Sources of geographic information. List of literature on geography. Maps, atlas. Basic information from physical geography

For a long time, man has been interested in what lies beyond the horizon - new territories or the ends of the earth. Centuries passed, civilization accumulated knowledge. The time has come when scientists who have never been to distant lands knew a lot about them. Sources helped with this. geographic information.

This article will tell you about what it is, as well as about their varieties.

General concepts

As you might guess, this is the name of all of which a person can get information of interest to him. What sources of geographic information does grade 5 consider (in a secondary school)? Let's list them:

• All geographic Maps, atlases, as well as various topographic plans, including military ones.
• Various geographical descriptions of a particular area.
• Handbooks, encyclopedic articles, results and reports of various expeditions.
• Aerial photographs and space
• and GPS/GLONASS.

Here are the sources of geographic information that grade 5 knows in an average secondary school. We will try to consider the characteristics of some of them in a little more detail.

Modern technologies

In recent years, more and more sources are being converted from paper to digital. And this is not surprising. Almost all 5 sources of geographic information that we just talked about can be found today in digital form. Even professional scientists in recent years prefer to work with the "digit".

It is much more convenient to work with the same GIS system than with a pile of books. Now let's discuss some sources of geographic information in more detail.

Cards

A map is a schematic generalized representation of the surface of a piece of land, the entire planet or celestial bodies. It is built on the principle of scaling, that is, mathematical methods are used for this. Depending on the scale, all maps are usually divided into three large groups:

• Large scale.
• Medium scale.
• Small scale.

If we talk about the first category, then these documents may have a ratio of 1:200,000 or larger. This includes almost all topographic plans. Small-scale maps are considered to be all maps whose ratio is less than 1:1,000,000. A typical geographic atlas includes either small-scale or medium-scale plans that are best suited for studying a particular area.

Sorting map information

You should know that long before creating a map, experts make a strict selection of what will be shown on it. This process is called as follows: cartographic generalization. Naturally, the most stringent selection exists for small-scale maps, since they need to accommodate the maximum volume useful information with a minimum footprint. In the generalization itself, an extremely important role is played by the direct purpose of the card, as well as the wishes of its customer.

Terrain plans

This is the name of the drawings of the area, which are carried out on a large scale (1: 5000 or more), and are drawn using special symbols. In this way, they resemble a school geographical atlas. The construction of such plans is carried out on the basis of visual, instrumental measurements, aerial photography, or a combined method.

Since the plans indicate relatively small areas of the earth's surface, when creating them, the curvature of the planet can be neglected. It should be clearly understood that these sources of geographic information that we have just described are fundamentally different from each other.

The main differences between plans and maps

• In a centimeter of the plan, more than five real kilometers on the ground are rarely laid. They are much more detailed than maps, in one millimeter of which hundreds of kilometers of the earth's surface can be laid.
• All objects on the ground in the plans are depicted as detailed as possible. In principle, all more or less significant areas are marked on the average drawing. So, on the topographic plans of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (and the USSR, of course) even trees and small streams can be displayed. It is impossible to fit all this information on the maps. Actually, this is why the generalization, which we talked about above, is being carried out. Even the exact outlines of the continents on many maps cannot be displayed, and therefore they are often plotted with significant distortions. In addition, the above-described additional literature on geography uses off-scale conventions.
• We emphasize once again that when constructing the plan, the curvature of the earth's surface is neglected. Maps, especially on a small scale, take it into account without fail.
• There is never a degree grid on the plans. At the same time, there are parallels and meridians on each of them.
• The plan is always simple in terms of orientation. The top of the document is north, the bottom, respectively, is south. On the maps, the direction is determined by parallels.

Ways of depicting objects on plans and maps

Conventional signs in this case are generally accepted options, in which the characteristics of the objects depicted on the map or plan are encoded. With their help, you can display both something concrete (a mountain, for example), and something completely abstract, conditional (population density in a city, village, etc.). Of course, all of them make life much easier for a person who knows the basics of cartography and can read these drawings.

How long does the map remain valid?

Almost all geographers and geologists ask this question at least once in a while. The specific answer to it depends on the purpose, scale, and author of the plan. So, medieval researchers often drew maps literally “on their knees”, so there is no longer any need to talk about their accuracy. But the maps of the General Staff, despite the time, are still striking in their accuracy.

Do not forget that the maps are quite stable, while the plans of the Amazon and the Nile can be safely thrown away fifty years after they were published. These rivers change the relief of the Earth's surface so effectively and quickly that older documents are only useful in a historical perspective.

Geographic descriptions, discoveries

All sources of geographic information discussed above are somehow dry and uninteresting. It is much more exciting to read a description of some region, area or even the mainland, written by the person who discovered it all!

Jokes aside, but descriptions and reports on geographical (geodesic, biological) studies can sometimes provide much more information than the most detailed topographical plan of the area. Moreover, the latter does not reflect some unpleasant features of a particular area (malaria, found in some central regions Africa at every turn, for example).

The list of references in geography that students are given at school (for example, Nikolina V.V. Geography, lesson developments; Samkova V.A. We study the forest; Forest Encyclopedia: in 2 volumes / chief ed. G. I. Vorobyov ), just the same, and formed thanks to the work of researchers who at one time entered all this information on the map, being in the thick of things.

Brief information about the discovery of Africa

Let's talk a little about the history of the discovery of the Black Continent. Of course, the word "discovery" is not entirely correct here: here is Australia - yes, I had to suffer with it. In the case of Africa, the coastal regions were perfectly explored, where they caught black slaves and bought ivory from Arab traders, but almost no one knew what was happening in the depths of the continent.

Everything changed in the 19th century, when the legendary arrived in Africa. It was he who had the honor of discovering the origins of the Nile and the magnificent Lake Victoria. Few people know, but the Russian scientist V.V. Junker (in 1876-1886) was once engaged in the studies of Central Africa.

For the indigenous population of the mainland, all this ended sadly: the main sources of geographical information (that is, maps), the data for which all these brave scientists collected with such difficulty and constant danger to life, began to be actively used by slave traders ...

So, with maps and plans, we are actually done. Geographic atlases are in the same category. And what is the role of modern sources of geographic information? To answer this question, let's consider the principle of sharing old paper maps and a navigator, which is now actively used even by professional geographers and geologists.

GPS/GLONASS + maps

It should be noted that this method is excellent for determining the accuracy of maps, atlases and topographic plans. In addition, this technique satisfies the needs of historians, as they can see for themselves how much the area has changed, which is described in historical chronicles by contemporaries of certain events. However, literature on geography often contains plans for the area that have not been updated since the beginning of the last century.

To use such an accurate, but rather laborious and somewhat extravagant method, you will have to bind three times (three different maps) to the same piece of terrain:

• First, find a more or less modern map or topographic plan.
• It is advisable to have a fresh aerospace image of the area under study with a topographic reference to the coordinate system.
• Finally, you need the card whose information you are going to check.

The meaning of this operation is to enter into the memory of the navigator all three of these drawings of the area. Modern models such devices have a powerful enough processor and an impressive amount of RAM, so you can switch between cards instantly.

Determination of the route

Route planning is best done using modern map or topographic plan. We do not recommend using old documents for this. It is quite possible that there is now a passable area on the site of the swamp, but you will no longer be able to walk along the edge of the once rare young forest, since the geography of the area has changed dramatically. A map is good, but in most cases such documents are not very accurate.

Why are aerial and satellite photographs preferred over maps?

But why are paper drawings so inferior to the products of modern technology? This is for the following two reasons:

• Firstly, the relevance of space photography or aerial photography in most cases is much higher. When else will cartographers be able to carry out the next generalization of new data and release up-to-date terrain plans?
• In the pictures you can literally in real time determine the characteristics of a particular area. On a map or even a topographical plan, tree species in the forest will be displayed only schematically and only in general order. Simply put, it is quite possible to stumble upon a dense spruce forest in the middle of a birch forest, and it is much easier to get lost in a dense coniferous forest.

After choosing a route and checking the new images, it is recommended to refer to the old map. Why such difficulties? Imagine that you are a field biologist. You need to determine how much the forest has grown, what new tree species have appeared, how many types of forest have changed over the years. Ideal for all these tasks is the simple overlay of a new card on its old counterpart. Thus, everything becomes visible as clearly as possible.

Here are the sources used by geography. The map is perhaps the most important of them, but one should not forget that over the past decades science and technology have made a huge step forward, and therefore it is foolish not to take advantage of all modern achievements.

Conclusion

So you have learned which sources of geographic information are currently the most relevant. Oddly enough, but we still use all the same plans and maps that were invented before our era. Of course, adjusted for their modern look.

A fascinating subject, geography is a scientific discipline that studies the earth's surface, oceans and seas, the environment and ecosystems, and the interaction between human society and the environment. The word geography literally translated from ancient Greek means "description of the earth." The following is a general definition of the term geography:

"Geography is a system of scientific knowledge that studies the physical features of the Earth and environment including the impact of human activities on these factors, and vice versa. The subject also covers patterns of population distribution, land use, availability and production.

Scholars who study geography are known as geographers. These people are engaged in the study of the natural environment of our planet and human society. Although cartographers ancient world were known as geographers, today it is a relatively independent specialization. Geographers tend to focus on two main areas geographical research: physical geography and human geography.

History of the development of geography

The term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks, who not only created detailed maps of the surrounding area, but also explained the difference between people and natural landscapes in different places Earth. Over time, the rich heritage of geography has taken a fateful journey into the bright Islamic minds. The golden age of Islam witnessed astonishing achievements in the field of geographical sciences. Islamic geographers became famous for their pioneering discoveries. New lands were explored and the first base grid for the map system was developed. Chinese civilization also instrumentally contributed to the development of early geography. The compass developed by the Chinese was used by explorers to explore the unknown.

A new chapter in the history of science begins with a period of great geographical discoveries, a period coinciding with the European Renaissance. A fresh interest in geography woke up in the European world. Marco Polo - Venetian merchant and traveler led this new era of exploration. Commercial interests in establishing trade contacts with the rich civilizations of Asia, such as China and India, became the main incentive for travel at that time. Europeans have moved forward in all directions, discovering new lands, unique cultures and. The enormous potential of geography for shaping the future of human civilization was recognized, and in the 18th century, it was introduced as a major discipline at the university level. Based on geographical knowledge, people began to discover new ways and means to overcome the difficulties generated by nature, which led to the prosperity of human civilization in all corners of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technology, computerized systems, and sophisticated software revolutionized science and made the study of geography more complete and detailed.

Branches of geography

Geography can be considered as an interdisciplinary science. The subject includes a transdisciplinary approach, which allows you to observe and analyze objects in the space of the Earth, as well as develop solutions to problems based on this analysis. The discipline of geography can be divided into several areas of scientific research. The primary classification geography divides the approach to the subject into two broad categories: physical geography and socio-economic geography.

Physical geography

is defined as a branch of geography that includes the study of natural objects and phenomena (or processes) on Earth.

Physical geography is further subdivided into the following branches:

• Geomorphology: engaged in the study of topographic and bathymetric features of the Earth's surface. Science helps to elucidate various aspects related to landforms, such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also attempts to predict future changes in physical characteristics appearance Earth.
• Glaciology: a branch of physical geography that studies the relationship between the dynamics of glaciers and their impact on the ecology of the planet. Thus, glaciology involves the study of the cryosphere, including alpine and continental glaciers. Glacial geology, snow hydrology, etc. are some subdisciplines of glaciological research.
• Oceanography: Since the oceans contain 96.5% of all water on Earth, the specialized discipline of oceanography is dedicated to their study. The science of oceanography includes geological oceanography (the study of the geological aspects of the ocean floor, seamounts, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (the study of marine life, fauna and ecosystems of the ocean), chemical oceanography (the study of the chemical composition sea ​​waters and their impact on marine life forms), physical oceanography (the study of ocean movements such as waves, currents, tides).
• Hydrology: another important branch of physical geography, dealing with the study of the properties and dynamics of the movement of water in relation to land. It explores the rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground aquifers of the planet. Hydrology studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another, above and below the surface of the Earth, through.
• Soil science: the branch of science that studies the different types of soils in their natural environment on the surface of the earth. Helps to collect information and knowledge about the process of formation (pedogenesis), composition, texture and classification of soils.
• : an indispensable discipline of physical geography that studies the dispersal of living organisms in the geographic space of the planet. It also studies the distribution of species over geological time periods. Each geographic region has its own unique ecosystems, and biogeography explores and explains their relationship to physical geographic features. There are different branches of biogeography: zoogeography (the geographical distribution of animals), phytogeography (the geographical distribution of plants), island biogeography(study of factors affecting individual ecosystems), etc.
• Paleogeography: the branch of physical geography that studies geographic features at various points in time in the earth's geological history. Science helps geographers gain information about continental positions and plate tectonics as determined by studying paleomagnetism and fossil records.
• Climatology: scientific study of climate, as well as the most important section of geographical research in the modern world. Considers all aspects related to micro or local climate as well as macro or global climate. Climatology also includes the study of the influence of human society on climate, and vice versa.
• Meteorology: studies weather conditions, atmospheric processes and phenomena that affect local and global weather.
• Ecological geography: explores the interaction between people (individuals or society) and their natural environment from a spatial point of view.
• Coastal geography: a specialized field of physical geography that also includes the study of socio-economic geography. It is devoted to the study of the dynamic interaction between coastal zone and by the sea. Physical processes that form coasts and the influence of the sea on landscape change. The study also involves understanding the impact of coastal residents on the topography and ecosystem of the coast.
• Quaternary geology: a highly specialized branch of physical geography dealing with the study of the Quaternary period of the Earth ( geographical history Earth spanning the last 2.6 million years). This allows geographers to learn about the environmental changes that have taken place in the recent past of the planet. Knowledge is used as a tool to predict future changes in the world's environment.
• Geomatics: the technical branch of physical geography that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation, and storage of data about the earth's surface.
• landscape ecology: a science that studies the influence of various landscapes of the Earth on the ecological processes and ecosystems of the planet.

Human geography

Human geography, or socio-economic geography, is a branch of geography that studies the impact of the environment on human society and the earth's surface, as well as the impact of anthropogenic activities on the planet. Socio-economic geography is focused on the study of the most developed creatures in the world from an evolutionary point of view - people and their environment.

This branch of geography is divided into various disciplines depending on the direction of research:

• Geography population: deals with the study of how nature determines the distribution, growth, composition, lifestyle and migration of human populations.
• Historical geography: explains the change and development of geographical phenomena over time. While this section is seen as a branch of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography tries to understand why, how and when places and regions on the Earth change, and what impact they have on human society.
• Cultural geography: explores how and why cultural preferences and norms change across spaces and places. Thus, it is concerned with the study of the spatial variations of human cultures, including religion, language, livelihood choices, politics, and so on.
• Economical geography: the most important section of socio-economic geography, covering the study of the location, distribution and organization of human economic activity in geographic space.
• Political geography: considers the political boundaries of the countries of the world and the division between countries. She also studies how spatial structures influence political functions, and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics are some of the sub-disciplines of political geography.
• Geography of health: explores the impact geographical location on the health and well-being of people.
• Social geography: studies the quality and standard of living of the human population of the world and tries to understand how and why such standards change depending on place and space.
• Geography of settlements: deals with the study of urban and rural settlements, economic structure, infrastructure, etc., as well as the dynamics of human settlement in relation to space and time.
• Geography of animals: studies animal world Earth and interdependence between humans and animals.

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Earth. The whole world. Countries of the world.

The following significant events have taken place around the world since the beginning of the 20th century:

• Two devastating world wars;
• the Great Depression of the 1930s;
• Huge colonial empires collapsed;
• There is rapid progress in science and technology;
• Cold War between Western Alliance and Warsaw Pact countries;
• The sharp rise in living standards in North America, Europe and Japan;
• Global environmental problems have emerged, including deforestation, lack of energy and water, loss of biodiversity and air pollution;
• The AIDS epidemic has begun;

A race is a historically formed group of people that has common physical features: skin color, eyes and hair, eye shape, eyelid structure, head outlines, and others. Previously, the division of races into “black” (Negroes), yellow (Asians) and white (Europeans) was accepted, but now this classification is considered outdated and incomplete.

The simplest modern division is not too different from the "color". According to it, 3 main or large races are distinguished: Negroid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid. Representatives of these three races have significant distinctive features.

Negroids are characterized by curly black hair, dark brown skin (sometimes almost black), brown eyes, strongly protruding jaws, a slightly protruding wide nose, thickened lips.

Caucasians usually have wavy or straight hair, relatively fair skin, varying eye colors, slightly protruding jaws, a narrow protruding nose with a high nose bridge, and usually thin or medium lips.

Mongoloids have straight coarse dark hair, yellowish skin tones, brown eyes, a narrow slit in the eyes, a flattened face with strongly protruding cheekbones, a narrow or medium-wide nose with a low bridge of nose, and moderately thickened lips.

In the extended classification, it is customary to distinguish several more racial groups. For example, the Amerindian race (Indians, American race) - indigenous people American continent. It is physiologically close to the Mongoloid race, however, the settlement of America began more than 20 thousand years ago, therefore, according to experts, it is incorrect to consider the Amerindians as a branch of the Mongoloids.

Australoids (Australian-Oceanian race) - the indigenous population of Australia. An ancient race that had a huge range limited by regions: Hindustan, Tasmania, Hawaii, Kuriles. The features of the appearance of indigenous Australians - a large nose, beard, long wavy hair, a massive eyebrow, powerful jaws sharply distinguish them from Negroids.

At present, there are few pure representatives of their races left. Basically, mestizos live on our planet - the result of mixing different races, which may have signs of different racial groups.

Time zones are conditionally defined parts of the Earth in which the same local time.

Prior to the introduction of standard time, each city used its own local solar time, depending on geographic longitude. However, it was very inconvenient, especially in terms of train schedules. The modern time zone system first appeared in North America at the end of the 19th century. In Russia, it became widespread in 1917, and by 1929 it was adopted throughout the world.

For greater convenience (so as not to enter local time for each degree of longitude), the Earth's surface was conditionally divided into 24 time zones. The boundaries of time zones are not determined by meridians, but by administrative units (states, cities, regions). This is also done for convenience. When moving from one time zone to another, the values ​​​​of minutes and seconds (time) are usually preserved, only in some countries, local time differs from world time by 30 or 45 minutes.

The reference point (zero meridian or belt) is taken by the Greenwich Observatory in the suburbs of London. On the North and south poles meridians converge at one point, so time zones are usually not adhered to there. Time at the poles is usually equated with universal time, although at the polar stations it is sometimes kept in its own way.

GMT -12 - International Date Meridian

GMT -11 - about. Midway, Samoa

GMT -10 - Hawaii

GMT -9 - Alaska

GMT -8 - Pacific Time (USA and Canada), Tijuana

GMT -7 - Mountain time, USA and Canada (Arizona), Mexico (Chihuahua, La Paz, Mazatlán)

GMT -6 - Central Time (USA and Canada), Central American Time, Mexico (Guadalajara, Mexico City, Monterrey)

GMT -5 - Eastern Time (USA and Canada), South American Pacific Time (Bogotá, Lima, Quito)

GMT -4 - Atlantic Time (Canada), South American Pacific Time (Caracas, La Paz, Santiago)

GMT -3 - South American Eastern time(Brazilia, Buenos Aires, Georgetown), Greenland

GMT -2 - Mid-Atlantic Time

GMT-1- Azores, Cape Verde

GMT- Greenwich time(Dublin, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London), Casablanca, Monrovia

GMT +1 - Central European Time (Amsterdam, Berlin, Bern, Brussels, Vienna, Copenhagen, Madrid, Paris, Rome, Stockholm), Belgrade, Bratislava, Budapest, Warsaw, Ljubljana, Prague, Sarajevo, Skopje, Zagreb), West Central African Time

GMT +2 - Eastern European Time (Athens, Bucharest, Vilnius, Kiev, Chisinau, Minsk, Riga, Sofia, Tallinn, Helsinki, Kaliningrad), Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, South Africa

GMT +3 - Moscow time, East African time (Nairobi, Addis Ababa), Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia

GMT +4 - Samara time, United United Arab Emirates, Oman, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia

GMT +5 - Yekaterinburg time, West Asian time (Islamabad, Karachi, Tashkent)

GMT +6 - Novosibirsk, Omsk Time, Central Asian Time (Bangladesh, Kazakhstan), Sri Lanka

GMT +7 - Krasnoyarsk time, Southeast Asia (Bangkok, Jakarta, Hanoi)

GMT +8 - Irkutsk Time, Ulaanbaatar, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Taiwan, Western Australian Time (Perth)

GMT +9 - Yakut time, Korea, Japan

GMT +10 - Vladivostok Time, East Australian Time (Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, Sydney), Tasmania, Western Pacific Time (Guam, Port Moresby)

GMT +11 - Magadan Time, Central Pacific Time (Solomon Islands, New Caledonia)

GMT +12 - Wellington

A wind rose is a diagram that depicts the mode of change in wind directions and speeds in a certain place over a certain period of time. It got its name due to the pattern similar to a rose. The first wind roses were known even before our era.

It is assumed that sailors came up with the wind rose, who tried to identify patterns of wind changes, depending on the time of year. She helped determine when to start sailing in order to get to a certain destination.

A diagram is constructed as follows: on rays coming from a common center in different directions, the value of repeatability (as a percentage) or wind speed is plotted. The rays correspond to the cardinal points: north, west, east, south, northeast, north-northeast, etc. At present, the wind rose is usually built from long-term data for a month, season, year.

Clouds are classified using Latin words to define the appearance of clouds as seen from the ground. The word cumulus is the definition of cumulus, stratus - stratus, cirrus - cirrus, nimbus - rain.

In addition to the type of clouds, the classification describes their location. Usually, several groups of clouds are distinguished, the first three of which are determined by the height of their location above the ground. The fourth group consists of clouds of vertical development, and the last group includes clouds of mixed types.

Upper clouds are formed in temperate latitudes above 5 km, in polar - above 3 km, in tropical - above 6 km. The temperature at this altitude is quite low, so they consist mainly of ice crystals. Upper clouds are usually thin and white. The most common form of upper clouds are cirrus (cirrus) and cirrostratus (cirrostratus), which can usually be observed in good weather.

Middle clouds usually located at an altitude of 2-7 km in temperate latitudes, 2-4 km in polar and 2-8 km in tropical latitudes. They consist mainly of small particles of water, but at low temperatures they can also contain ice crystals. The most common types of mid-tier clouds are altocumulus (altocumulus), altostratus (altostratus). They may have shaded portions, which distinguishes them from cirrocumulus clouds. This type of cloud usually results from air convection and also from the gradual rise of air ahead of a cold front.

Lower clouds located at altitudes below 2 km, where the temperature is quite high, so they consist mainly of water droplets. Only in the cold season. When the surface temperature is low, they contain particles of ice (hail) or snow. The most common types of low clouds are nimbostratus (nimbostratus) and stratocumulus (stratocumulus), dark low clouds accompanied by moderate precipitation.

Clouds of vertical development - cumulus clouds, having the form of isolated cloud masses, the vertical dimensions of which are similar to the horizontal ones. Arise as a result of temperature convection, can reach heights of 12 km. The main types are fair weather cumulus (fair weather clouds) and cumulonimbus (cumulonimbus). Good weather clouds look like pieces of cotton wool. The time of their existence is from 5 to 40 minutes. Young fair-weather clouds have sharply defined edges and bases, while the edges of older clouds are jagged and blurry.

Other types of clouds: contrails (condensation trails), billow clouds (wavy clouds), mammatus (vymoid cloud), orographic (obstacle clouds) and pileus (hat-cloud).

Precipitation is called water in liquid or solid state, which falls from clouds or is deposited from the air on the surface of the Earth (dew, hoarfrost). There are two main types of precipitation: heavy precipitation (occurs mainly during the passage of a warm front) and showers (associated with cold fronts). The amount of precipitation is measured by the thickness of the water layer that has fallen over a certain period (usually mm/year). On average, about 1000 mm / year of precipitation falls on Earth. The amount of precipitation less than this value is called insufficient, and more - excessive.

Water does not form in the sky - it gets there from the earth's surface. This happens in the following way: under the action of sunlight, moisture gradually evaporates from the surface of the planet (mainly from the surface of the oceans, seas and other bodies of water), then the water vapor gradually rises, where, under the action of low temperatures it condenses (transformation of gas into a liquid state) and freezes. This is how clouds form. As the mass of liquid in the cloud accumulates, it also becomes heavier. When a certain mass is reached, the moisture from the cloud spills onto the ground in the form of rain.

If precipitation falls in areas with low temperatures, then the moisture drops freeze on their way to the ground, turning into snow. Sometimes they seem to stick together with each other, as a result of which the snow falls in large flakes. This occurs most often at not very low temperatures and strong wind. When the temperature is close to zero, the snow, approaching the ground, melts and becomes wet. Such snowflakes, falling to the ground or objects, immediately turn into drops of water. In those areas of the planet where the surface of the earth has had time to freeze, snow can remain in the form of a cover for up to several months. In some especially cold regions of the Earth (at the poles or high in the mountains), precipitation falls only in the form of snow, and in warm regions (tropics of the equator) there is no snow at all.

When frozen water particles move within the cloud, they expand and compact. In this case, small pieces of ice are formed, which in this state fall to the ground. This is how hail is formed. Hail can fall even in summer - the ice does not have time to melt even when the surface temperature is high. The sizes of hailstones can be different: from a few millimeters to several centimeters.

Sometimes moisture does not have time to rise into the sky, and then condensation occurs directly on the surface of the earth. This usually happens when temperatures drop at night. In the summer, you can observe the settling of moisture on the surface of leaves and grass in the form of water droplets - this is dew. In the cold season, the smallest particles of water freeze, and frost forms instead of dew.

Soils are classified by type. Dokuchaev was the first scientist to classify soils. The following types of soils are found on the territory of the Russian Federation: Podzolic soils, tundra gley soils, arctic soils, permafrost-taiga, gray and brown forest soils and chestnut soils.

Tundra gley soils are found on the plains. Formed without much influence of vegetation on them. These soils are found in areas where there is permafrost (Northern Hemisphere). Often, gley soils are places where deer live and feed in summer and winter. An example of tundra soils in Russia is Chukotka, and in the world it is Alaska in the USA. In areas with such soils, people are engaged in agriculture. Potatoes, vegetables and various herbs grow on such land. To improve the fertility of tundra gley soils in agriculture, the following types of work are used: draining the most moisture-saturated lands and irrigating dry areas. Also, the methods of improving the fertility of these soils include the introduction of organic and mineral fertilizers into them.

Arctic soils are produced by thawing permafrost. This soil is quite thin. The maximum layer of humus (fertile layer) is 1-2 cm. This type of soil has a low acidic environment. This soil is not restored due to the harsh climate. These soils are common in Russia only in the Arctic (on a number of islands in the Arctic Ocean). Due to the harsh climate and a small layer of humus, nothing grows on such soils.

Podzolic soils are common in forests. There is only 1-4% humus in the soil. Podzolic soils are obtained through the process of podzol formation. There is a reaction with an acid. That is why this type of soil is also called acidic. Podzolic soils were first described by Dokuchaev. In Russia, podzolic soils are common in Siberia and the Far East. There are podzolic soils in the world in Asia, Africa, Europe, the USA and Canada. Such soils in agriculture must be properly cultivated. They need to be fertilized, organic and mineral fertilizers should be applied to them. Such soils are more useful in logging than in agriculture. After all, trees grow on them better than crops. Soddy-podzolic soils are a subtype of podzolic soils. They are similar in composition to podzolic soils. A characteristic feature of these soils is that they can be more slowly washed out by water, unlike podzolic ones. Soddy-podzolic soils are found mainly in the taiga (territory of Siberia). This soil contains up to 10% of the fertile layer on the surface, and at a depth the layer sharply decreases to 0.5%.

Permafrost-taiga soils were formed in forests, in permafrost conditions. They are found only in continental climates. The greatest depths of these soils do not exceed 1 meter. This is caused by proximity to the permafrost surface. The humus content is only 3-10%. As a subspecies, there are mountain permafrost-taiga soils. They are formed in the taiga on rocks that are covered with ice only in winter. These soils are found in Eastern Siberia. They are found in the Far East. More often, mountain permafrost-taiga soils are found next to small reservoirs. Outside of Russia, such soils exist in Canada and Alaska.

Gray forest soils are formed in forest areas. An indispensable condition for the formation of such soils is the presence of a continental climate. Deciduous forests and herbaceous vegetation. Places of formation contain the element necessary for such soil - calcium. Thanks to this element, water does not penetrate deep into the soil and does not erode them. These soils are grey. The content of humus in gray forest soils is 2-8 percent, that is, soil fertility is average. Gray forest soils are divided into gray, light gray, and dark gray. These soils prevail in Russia in the territory from Transbaikalia to the Carpathian Mountains. Fruit and grain crops are grown on soils.

Brown forest soils are common in forests: mixed, coniferous and broad-leaved. These soils are found only in temperate warm climates. Soil color brown. Usually brown soils look like this: on the surface of the earth there is a layer of fallen leaves, about 5 cm high. Next comes the fertile layer, which is 20, and sometimes 30 cm. Even lower is a clay layer of 15-40 cm. There are several subtypes of brown soils. The subtypes vary with temperatures. There are: typical, podzolized, gley (surface-gley and pseudopodzolic). On the territory of the Russian Federation, soils are common in the Far East and near the foothills of the Caucasus. Undemanding crops such as tea, grapes and tobacco are grown on these soils. Forest grows well on such soils.

Chestnut soils are common in steppes and semi-deserts. The fertile layer of such soils is 1.5-4.5%. That says the average fertility of the soil. This soil has a chestnut, light chestnut and dark chestnut color. Accordingly, there are three subtypes of chestnut soil, differing in color. On light chestnut soils, agriculture is possible only with abundant watering. The main purpose of this land is pasture. On dark chestnut soils, the following crops grow well without irrigation: wheat, barley, oats, sunflower, millet. There are slight differences in the soil and in the chemical composition of the chestnut soil. Its division into clay, sandy, sandy loamy, light loamy, medium loamy and heavy loamy. Each of them has a slightly different chemical composition. The chemical composition of chestnut soil is diverse. The soil contains magnesium, calcium, water-soluble salts. Chestnut soil tends to recover quickly. Its thickness is supported by annually falling grass and leaves of rare trees in the steppe. On it you can get good yields, provided that there is a lot of moisture. After all, the steppes are usually dry. Chestnut soils in Russia are common in the Caucasus, the Volga region and Central Siberia.

There are many types of soils on the territory of the Russian Federation. All of them differ in chemical and mechanical composition. At the moment, agriculture is on the verge of a crisis. Russian soils must be valued as the land on which we live. Take care of soils: fertilize them and prevent erosion (destruction).

Biosphere - a set of parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, which is inhabited by living organisms. This term was introduced in 1875 by the Austrian geologist E. Suess. The biosphere does not occupy a certain position, like other shells, but is located within their limits. Thus, waterfowl and aquatic plants are part of the hydrosphere, birds and insects are part of the atmosphere, and plants and animals living in the earth are part of the lithosphere. The biosphere also covers everything related to the activities of living beings.

The composition of living organisms includes about 60 chemical elements, the main of which are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, iron and calcium. Living organisms can adapt to life in extreme conditions. Spores of some plants withstand ultra-low temperatures down to -200°C, and some microorganisms (bacteria) survive at temperatures up to 250°C. The inhabitants of the deep sea withstand the enormous pressure of water, which would instantly crush a person.

By living organisms are meant not only animals, plants, bacteria and fungi are also considered living beings. Moreover, plants account for 99% of the biomass, while animals and microorganisms account for only 1%. Thus, plants make up the vast majority of the biosphere. The biosphere is a powerful accumulator of solar energy. This is due to the photosynthesis of plants. Thanks to living organisms, the circulation of substances on the planet occurs.

According to experts, life on Earth originated about 3.5 billion years ago in the oceans. It was this age that was assigned to the oldest found organic remains. Since scientists determine the age of our planet in the region of 4.6 billion years, we can say that living beings appeared at an early stage in the development of the Earth. The biosphere renders greatest influence on the rest of the shells of the Earth, although not always beneficial. Inside the shell, living organisms also actively interact with each other.

The atmosphere (from the Greek atmos - steam and sphaira - ball) is the gaseous shell of the Earth, which is held by its attraction and rotates with the planet. The physical state of the atmosphere is determined by the climate, and the main parameters of the atmosphere are the composition, density, pressure and temperature of the air. Air density and atmospheric pressure decrease with height. The atmosphere is divided into several layers depending on temperature changes: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere. Between these layers are transitional regions called the tropopause, stratopause, and so on.

Troposphere - the lower layer of the atmosphere, in the polar regions it is located up to a height of 8-10 km, in temperate latitudes up to 10-12 km, and at the equator - 16-18 km. The troposphere contains about 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere and almost all of the water vapor. The air density is the highest here. For every 100 m you rise, the temperature in the troposphere drops by an average of 0.65 °. The upper layer of the troposphere, which is intermediate between it and the stratosphere, is called the tropopause.

The stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere, which is located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. Here, on the contrary, the temperature rises with height. At the border with the troposphere, it reaches approximately -56ºС, and rises to 0ºС at a height of about 50 km. The region between the stratosphere and mesosphere is called the stratopause. The ozone layer is located in the stratosphere, which determines the upper limit of the biosphere. The ozone layer is also a kind of shield that protects living organisms from the destructive ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. The complex chemical processes occurring in this shell are accompanied by the release of light energy (for example, the northern lights). About 20% of the mass of the atmosphere is concentrated here.

The next layer of the atmosphere is the mesosphere. It starts at an altitude of 50 km and ends at an altitude of 80-90 km. The air temperature in the mesosphere decreases with height and reaches -90ºС in its upper part. The intermediate layer between the mesosphere and the following thermosphere is the mesopause.

The thermosphere or ionosphere begins at an altitude of 80-90 km and ends at an altitude of 800 km. The air temperature here rises quite rapidly, reaching several hundred and even thousands of degrees.

The last part of the atmosphere is the exosphere or scattering zone. It is located above 800 km. This space is already almost devoid of air. At an altitude of about 2000-3000 km, the exosphere gradually passes into the so-called near space vacuum, which does not enter the Earth's atmosphere.

The hydrosphere is the water shell of the Earth, which is located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere and is a collection of oceans, seas and surface water sushi. The hydrosphere also includes groundwater, ice and snow, water contained in the atmosphere and in living organisms. The bulk of water is concentrated in the seas and oceans, rivers and lakes, which cover 71% of the planet's surface. The second place in terms of water volume is occupied by groundwater, the third - by ice and snow of the Arctic and Antarctic regions and mountainous regions. The total volume of water on Earth is close to 1.39 billion km³.

Water, along with oxygen, is one of the most important substances on earth. It is part of all living organisms on the planet. For example, a person consists of approximately 80% water. Water also plays an important role in the formation of the Earth's surface topography, the transport of chemicals in the depths of the Earth and on its surface.

The water vapor contained in the atmosphere acts as a powerful filter of solar radiation and a climate regulator.

The main volume of water on the planet is the salty waters of the oceans. On average, their salinity is 35 ppm (1 kg of ocean water contains 35 g of salts). The highest salinity in the Dead Sea is 270-300 ppm. For comparison, in the Mediterranean Sea this figure is 35-40 ppm, in the Black Sea - 18 ppm, and in the Baltic - only 7. According to experts, the chemical composition of ocean waters is in many ways similar to the composition of human blood - they contain almost all known us chemical elements, only in different proportions. The chemical composition of fresher groundwater more diverse and depends on the composition of the host rocks and the depth of occurrence.

The waters of the hydrosphere are in constant interaction with the atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. This interaction is expressed in the transition of water from one species to another, and is called the water cycle. According to most scientists, it was in water that life on our planet originated.

Hydrosphere water volumes:

Sea and ocean waters - 1370 million km³ (94% of the total)

Groundwater - 61 million km³ (4%)

Ice and snow - 24 million km³ (2%)

Land water bodies (rivers, lakes, swamps, reservoirs) - 500 thousand km³ (0.4%)

The lithosphere is called the solid shell of the Earth, which includes the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle. The thickness of the lithosphere on land ranges on average from 35-40 km (in flat areas) to 70 km (in mountainous areas). Under the ancient mountains, the thickness of the earth's crust is even greater: for example, under the Himalayas, its thickness reaches 90 km. The earth's crust under the oceans is also the lithosphere. Here it is the thinnest - on average about 7-10 km, and in some areas of the Pacific Ocean - up to 5 km.

The thickness of the earth's crust can be determined by the speed of propagation of seismic waves. The latter also provide some information about the properties of the mantle located under the earth's crust and entering the lithosphere. The lithosphere, as well as the hydrosphere and atmosphere, was formed mainly as a result of the release of substances from the upper mantle of the young Earth. Its formation continues even now, mainly at the bottom of the oceans.

Most of the lithosphere is made up of crystalline substances that were formed during the cooling of magma - molten matter in the depths of the Earth. As the magma cooled, hot solutions formed. Passing through cracks in the earth's crust, they cooled and released the substances contained in them. Since some minerals decompose with changes in temperature and pressure, they were transformed into new substances on the surface.

The lithosphere is exposed to the influence of the air and water shells of the Earth (atmosphere and hydrosphere), which is expressed in weathering processes. Physical weathering is a mechanical process that breaks down rock into smaller particles without changing its chemical composition. Chemical weathering leads to the formation of new substances. The weathering rate is also influenced by the biosphere, as well as by land relief and climate, water composition and other factors.

As a result of weathering, loose continental deposits were formed, the thickness of which ranges from 10-20 cm on steep slopes to tens of meters on plains and hundreds of meters in depressions. These deposits formed soils that play a crucial role in the interaction of living organisms with the earth's crust.

Orientation on the ground includes determining one's location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks), maintaining a given or selected direction of movement towards a specific object. The ability to navigate the terrain is especially necessary when you are in sparsely populated and unfamiliar areas.

You can navigate by map, compass, stars. Landmarks can also serve as various objects of natural (river, swamp, tree) or artificial (lighthouse, tower) origin.

When orienting on a map, it is necessary to associate the image on the map with a real object. The easiest way is to go to the river bank or road, and then rotate the map until the direction of the line (road, river) on the map matches the direction of the line on the ground. Items located to the right and left of the line should be on the same sides as on the map.

Map orientation by compass is mainly used in areas that are difficult to navigate (in the forest, in the desert), where it is usually difficult to find landmarks. Under these conditions, the compass determines the direction to the north, and the map is placed with the upper side of the frame towards the north so that the vertical line of the coordinate grid of the map coincides with the longitudinal axis of the magnetic needle of the compass. It must be remembered that the compass readings can be affected by metal objects, power lines and electronic devices located in the immediate vicinity.

After the location on the ground is determined, you need to determine the direction of movement and azimuth (deviation of the direction of movement in degrees from the north pole of the compass clockwise). If the route is not a straight line, then you need to accurately determine the distance after which you need to change direction. You can also select a specific landmark on the map and, after finding it on the ground, change the direction of movement from it.

In the absence of a compass, the cardinal directions can be determined as follows:

The bark of most trees is rougher and darker on the north side;

On coniferous trees, resin more commonly accumulates with south side;

Annual rings on fresh stumps north side located closer to each other;

On the north side, trees, stones, stumps, etc. earlier and more abundantly covered with lichens, fungi;

Anthills are located on the south side of trees, stumps and bushes, the southern slope of anthills is gentle, the northern one is steep;

In summer, the soil big stones, buildings, trees and bushes drier on the south side;

In separate trees, the crowns are more magnificent and denser on the south side;

Altars Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran kirok are facing east, and the main entrances are located on the west side;

The raised end of the lower crossbar of the churches faces north.

A geographical map is a visual representation of the earth's surface on a plane. The map shows the location and state of various natural and social phenomena. Depending on what is shown on the maps, they are called political, physical, etc.

Cards are classified according to various criteria:

By scale: large-scale (1: 10,000 - 1: 100,000), medium-scale (1: 200,000 - 1: 1,000,000) and small-scale maps (smaller than 1: 1,000,000). The scale determines the ratio between the real size of the object and the size of its image on the map. Knowing the scale of the map (it is always indicated on it), you can use simple calculations and special measuring tools (ruler, curvimeter) to determine the size of an object or the distance from one object to another.

According to the content, maps are divided into general geographical and thematic. Thematic maps are divided into physical-geographical and socio-economic. Physiographic maps are used to show, for example, the nature of the relief of the earth's surface or climatic conditions in a certain area. Socio-economic maps show the borders of countries, the location of roads, industrial facilities, etc.

According to the coverage of the territory, geographical maps are divided into world maps, maps of the continents and parts of the world, regions of the world, individual countries and parts of countries (regions, cities, districts, etc.).

By purpose, geographical maps are divided into reference, educational, navigational, etc.