act of parliament or by general agreement to change constitutional custom.

The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II (born April 21, 1926), who ascended the throne in February 1952. In the last century, there has been a tendency to transfer power directly to the government, but the queen continues to take part in the implementation of a number of important functions of state power. She retained the right to convene and dissolve parliament, appoint the prime minister: the queen invites the leader of the political party that makes up the majority in the House of Commons to form a government. The Queen approves laws passed by Parliament. By law, she is the supreme commander and, on the proposal of the government, appoints the highest military commanders. As head of the judiciary appoints judges, and as head of the Church of England, bishops. In the field of international relations, the queen, as head of state, has the right to declare war and conclude peace, sign international treaties and agreements.

The UK includes 4 historical and geographical regions ( historical provinces) - England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland (Ulster) - part of Ireland - 6 northeastern counties (according to the Treaty of 1921 included in the UK as an autonomy). Administratively, Great Britain is divided into counties, districts and cities. The UK includes independent administrative units - the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands, as well as 15 dependent territories. administered by the authorities local authorities housing, education, welfare, police and fire departments are located. They are financed by funds received from the collection of municipal taxes, local taxes and subsidies from the central government.

The highest body of legislative power is the parliament. It consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Parliament is engaged in legislative activity. Bills (bills) go through 3 readings. As a general rule, bills must be passed by both houses. Before laws can take effect, they must receive royal assent. In practice, this is a pure formality. In the absence of a written Constitution as a single document and under the provision of "parliamentary sovereignty", the parliament can cancel acts of constitutional significance. Parliamentary committees play an important role in drafting laws. The leading role in the activities of Parliament belongs to the House of Commons. It is elected for a term of not more than 5 years and has 659 members - 1 representative from each of the 659 constituencies. Parliament is elected by majority system of relative majority by direct and secret ballot on the basis of universal suffrage.

All citizens of Great Britain, as well as other Commonwealth countries and the Republic of Ireland, who have reached the age of 18 and permanently reside in Great Britain, have the right to vote. Since 1945, the Conservative Party won 8 times in general elections, and the Labor Party 8 times. As a result of the general parliamentary elections in June 2001, the majority in the House of Commons, as in the previous elections in 1997, was won by the Labor Party - 412 seats (40.7% of the votes received). The Conservatives - 166 seats (31.7%), the Liberal Democrats - 52 (18.3%), the Scottish National Party - 5 (1.8%), Cymru Plaid - 4 (0.75%), the Ulster Unionist party - 6 (0.8%), Democratic Unionist Party - 5 (0.7%), Sinn Fein - 4 (0.7%), others - 4 (0.8%).

The upper chamber - the House of Lords - consists of hereditary and life peers (who received the title for services to the country), archbishops and senior bishops of the Anglican Church, Lords of the Supreme Court of Appeal. Acts of Parliament of 1911 and 1949 significantly limited the rights of the House of Lords. Its main function is to consider and amend the drafts submitted by the House of Commons. Since 1949, the House of Lords retained only the right of a suspensive veto - a short-term postponement of bills adopted by the House of Commons. Bills of a fiscal nature, relating to taxation and public expenditure, are passed by the House of Lords as presented by the House of Commons. In 1999, the House of Lords Act was passed, under which the number of hereditary peers was reduced from over 750 to 92. It is intended to completely abolish the institution of hereditary peers. In 2001, a White Paper was published providing that the majority of life peers would be appointed by an independent cross-party commission and on the advice of political parties in proportion to the size of factions in the House of Commons. The 120 members of the House of Lords will be elected.

The head of the executive branch is the monarch. The head of government is the prime minister. The government is formed by the leader of the party that won the majority or the largest number of seats in parliament in the elections (since 1997 - Labor MP Tony Blair). The government consists of cabinet members (c. 20), non-cabinet ministers and junior ministers (usually parliamentary deputy ministers). Most ministers are members of the House of Commons. At the disposal of the Prime Minister is the apparatus of civil servants.

The party system includes the following parties: The Conservative Party - organizationally took shape in 1867, has approx. 300 thousand members, leader - Ian Duncan Smith. After the 2nd World War, she was in power in 1951-64, 1970-74, 1979-97. The Labor Party was formed in 1890, unites collective (trade unions and cooperative societies) and individual members, has 260,000 members, and is led by Tony Blair. After the 2nd World War, he was in power in 1945-51, 1964-70, 1974-79. It has been the ruling party since 1997. The Liberal Democratic Party was formed in 1988 by the merger of the Liberal and Social Democratic parties, has approx. 82 thousand members, leader - Charles Kennedy. National parties are also represented in Parliament: Plaid Camry (founded in Wales in 1925, leader I. Vic Jones); Scottish National Party (founded in 1937, leader John Swinney); Ulster Unionist Party (founded in the early 20th century, leader David Trimble); Democratic Unionist Party (founded in 1971, leader Ian Paisley); The Social Democratic and Labor Party of Northern Ireland (founded in 1970, leader Mark Derken), Sinn Fein - the political wing of the Irish Republican Army (IRA, formed at the end of the 1st World War, leader Jerry Adams), the party refused to take its seats in the House of Commons.

The interaction between government and business is carried out primarily through the unions of entrepreneurs. In 2001, there were 192 business organizations in the country. The most influential of them is the Confederation of British Industry (CBI). Expresses the interests of approx. 200 thousand firms - from the largest TNCs to small companies. They employ 7.5 million people. The PCU includes most business unions and business associations. The most important task of the PBC is to promote the creation of an economic climate favorable for the activities of British business, increasing its competitiveness. Committees and experts of the KBP develop recommendations for the government, participate in the preparation of budget bills, and in the formation of foreign economic policy. Other major business organizations include the Association of British Chambers of Commerce. It provides services to more than 135,000 companies, assists in personnel training, promotion of British firms' products on the foreign market, and access to information necessary for business. Institute of Directors, numbering approx. 53 thousand members, advises directors of companies on issues such as corporate governance, insolvency and bankruptcies, training. The Institute of Directors represents the interests of its members before the authorities in the UK and the EU. The Small Business Federation represents the interests of 160,000 small businesses and self-employed owners and provides them with information on taxation, employment, security, and insurance.

A feature of the British labor movement has always been a high percentage of unionized employees. Trade unions have gained quite a strong position both in relations with employers and in the socio-political life of the country as a whole. In 1979 there were 362 trade unions in the country, covering 54-55 percent of all wage laborers. With the help of tough anti-union laws, the conservatives managed to achieve a significant restriction of the rights and scope of the activities of trade unions. As a result, the number of trade unions decreased - 206 in 2001, the number of members of trade unions decreased - from 13.1 million in 1979 to 7.3 million in 2001, or 27% of the number of employees. The largest trade union association, the British Congress of Trade Unions (TUC), was founded in 1868. It includes 74 trade unions and 6.7 million members. The most important problems of the socio-economic development of the country are discussed at the annual congresses of the TCU. The BKT has traditionally supported and financed the Labor Party. After coming to power, the Laborites announced their intention to somewhat soften the legislation regulating the activities of trade unions. A feature of the British trade union movement is the existence of a widely branched network of shop stewards (shop stewards) who are elected directly at their place of work. The main function is the daily protection of workers and employees in relations with the administration, the settlement of labor conflicts.

In fiscal year 2002/03, military spending was £24.2 billion. Art., in the financial year 2003/04 - 25.4 billion. In 2002 they were equal to 2.32% of GDP. In 2001, the strength of the Armed Forces was: fleet 42.9 thousand, land army 114.0 thousand, Air Force 54.0 thousand, regular reserves 234.7 thousand, volunteers 47.3 thousand. armed forces 111.7 thousand civilians were employed. Great Britain is a nuclear power. In 2002, 4 submarines equipped with 48 Trident-P ballistic missiles were in service. The UK maintains a nuclear arsenal of approximately 185 warheads. Its role in building up the potential of NATO's rapid reaction forces is great. Great Britain is in favor of strengthening the European pillar of this organization. British military contingents are stationed in Cyprus, East Timor, Sierra Leone, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Bosnia and Kosovo.

In domestic politics, the key to understanding many of the features of the modern socio-political structure of British society is given by such features of its development as evolution, "traditionalism" and the comparative stability of political institutions. For centuries, British political culture has been characterized by moderation and the organic weaving of new elements into existing structures, the combination and fusion of traditional and modern values, the gradual mastery of the ruling elite skills and abilities of "coordination of interests" within the framework of democratic institutions. The stability of British society has always rested on a consensus about its fundamental goals and how to achieve them. A characteristic feature of a developed civil society in this country is the law-abidingness of citizens. The importance of a tolerant political culture is especially important in the absence of a written constitution.

Since 1924, the Conservative and Labor parties have alternated in power. From the beginning 1970s Significant support began to receive "third" parties, primarily the Liberal Democratic (until 1988 - Liberal) and the Scottish Nationalists.

In 1979 the neo-conservatives led by M. Thatcher came to power. Among the value orientations of neoconservatism special place belonged to individualism, or anti-collectivism. growing authoritarian tendencies in public administration; the role of the executive power in the institutions of representation of interests has increased. At the same time, the most important direction of Tory policy was the transformation of the system of state social services, or the "welfare state": there was a partial denationalization of the health care system; conservatives have implemented a number of measures aimed at implementing the principle of freedom of choice in school education and encouraging various kinds private insurance.

The Labor Party, which won elections in 1997 and 2001, is implementing a program of reforms designed to significantly update the country's political system. First of all, they started to implement the constitutional reform. One of the most important directions of this reform is the devolution (decentralization) of power. For many centuries, Great Britain was a unitary state, all major issues were resolved in London. However, in recent years the situation has changed. In 1998, the Assembly of Northern Ireland is elected, and in 1999 - the National Assembly of Wales and the Scottish Parliament. They are transferred a number of important functions of a socio-economic nature. At the same time, regional autonomy in England itself was developing. Only foreign policy, security issues and tax collection remained in the competence of the central authorities. Decentralization of the country's governance is taking place at a time when regional authorities are increasingly involved in the political system of the EU.

Other directions of the reform were the rejection of the hereditary principle of the formation of the House of Lords and the unambiguously majoritarian nature of the country's electoral system. The Bill of Rights, which makes the legal acts adopted by the world community a part of British law, the Freedom of Information Act, has been passed through Parliament. The constitutional reform is carried out within the framework of the concept of the "third way" as the concept of the internal development of Great Britain. If the first path is neoliberalism based on the principles of individualism and its British version - Thatcherism, and the second path is traditional socialism and social democracy oriented towards statehood, then the third path is the movement towards a just social order based on universal human values. The government seeks to develop various forms of participation of the population and its individual groups in solving social, economic and political issues of the development of society.

At the center of the domestic political life of the country are also the issues of modernizing the systems of healthcare, education, and public transport. British dissatisfaction with the state of these areas of the economy led to a significant defeat of Labor in the local elections in May 2003. The problems associated with Britain's accession to the euro area are widely discussed. The Labor leadership is in favor of the country's entry into the EMU in the event of a positive outcome of the referendum on this issue. Dissatisfaction in the country was caused by the government's decision on the participation of Great Britain in the war in Iraq. A special place in the internal political life of the country is occupied by a peaceful settlement in Ulster. Despite London's attempts to resolve intercommunal differences in Northern Ireland, bloody clashes between extremist-minded representatives of the Catholic and Protestant populations could not be avoided. The political autonomy of Northern Ireland, established by the 1998 peace agreement, ceased to exist in October 2002, mainly due to the IRA's unwillingness to disarm.

In foreign policy at the beginning. 21st century Great Britain, undoubtedly, is included into the five of the leading developed countries along with the USA, France, Germany and Japan. Moreover, as one of the victorious countries in the 2nd World War, it has some advantages over the last two. Great Britain is a nuclear power and a permanent member of the UN Security Council. From the beginning 1970s she, along with France and Germany, plays a leading role in the EU, although her political influence in this organization is less, and at the same time maintains, albeit in a curtailed form, a "special relationship" with the United States. Great Britain still claims to be a mediator in relations between the Old and New Worlds. Great Britain has the most extensive "economic empire" abroad after the United States, and leads the Commonwealth.

At the same time, over the past decades, there has been a weakening of the UK's position in the world economy and politics, in the system of international relations. In the 1950-70s. The British colonial empire finally collapsed. Great Britain had to abandon the old doctrine, according to which it is able to successfully combine 3 roles: the leader of Western Europe, the head of the Commonwealth and the privileged partner of the United States. Britain's accession to the EU in 1973 was a turning point in the process of shifting to Western Europe the center of gravity of the whole complex of positions of this country abroad. Great Britain began to act as an integral part of the Western European center. At the same time, it continues to take a special position on many fundamental issues of EU development. The originality of the position of Great Britain reflects the specifics of the national political culture, legal thinking, traditions of foreign policy strategy, which for centuries have maintained a certain distance between the "island state" and continental Europe. In addition, the stake on European integration is combined with the continued special relations between Great Britain and the United States, which are largely determined by the common language, closeness of traditions and culture.

The Labor government that came to power in May 1997 emphasizes the key role of nation-states in modern Europe and sweeps aside federalist ideals of integration. In all areas of EU policy, it places the principle of subsidiarity at the forefront and upholds the principle of a clear distinction between the three pillars of the EU. Recognizing the need for greater flexibility within the EU, Labor advocates maintaining the principle of unanimity and approving joint actions within the framework of cooperation. The government emphasizes the key role of NATO in ensuring the defense of Western Europe. The UK has contributed a large contingent of troops to the European Rapid Reaction Force.

In the 2nd floor. 1990s - early 2000s Anglo-American ties were significantly strengthened. Common approaches and coinciding interests prevailed in international affairs and in the field of security. This manifested itself during the Kosovo conflict and especially during the war in Iraq in March-April 2003, when London most consistently supported Washington's position. After the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 in New York, the main activity of the government in the field of foreign policy and security policy was switched to the fight against terrorism and support for this fight by the Commonwealth countries.

In relations with the Russian Federation, the Blair government adhered to the line of constructive interaction. Using its special relationship with the US and its membership in the EU, the UK sought to play the role of some kind of link between the West and Russia. Relations between the two countries have been marred by Britain's stance on the UN's role in managing the Iraqi crisis.

Great Britain has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation; installed from the USSR on February 2, 1924.

UK economy

The UK is one of the largest economically developed countries in the world. In 2000, the GDP was £859.1 billion. (in prices and PPP 1995), 5th in the world after the USA, Japan, Germany and France. UK share of world GDP 3.0% (2002). In the same year, its GDP per capita was £14,000. The share of the country in international trade in recent years is 4.5 - 5%. According to this indicator, it takes 4-5th place. The UK is in 2nd place after the USA in terms of accumulated foreign direct investments, in 3rd place - after the USA and Japan - in terms of the number of companies in the list of the 500 largest TNCs in the world and the market capitalization of shares. In terms of financial transactions, London is second only to New York. The capital of Great Britain ranks first in the world in terms of the number of foreign banks operating here. London is home to the world's third largest stock exchange (after Tokyo and New York) in terms of operations. Unlike the stock markets of other European countries, which are mainly nationally oriented, securities of St. 500 TNCs - more than half of the world trade in foreign shares. London is the largest foreign exchange market, the City carries out approx. 1/3 of foreign exchange transactions in the world. London's closest competitors - New York, Tokyo and Singapore - collectively have the same share.

Through London passes the largest volume of insurance operations and international reinsurance operations. The lion's share of the world exchange market of metals, oil and other strategic goods is concentrated in the capital of Great Britain. For a long time, the British currency - the pound sterling - dominated the world monetary system; using the leading role of the pound in international settlements, Great Britain covered the balance of payments deficit with the national currency. Then, for a number of decades, the pound shared with the dollar the position of one of the two key currencies of the world. Having lost the position of the country that operated the key reserve currency, Great Britain for a long time claimed a special place in international monetary and credit relations. This was partly reflected in London's reluctance to enter the con. 1990s enter the eurozone and abandon the pound in favor of the euro.

Until con. 1980s The UK economy developed more slowly than its main competitors. In the 1990s the situation has improved. In 2002, the country's economy continued to rise, which began in 1993. In the 1990s - early. 2000s employment grew; by 2002, unemployment had fallen to 5.2% of the economically active population (the lowest since 1980). Despite the recovery in the economy and the reduction in unemployment, inflation remained low. In 2002, the consumer price index increased by only 2.1% - inflation was at its lowest level since 1976. At the turn of the century, due to the general deterioration in the world economic situation, the intensity of the rise decreased: in 2002, GDP growth was only 1.6%.

Noticeable changes are taking place in the sectoral structure of the British economy. The importance of the service sector is growing. In 2001, its share in GDP was 71.4%, in employment 75.5%. The share of the manufacturing industry is decreasing: in 2001 it accounted for 17.5% of GDP and 14.5% of the total number of employees. In the mining industry, the importance of the coal industry has significantly decreased and the importance of the oil and gas industry has increased. Construction was developing at a pace below the average for the economy as a whole: in 2001 its contribution to GDP was 5.4%. In the 1990s the role of transport and communications increased markedly: in 2001 their share reached 8% of GDP. The share of agriculture and fisheries in GDP fell sharply - from 2.9% in 1973 to 0.9% in 2001.

In the structure of the manufacturing industry, the paper and printing industries (13.9%), food and tobacco (13.8%), mechanical engineering (35.5%), in which the electrical engineering industry and optical instrument making (12.9%) stand out, have the largest share. ) and the production of vehicles, as well as the chemical industry (10.7%) and metalworking (10.4%). Major shifts are taking place in the industry. The role of new science-intensive industries of chemical (primarily low-tonnage chemistry), electrical engineering and electronics, especially office equipment and computers, as well as communications, aerospace industry (production of civil and military aircraft, helicopters and equipment for space exploration), equipment for offshore oil production is growing. . British pharmaceutical industry is world famous. In terms of the level of development of biotechnology, the UK is second only to the United States. At the same time, the importance of traditional manufacturing industries, which determined the industrial image of the country in the beginning, sharply decreased. 20th century: textile, primarily cotton, steel industry (in 2001 only 12.5 million tons of steel were smelted in the country), civil shipbuilding. The fate of the coal industry is indicative. In 1913, approx. 1.1 million people, and coal production reached 287 million tons. In 2001, the corresponding figures were only 11 thousand people. and 32 million tons. In the 1970s. large deposits of oil and gas have been discovered in the North Sea. In 2001, the production of oil and liquefied gas amounted to 2.4 million barrels per day (about 320 thousand tons). According to this indicator, the UK ranked 10th in the world. The transformation of the UK into a major producer of oil and gas has dramatically changed the energy mix - they account for 72% of energy consumption. The use of natural gas is growing rapidly - 37% of electricity generation. Nuclear power plants produce 22% of electricity. However, 33% of electricity is still generated at coal-fired stations.

Agriculture in the UK is highly mechanized and efficient, covering 63% of the country's food needs. OK. 40% of 386,000 farms are predominantly engaged in animal husbandry - cattle, sheep, pigs, and chickens. In 2001, animal husbandry suffered great damage due to livestock diseases - first spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease"), and then foot and mouth disease. Wheat, barley, and oats are especially common among grain crops. In addition, rapeseed, flaxseed, and potatoes are grown. There are many orchards in the country. Agriculture enjoys great state support and receives subsidies from the EU budget.

The territory of Great Britain is covered by a dense network of roads and railways and is well served by maritime transport through many ports. The dominant role in domestic transportation is occupied by road transport - 85% of passenger traffic and 81% of freight traffic. In 2001, there were 23.9 million cars in personal use. The length of paved highways 406.4 thousand km. The railway network is being reduced, its length is 16.9 thousand km, of which 4.9 thousand km have been electrified. The government is implementing various organizational measures to modernize this mode of transport. The importance of river transport is declining. The length of waterways is 3.2 thousand km. Air transport is developing rapidly. Since the 1980s air transportation of passengers and cargo has more than tripled. British Airways - presenter international airline. The country has approx. 450 civil airports - the largest of them is Heathrow. From Ser. 1970s the tonnage of the sea fleet has sharply decreased. On horseback In 2001, the British merchant marine fleet consisted of 594 ships, including 140 tankers and 454 bulk carriers, 37 passenger ships. Maritime transport accounts for approx. 95% of the country's foreign trade transportation. In the UK ca. 70 ports of commercial importance. The largest of them: Grimsby and Immingham, Tees and Hartlepool, London, Fort, Southampton, Milford Haven, Salo Voy, Liverpool, Dover, Felixstowe. The pipeline transport network is rapidly expanding; it is connected to gas pipelines coming from the fields of the North Sea; the total length of pipelines is 3.9 thousand km.

Communications is one of the fastest growing sectors of the economy. The country is almost completely telephoned; 97% of families have apartment phones, another 4% prefer mobile phones. Total per horse. 2001 there were 44.9 million mobile phones. 34.3 million users are connected to the Internet. 38% of firms have their own WEB-site, 48% carry out e-commerce. There is an intensive process of computerization Everyday life population, education, business. 11.7 million homes are connected to the Internet, 90% of medium-sized and approx. 1/4 primary schools, half of all companies.

Trade in recent years has been growing faster than the economy as a whole. In 2001, the share of wholesale and retail trade in GDP was 12.2%. There are 107 wholesale trade enterprises in the country, which employ 1.18 million people. The number of retail trade enterprises exceeds 192 thousand. They employ 2.87 million people. (11% of all employed in the country). The turnover of large trading companies with a wide network of shops and supermarkets is growing at the highest rate. The importance of trade, in which orders are made by mail and via the Internet, is increasing.

Financial, information and business services are developing at the highest rates. The financial sector accounts for 5% of GDP and employs more than 1 million people. The UK banking system is one of the most developed in the world. Financial institutions of the country provide a wide range of services - consulting, legal, accounting, management. Deregulation has strengthened the trend towards diversification of financial services provided by banks, the universalization of their activities. Thus, commercial banks provide services that were previously provided by commercial banks, invade the insurance industry, and join companies specializing in issuing consumer loans. They actively compete with building companies in the mortgage loan market and have subsidiaries involved in leasing and factoring operations. In order to attract funds from depositors, banks diversify their services, in fact, turn into financial supermarkets. Recently, the importance of the activities of such non-banking financial institutions as building societies, insurance and financial companies, and investment funds has increased. The activities of computer companies providing a variety of services are rapidly expanding. Among them, in the first place - consulting in the field of information technology. Business services include market research, management services, and advertising.

The UK has a developed tourism industry. It employs 2.1 million people. 8% of small companies work in this area. In 2001, 22.8 million foreigners visited V. Its share in world tourism is 3.4%. According to this indicator, it is in 7th place in the world. The largest number of visitors from the USA, France, Germany, the Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands.

Over the past decades, various options for regulating socio-economic policy have been tested in the UK. From con. 1940s it consisted in managing aggregate demand and ensuring full employment, primarily through expanding the role of the state in the socio-economic field. From con. In the 1970s, after the Conservative government came to power, the market began to be seen as the most efficient mechanism for organizing economic activity. The UK has pioneered large-scale privatization in the West. Many traditional values ​​and institutions have undergone significant erosion. The model of the socio-economic mechanism and the political structure of society has undergone significant changes. The state proceeded to reform property relations, its “spraying” (implementation of the theory of “democracy of owners”), to the transformation of the system of social services - the introduction of market principles and competition into a “welfare state”, the creation of a “mixed” public-private system of health care, insurance, pension ensuring, spreading the principle of freedom of choice in school education.

The socio-economic policy of the Laborites, who came to power in 1997, on the one hand, is purely pragmatic and continues the course of its predecessors in a number of areas, on the other hand, it reflects the principles of new laborism: a combination of the social values ​​of old laborism with the development of a market economy. On the whole, after the sharp delimitation of the two main parties along almost polar lines - Thatcherism and state socialism - the parties were increasingly rapprochement, but not so much on the social reformist basis that prevailed after World War II, but on the social liberal one. For Labour, it is softer, more regulated liberalism combined with unconventional market-oriented social reformism.

According to Labor leaders, the "old" Labor proclaimed its goal to ensure equality of income, the "new" - equality of opportunity: more and more Britons should join the middle class. The point of social reform is to turn the "welfare state" into a "social investment state": less public funds should go to social assistance and more to general and vocational education, advanced training and retraining, especially for young people. In its former meaning, the welfare state is preserved only for those who are unable to provide for themselves. An essential place in the activity of the Laborites is occupied by the creation of incentives for work. An indispensable condition for the effectiveness of this system is the development of medical care and other measures designed to ensure the physical and moral health of the nation. The Laborites for the first time determined the size of the minimum wage, introduced a tax credit for the lowest paid part of the population, and repealed some anti-union laws of the Conservatives.

From con. 1970s the mechanism of economic management has undergone significant changes. First of all, there was its significant decentralization. In con. 1990s Labor delegated a number of economic management functions to regional authorities. Market principles are being actively introduced into the activities of the public sector, privatization of public works and services is being carried out, and the participation of the private sector in solving social problems is expanding.

By 2000, approx. 100 state companies. As a result, its public sector shrank by 2/3. For 1979-2000, the proceeds from the sale of assets of state-owned enterprises amounted to approx. £80bn Art. Having privatized most utilities, the government continues to control their activities. The policy of denationalization has become a way to finance the budget deficit, allowing less borrowing. In addition, privatization was aimed at creating competing private firms in place of state monopolies.

The sale of state property - demunicipalization - has become widespread. In an effort to involve the main categories of the working class and the "new middle strata" in the widely publicized "democracy of owners", the government carried out a sale for private use of municipal housing stock, moreover, at preferential prices sanctioned from the center. An important direction the introduction of market principles in the activities of the public sector was contracting. The government and local authorities were ordered to place tenders for cleaning of the territory and premises, construction and repair work, restructuring of houses, and services of specialists. Since 1992, a program called "private financial initiative" has been implemented. The government invites private firms to compete on a competitive basis in projects that were previously carried out by the state itself. In 1997-2000, the cost of projects exceeded £22 billion. Enterprises remaining in state ownership (the largest of them are the Postal Department, the Office civil aviation) act as commercial. Emphasis shifted from sectoral policy to technological, from old to new industries; the criteria for granting financial assistance have been tightened. Finally, there has been a move away from direct subsidizing of business in favor of expanding its awareness of innovations in the field of engineering and technology.

An important direction of economic policy was the deregulation of the economy. In the 1980-90s. many administrative and legal restrictions on business activities were lifted; simplified regulatory procedures. Controls over wages, prices and dividends have been abolished; the labor market has undergone significant deregulation. This policy covered the banking, credit and currency spheres. In 1979, currency controls were abolished, which held back the movement of capital between Great Britain and other countries. In 1980, the "corset" was abolished - a scheme of additional special deposits at the Bank of England, which provided for the placement of excess bank liquidity in interest-free accounts to limit credit expansion. In October 1986, the London Stock Exchange was reorganized, called the “big bang” in the economic literature: the minimum fixed commissions were abolished, banks and foreign institutions were admitted to the exchange, members of the exchange were allowed to combine the functions of a broker and a jobber (principal). As a result, the UK economy has become one of the most deregulated in the world. According to such an indicator as the “index of economic freedom”, it is in 6th place out of 102 countries, behind only Singapore, New Zealand, the USA, Switzerland and Malaysia. However, deregulation does not mean that the government has given up control of the markets. The country has very strict laws that regulate many aspects of private business, primarily the behavior of economic entities in the market. They are aimed at preventing excessive concentration of economic power in individual companies, preserving and stimulating competition.

Based on the fact that economic growth is constrained by high inflation, the Conservatives have developed a medium-term financial strategy for 3-4 years, and the Labor Party is also implementing it. The goal is to limit the rate of price growth. The strategy consists of two components - monetary and budgetary. In the 1980s its main instrument was monetary regulation; financial policy was assigned a passive role of ensuring its effectiveness. However, with con. 1980s and especially during the current cycle, the government is actively resorting to budgetary measures of regulation.

In monetary policy, the emphasis was initially placed on targeting (i.e., setting targets) for money supply indicators. However, by the beginning 1990s the government found it extremely difficult to control its growth. The pound exchange rate, which was pegged to a stable German mark, was chosen as an instrument to fight inflation. This policy continued until September 1992, when the UK withdrew from the EMS exchange rate mechanism.

Since then, a key element of anti-inflationary policy has been a change in short-term interest rates. In 1993, the Bank of England was given the opportunity to independently set the time for the introduction of new rates, and in May 1997 the Labor Party gave it even greater independence - the Bank has the right to make decisions on changing interest rates. Since the UK is not a member of the euro area, the Bank of England is not included in the European System of Central Banks, continues to be an issuing center, and carries out its own monetary policy.

Under the Banking Act 1987, no lending institution is authorized to accept deposits without an appropriate license from the Bank of England. The Bank of England is not responsible for the consequences of bank failures and does not guarantee depositors full compensation for losses. At the same time, the Deposit Protection Fund was established, formed from the contributions of banks in proportion to the amount of their total deposits. Part of these losses is compensated at the expense of the Fund's resources in case of bank failures. In recent years, the government has seriously reformed and simplified the system of supervision over the activities of financial institutions and the regulation of the securities market. In 1997, the Financial Services Authority was created. He was given the powers of the central bank in the field of supervision over the activities of commercial banks. From now on, the Bank of England is responsible for ensuring the overall stability of the financial system.

The most important task of budget policy is to reduce the absolute and relative size of government spending with a parallel reduction in the deficit of the public sector of the economy, or the state's need for loans. Special attention it is turned to more efficient use of public funds both by the central government - 3/4 of all expenses, and by local authorities - 1/4 of expenses. The priorities are health care, education, and transport. Ministries and departments are invited to strictly adhere to the limit (ceiling) of expenditures set by the government for a three-year period.

Tax policy occupies a special place in the arsenal of means of state regulation of the economy. In order to stimulate economic growth, direct tax rates are being reduced, while the tax base is being expanded by reducing benefits. The most important part of the measures to encourage initiative and entrepreneurship was a significant reduction in the base income tax rate - from 33% in 1979 to 25% in 1995, 24% in 1996 and 22% in 2002. Since April 1999, a special rate of 10% has been applied, at which the first 1 £9k Art. income.

One of the main activities of the state remains the tax incentives for savings of the population as an important source of financing capital investments. Various preferential savings schemes have been developed and introduced, under which investments, primarily by small investors, are fully or partially exempt from taxes.

At the same time, the reduction in direct income tax rates was accompanied by an increase in indirect taxation. The standard value added tax rate was raised and in 2002 was 17.5%. The share of revenues from indirect taxes increased significantly - from 43% in the 1978/79 financial year to 54% in the 1997/98 financial year. The increase in indirect taxes was intended to some extent to compensate for the reduction in direct tax revenues and to promote the redistribution of resources in favor of investment.

A large place in the policy of the state is occupied by tax incentives for private investment. During their reign, the Conservatives reduced the corporate tax rate from 50% to 33%. In July 1997, Labor reduced it to 30%. Particular attention is paid to the tax incentives for small businesses - the tax rate for small companies (with an annual profit of up to £300,000) was reduced by the Conservatives from 50 to 23%. In 1997, Labor reduced it to 21%, in April 2002 the rate was reduced to 19%. Small companies (with an annual profit of up to £10,000) are exempt from income tax.

To increase the revenue base of the budget, Labor introduced a tax on the windfall profits of public utilities. The reduction in the corporate income tax rate is expected to be financed by eliminating offset tax credits. Such a measure should help increase the rate of return and increase the UK's attractiveness for long-term investment.

As a result of the government's financial policy, the share of its spending in GDP fell from 49.0% to 37.4% in the financial year 1975/76 and rose again to 39.0% in 2000/01. The budget has been in surplus since 1998/99, although it fell substantially in 2001/02, primarily due to lower corporate income tax revenues. Net public debt in relation to GDP in 1996/97 was 43.7%, in 2000/01 - 30.4% - the lowest level among the G7 countries.

The British model of socio-economic development differs markedly from the European continental one. Its structure is largely reminiscent of the American one (the similarity of the institutional environment, investment behavior of companies, forms of corporate governance, the nature of the labor market, etc.). In the economic literature, the Anglo-American model has been called "shareholder capitalism" in contrast to the continental model of "stakeholder capitalism".

The main goal of management activity in the British model is to maximize the income of shareholders. Representatives of labor (trade unions) and the state play a much smaller role in solving the most important issues of the management activities of firms than on the continent. Hence the orientation towards short-term development goals of firms (short-termism). This model is characterized by a much greater dispersion of shareholding than in other European countries. Here, its concentration in the hands of the largest owners is significantly lower. Corporate control is exercised to a large extent through the securities market. In the UK, the stock market is more developed, the capitalization of securities is much higher. Financial institutions and non-financial companies play a much smaller role in equity ownership here than on the European continent.

At the same time, the economic mechanism and socio-economic policy of the UK are increasingly transforming and changing in the direction of the requirements of EU membership. EU laws and directives in areas such as agricultural and regional policy, energy, finance and insurance, competition and consumer protection are of growing importance in the regulation of the economy. In June 1997 the UK signed the EU Social Charter. And although it was not included in the first group of eurozone countries, in recent years London has been actively implementing the measures necessary to introduce a single currency. We are talking about reducing the budget deficit and public debt, lowering interest rates and inflation.

In recent decades, the increase in the standard of living of the population was due to the growth of nominal and real incomes of the population. The average weekly wage in April 2001 was £356, and for full-time men it was £444. Art. The average hourly wage for men was £11.97, for women it was £9.76. Art. In April 1999, a minimum wage was established by law. Since October 2002 it has been £4.20. Art. for employees aged 22 years and over and 3.60l. Art. - for workers and employees aged 18-22 years. In the spring of 2002, the average working week for full-time employees at their main place of work was 38 hours (40 hours for men and 34 hours for women). The UK has adopted an EU directive regulating working hours. It entered into force in 1998: the maximum working week is 48 hours, the minimum paid vacation is 4 weeks, etc. Old-age pensions are paid to women from 60 years of age, to men from 65 years of age. In April 2002, the basic pension for a single pensioner was £75.50. Art. per week, couples - 120.70 pounds. Art. In the 1990s - early 2000s growth in nominal incomes of the population significantly exceeded the rate of inflation. As a result, real incomes increased: in 1991-2001 their average annual growth was 3.1%.

With the growth of household expenditures (they account for approximately 2/3 of GDP), their structure changes. The fastest growing consumer spending on durable goods, communications, leisure, clothing and footwear. The largest expenditure items for the population are housing (17.7% in 2001), transport (14.1%), and recreation. St. 2/3 of British families own their own home. There are 34.3 million Internet users in the country. 86% of families have current bank accounts, 25% - shares, 15 million families - savings accounts of building societies. In recent years, savings are at a low level: 2001 - 6.2% of disposable income.

With a general increase in the living standards of the population, a significant polarization of income and wealth is observed in the country. The real incomes of the 20% of the richest families are 4 times higher than the incomes of the 20% of the poorest families. In 2000, 1/10 of the population owned 54% of the national wealth. Significantly lower standard of living in comparison with the indigenous population - among national minorities. Among them is the highest percentage of unemployed. Longstanding health problems such as long queues at hospitals and shortages of nursing staff continue to persist and even worsen. Classes in many schools are still overcrowded, the level of teacher training is insufficient, and the difference in the technical equipment of public and private schools is almost not decreasing.

Great Britain is deeply integrated into the world economy, the importance of foreign economic relations is constantly growing. In 2001, 27% of goods and services produced in the country were exported; exports of goods amounted to 191.6 billion pounds. Art., services - 225.2 billion pounds. Art. Export per capita in the UK is greater than in the US and Japan. In 2001 imports of goods amounted to 225.2 billion pounds. Art., services - 65.7 billion pounds. Art. The UK tends to have a deficit in trade in goods and a surplus in trade in services. In 2001, investment income abroad exceeded UK foreign investment by £9.0bn. Art. The result was a current account deficit of £20.5 billion. Art. Much attention in the country is paid to attracting foreign capital; it is seen as a means of increasing labor productivity. In 2001, the inflow of foreign direct investment in the UK amounted to 43.8 billion pounds. Art. At the same time, direct investment exports amounted to 23.7 billion pounds. Art., which is significantly lower than the previous year, when it reached a record level of 168.6 billion pounds. Art., - a consequence of the high activity of British firms in the international market of mergers and acquisitions. Total per horse. 2001 UK assets abroad were £3,176 billion. Art., including direct investment - 645.2 billion. Foreign assets in this country - 3216 billion pounds. Art., incl. direct investment £347.5 billion Art.

Changes in the structure of the economy were accompanied by significant shifts in the structure of foreign trade. Up to the end. 1950s in the international specialization of the commodity exchange in Great Britain, the intersectoral direction prevailed. Large differences were observed in the structure of exports and imports: exports were dominated by manufactured products, while imports were dominated by raw materials and foodstuffs. From the beginning 1960s intra-industry exchange is developing rapidly. In 1971, finished and semi-finished products accounted for 84% of merchandise exports. In connection with the increase in the export of North Sea oil, this share in 1970-beginning. 80s decreased, but by 2001 it again reached 84%. In the same year, machinery and vehicles accounted for 56% of exports. The export of products of the aerospace, chemical and electronic industries is growing. At the same time, the share of textile exports is decreasing. The involvement in the international circulation of electronic computing equipment is very high: approx. 70% of the products of the electronic industry. For export is St. 70% of the products of the chemical industry, more than half of the products of instrumentation. Among the branches of general engineering with a very high export orientation are tractor building, the production of textile and mining equipment. Great Britain occupies one of the first places in the world in terms of arms exports. From the beginning 1960s importance in the import of food and raw materials is continuously falling. In 1971-2001, the share of foodstuffs decreased from 22 to 8%, and industrial raw materials - from 12 to 2%. At the same time, the share of finished products jumped from 7 to 60% (with semi-finished products - up to 85%).

At the same time, there were changes in the geographical distribution of foreign trade. In the beginning. 20th century Great Britain's foreign trade was focused on its colonial possessions; back in 1950, 40% of this country's exports went to dependent countries, of which approx. 40% of UK imports. To the beginning 21st century the situation has changed dramatically. In 2001, 85% of exports and 81% of imports were already in developed countries. In recent decades, there has been a "Europeanization" of the UK's trade relations: in 2001, 53% of its exports of goods and services (85% of exports of goods and 52% of imports) were accounted for by its EU partners.

UK science and culture

Great is the contribution of Great Britain to the treasury of world science, primarily to the development of the natural and technical sciences. Among the outstanding scientists - physicists, chemists, biologists - I. Newton, R. Boyle, R. Hooke, J. Joule, M. Faraday, J. Maxwell, C. Darwin, Cavendish, E. Rutherford. The works of British philosophers, sociologists, historians, economists - R. Bacon, T. More, Fr. Bacon, T. Hobbes, I. Bentham, W. Petty, A. Smith, D. Ricardo, J. Mill, R. Owen, T. R. Malthus, A. Marshall, J. M. Keynes, B. Russell. St. 70 British scientists have been awarded Nobel Prizes. The UK accounts for approximately 4.5% of the world's spending on science, 8% of all scientific publications. In 2000, R&D spending accounted for 1.8% of GDP, of which 85% went to civilian purposes, 15% to military ones. Sources of financing: business - 49%, state - 29%, foreign funds - 16%. Science in the government is in charge of the Ministry of Trade and Industry, and in it - the Minister of Science.

In the UK, there is compulsory education for children aged 5 (in Northern Ireland - from 4) to 16 years. Approximately 94% of students attend public free schools, 6% study in private paid schools or at home. OK. 70% of school leavers continue their education. Approximately 1/3 of secondary school graduates enter universities and other higher educational institutions. There are 90 universities and 64 other higher education institutions in the country. The oldest universities are Oxford (founded in 1167) and Cambridge (1209). The duration of study for a bachelor's degree is 3 years (in Scotland - 4).

British writers, artists, architects, actors have had a significant impact on the development of world literature and art. Suffice it to name such poets and prose writers as J. Chaucer, W. Shakespeare, J. Swift, D. Defoe, G. Fielding, R. Burns, D. Byron, P. B. Shelley, W. Thackeray, W. Scott , R. Kipling, B. Shaw, A. Trollope, L. Stevenson, J. Galsworthy, G. Wells, A. Conan Doyle, A. Christie. World famous artists W. Hogarth, D. Reynolds, T. Gainsborough, D. Constable, W. Turner, architects A. Jones, C. Wren, J. Wood, composers G. Purcell, E. Elgar, B. Britten , musicians of the Beatles group, the British stage was glorified by the actors D. Garrick, S. Siddon, W. Macready, D. Gielgud, L. Olivier, V. Lee, P. Scofield.

The report about the UK grade 3 will tell you about this conservative, interesting country with a rich history.

A brief note about the UK

The UK consists of several countries - Wales, England, Scotland and Northern Ireland.

Brief description of Great Britain

Your report on Great Britain should begin with the fact that the Kingdom is located in northwestern Europe, in the British Isles. True, there are still administratively independent units - the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man.

The capital of Great Britain— London, the city attracts many tourists from all over the country.

Great Britain Square- 244.1 thousand km 2.

The highest point is Mount Ben Nevis, 1343 m. It is located in Scotland.

UK population- 65,110,000 million people.

Major cities in the UK- Birmingham, Glasgow, Sheffield, Liverpool, Edinburgh, Manchester

What countries borders the UK? Since the country is located on the islands, then the only state, with which the UK borders - this.

UK climate

Great Britain a brief description is not possible without a description of climatic features. The climate of the state is mild, temperate oceanic and humid. Northern Ireland has a wetter climate, while Scotland is much colder and drier. Basically, the weather is formed by the oceanic warm current of the Gulf Stream.

The coldest month is January with temperature fluctuations from +3 C to +7 C. The warmest month is July with temperatures from +11 C to +17 C. 600-750 mm of precipitation falls here annually. A significant part of them falls in the form of rain, the rest is fog. In the northeast, the coldest areas, but the areas of London, Westland and the southeast are considered the warmest areas of the state.

Relief of Great Britain

The territory of the United Kingdom is divided into 2 main areas - High and Low Britain. The high (including Northern Ireland), located in the north and west of the country, is underlain by stable ancient bedrock and is mostly highly dissected uplands and much less common lowlands. In the south and east, Low Britain extends, characterized by hilly terrain, small hills and a few mountainous areas; at its base lie younger sedimentary rocks. In a south-westerly direction from Newcastle at the mouth of the Tyne River to Exeter at the mouth of the Ex River in south Devon, the border between High and Low Britain runs. This boundary is not everywhere clearly defined, and often the transitions between High and Low Britain are smoothed out.

At the base of the mountains throughout Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales lie the Lower Paleozoic folded structures, and in the south of Wales and in the south of Cornwall - Hercynian. These ancient mountain structures were subjected to intense erosion and destruction for a long time, which led to the leveling of their surface.

As a result, the newest uplifts, which occurred in several stages and were accompanied by discontinuous movements, the mountains were fragmented into a number of massifs and acquired a mosaic structure. Leveled surfaces of different heights are very characteristic. Mountain tops often have a flattened shape. The mountains of Great Britain are relatively easily accessible, and there are numerous roads along low watersheds and wide passes.

Minerals of Great Britain

The UK has significant mineral reserves. She is especially wealthy. coal, the total reserves of which are 189 billion tons. At present, the role of hard coal is no longer so great, its extraction has decreased, the best seams have been worked out, and the use of deep mines has become unprofitable.

New large energy resources were found on the shelf of the North Sea in the 60–70s - oil and natural gas. Oil reserves - 2 billion tons, natural gas - 2 trillion. m3. Their intensive development has changed the overall assessment of the UK's energy supply and put it in a more advantageous position compared to EU partners.

The UK also has significant reserves and iron ore(reliable and probable - 4.6 billion tons).

As for other minerals, there is a large deposit of kaolin in Cornwall, rock salt in Durham and Cheshire, potash salt in Yorkshire, tin in Cornwall and uranium ores in Scotland.

Natural areas of Great Britain

Britain, like most of Europe, is in the temperate climate zone. There are three natural areas on islands. This is a zone of deciduous forests in the south, a zone of steppes and forest-steppe in the central part and a zone of coniferous forests in the north.

Rivers and lakes of Great Britain

The state is rich in water resources. The largest rivers in Great Britain are the Thames and the Severn. The rest of the rivers are short and calm. They play an important economic role in the country, more than 60 hydroelectric power plants have been built on them. In such rivers as the Thames, the Humber, the Severn, the Mersey, the Forth and the Clyde, large seaports were built.

Most large lakes Great Britain- Loch Tay, Loch Ness and Loch Lomond.

UK attractions

The main attractions of Great Britain are Tower Bridge, Madame Tussauds Wax Museum, Big Ben, Buckingham Palace, Stonehenge, Stratford-upon-Avon (the city where he grew up), Holyroodhouse Palace in Edinburgh, Loch Ness Monster Museum.

We hope that brief information about the UK has helped you. And you can leave your story about Great Britain through the comments form.