That geography is the history of geographical discoveries. Christopher Columbus is a mysterious person. Navigation and maritime geography among the peoples of Asia in the Middle Ages

Numerous geographical discoveries have taken place throughout the history of mankind, but only those that were made at the end of the 15th - the first half of the 16th century received the names Great. Indeed, never before or after this historical moment were discoveries of such magnitude, which had such tremendous significance for mankind. European navigators discovered entire continents and oceans, huge uncharted lands inhabited by completely unfamiliar peoples. The discoveries of that time amazed the imagination and opened up completely new prospects for development before the European world, which could not even be dreamed of before.

Background of the Great geographical discoveries

The sailors of that era had not only a great goal, but also the means to achieve it. Progress in navigation led to the appearance in the XV century. a new type of ship capable of long ocean voyages. It was a caravel - a high-speed maneuverable ship, the sailing equipment of which made it possible to move even with a headwind. At the same time, instruments appeared that made it possible to navigate long-distance sea voyages, primarily the astrolabe - a tool for determining geographic coordinates, latitude and longitude. European cartographers learned how to make special navigational charts that made it easier to plot courses across the ocean.

The goal of the Europeans was India, which appeared to their imagination as a country with incalculable riches. India has been known in Europe since ancient times, and goods brought from there have always been in great demand. However, there was no direct connection with her. Trade was carried out through numerous intermediaries, and the states located on the routes to India prevented the development of its contacts with Europe. The Turkish conquests of the late Middle Ages led to a sharp reduction in trade, which was very profitable for European merchants. The countries of the East in terms of wealth and level of economic development at that time surpassed the West, therefore trade with them was the most profitable type of business activity in Europe.

After the Crusades, which European population joined the values ​​of everyday Eastern culture, increased his need for luxury goods, other household goods and spices. Pepper, for example, was valued then literally worth its weight in gold. The need for gold itself also increased sharply, as the development of trade was accompanied by a rapid expansion of money circulation. All this prompted the search for new trade routes to the East, laid around the Turkish and Arab possessions. India became a magical symbol that inspired brave sailors.

Swimming Vasco da Gama

The Portuguese were the first to embark on the path of great discoveries. Portugal, before other states of the Iberian Peninsula, completed the Reconquista and transferred the fight against the Moors to the territory of North Africa. During the XV century. Portuguese sailors in search of gold, ivory and other exotic goods, they moved far south along the African coast. The inspirer of these voyages was Prince Enrique, who received the honorary nickname Navigator for this.

In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias discovered the southern tip of Africa, called the Cape of Good Hope. After this historic discovery, the Portuguese took a direct route across the Indian Ocean to the wonderland that beckoned them.

In 1497-1499. the squadron under the command of Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) made the first voyage to India and back, thus paving the most important trade route to the East, which was an old dream of European sailors. In the Indian port of Calicut, the Portuguese acquired so many spices that the income from their sale was 60 times higher than the cost of organizing the expedition.

The sea route to India was opened and charted, which allowed Western European sailors to regularly make these extremely profitable voyages.

Discoveries of Christopher Columbus

Meanwhile, Spain joined the process of discovery. In 1492, her troops crushed the Emirate of Granada, the last Mauritanian state in Europe. The triumphant completion of the Reconquista made it possible to direct the foreign policy power and energy of the Spanish state to new grandiose achievements.

The problem was that Portugal achieved recognition of her exclusive rights to the lands and sea routes discovered by her navigators. The way out was offered by the advanced science of that time. The Italian scientist Paolo Toscanelli, convinced of the sphericity of the Earth, proved that it is possible to reach India if you sail from Europe not to the east, but in the opposite direction - to the west.

Another Italian, a sailor from Genoa, Cristobal Colon, who went down in history under the Spanish name Christopher Columbus (1451-1506), developed on this basis an expedition project to search for a western route to India. He managed to achieve his approval of the Spanish royal couple - King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella.

X. Columbus

After a many-day voyage on October 12, 1492, his ships reached about. San Salvador, located off the coast of America. This day is considered the date of the discovery of America, although Columbus himself was convinced that he had reached the shores of India. That is why the inhabitants of the lands he discovered began to be called Indians.

Until 1504, Columbus made three more voyages, during which he made new discoveries in the Caribbean.

Since the descriptions of the two "Indies" discovered by the Portuguese and the Spaniards differed sharply, the names East (East) and West (Western) Indies were assigned to them. Gradually, the Europeans came to the realization that these are not just different countries, but even different continents. At the suggestion of Amerigo Vespucci, the lands discovered in the Western Hemisphere began to be called the New World, and soon the new part of the world was named after the insightful Italian. The name of the West Indies was fixed only for the islands located between the shores of North and South America. The East Indies began to be called not only India itself, but also other countries of Southeast Asia up to Japan.

Discovery of the Pacific Ocean and the first circumnavigation of the world

America, which did not bring in large incomes at first Spanish crown, was considered as an annoying obstacle on the way to rich India, which stimulated further searches. The discovery of a new ocean on the other side of America was of the greatest importance.

In 1513, the Spanish conqueror Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and came to the shores of a sea unknown to Europeans, which was first called the South Sea (in contrast to the Caribbean Sea, located north of the Isthmus of Panama). Subsequently, it turned out that this is the whole ocean, which we now know as the Pacific. So called him the organizer of the first ever circumnavigation of the world, Fernand Magellan (1480-1521).

F. Magellan

A Portuguese navigator who entered the Spanish service, he was convinced that if he went around America from the south, it would be possible to reach India by the western sea route. In 1519, his ships set sail, and the following year, having crossed the strait, named after the leader of the expedition, they entered the expanses of the Pacific Ocean. Magellan himself died in a collision with the population of one of the islands, later called the Philippine. During the voyage, most of his crew also died, but 18 of the 265 crew members, led by Captain H.-S. El Cano on the only surviving ship in 1522 completed the first voyage around the world, thus proving the existence of a single World Ocean that connects all the continents of the Earth.

The discoveries of the navigators of Portugal and Spain gave rise to the problem of delimiting the possessions of these powers. In 1494, the two countries signed an agreement in the Spanish city of Tordesillas, according to which a dividing line was drawn across the Atlantic Ocean, from the North Pole to the South. All newly discovered lands to the east of it were declared the possession of Portugal, to the west - of Spain.

After 35 years, a new treaty was concluded delimiting the possessions of the two powers in the Pacific Ocean. Thus the first division of the world took place.

"The existence of such a path can be proven on the basis of the sphericity of the shape of the Earth." It is necessary "to start sailing continuously towards the west" "in order to reach the places where all kinds of spices and precious stones are found in the greatest abundance. Don't be surprised that I call the countries where the spices grow west, while they are usually called the east, because people who sail constantly towards the west reach these countries by sailing on the other side. the globe».

“This country should be searched for by the Latins, not only because great treasures, gold, silver and all kinds of precious stones and spices can be obtained from there, but also for the sake of its learned people, philosophers and skillful astrologers, and also in order to find out how such a vast and populous country is governed and how they conduct their wars.

References:
V.V. Noskov, T.P. Andreevskaya / History from the end of the 15th to the end of the 18th century

The process of disintegration of feudalism and the emergence of capitalist relations in Europe was accelerated by the opening of new trade routes and new countries in the 15th-16th centuries, which marked the beginning of the colonial exploitation of the peoples of Africa, Asia and America.

By the 16th century in Western Europe, commodity production and trade made significant progress, and the need for money, which was the universal medium of exchange, increased sharply. “The discovery of America,” says Engels about the causes of geographical discoveries, “was caused by a thirst for gold, which even before that drove the Portuguese to Africa ... because it developed so powerfully in the XIV and XV centuries. European industry and the corresponding trade required more means of exchange, which Germany - the great country of silver in 1450-1550. - could not give. Letter from Engels to K. Schmidt, October 27, 1890, K. Marx, F. Engels, Selected Letters, 1953, p. 426.) By this time, the desire for luxury and the accumulation of treasures among the upper classes of European society also greatly increased. Under such conditions, the desire for enrichment, or, in the words of Marx, "the general thirst for money" ( "Archive of Marx and Engels", vol. IV, p. 225.) embraced in Europe both the nobles, and the townspeople, and the clergy, and kings.

One of the most tempting means of getting rich quick in 15th century Europe. there was trade with Asia, the importance of which after the Crusades increased more and more. The largest cities of Italy, primarily Venice and Genoa, rose on intermediary trade with the East. The East was a source of supply for Europeans with luxury goods. Spices brought from India and the Moluccas - pepper, cloves, cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg - became a favorite seasoning for food in rich houses, and a lot of money was paid for a grain of spices. Perfumes from Arabia and India, gold items from oriental jewelers, Indian and Chinese silk, cotton and wool fabrics, Arabian incense, etc. were in great demand in Europe. India, China, Japan were considered countries rich in gold and precious stones. The imagination of European money-seekers was struck by the stories of travelers about the fabulous riches of these distant countries; especially popular were the notes of the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, who visited in the XIII century. in China and in many other countries of the East. In his notes, Marco Polo reported such fantastic information about Japan unknown to Europeans: “Gold, I tell you, they have a great abundance; there is an extremely large amount of it here, and they do not take it out of here ... I will now describe to you the outlandish palace of the sovereign of the local people. To tell the truth, the palace here is large and covered with pure gold, just as our houses and churches are covered with lead ... I will also tell you that the floors in the chambers - and there are many of them - are also covered with pure gold two in thickness; and everything in the palace - both the halls and the windows - is covered with gold ornaments... There is an abundance of pearls here, it is pink and very beautiful, round, large... "The Europeans were promised great wealth and the seizure of trade routes in the seas of South Asia, along which East, there was a lively trade, which was in the hands of Arab, Indian, Malay and Chinese merchants.

However, the countries of Western Europe (with the exception of Italy) did not have direct trade relations with the eastern countries and did not benefit from eastern trade. Trade balance Europe in its trade with the East was passive. Therefore, in the XV century. there was an outflow of metallic money from European countries to the East, which further increased the shortage of precious metals in Europe. In addition, in the XV century. in Europe's trade with Asian countries, new circumstances appeared that contributed to a fabulous increase in prices for oriental goods. The collapse of the Mongol state resulted in the termination of the caravan trade of Europe with China and India through Central Asia and Mongolia, and the fall of Constantinople and the Turkish conquests in Western Asia and the Balkan Peninsula in the 15th century. almost completely closed the trade route to the East through Asia Minor and Syria. The third trade route to the East - through the Red Sea - was the monopoly of the Egyptian sultans, who in the XV century. began to levy extremely high duties on all goods transported this way. In this regard, the decline of Mediterranean trade began, the centers of which were Italian cities.

Europeans in the 15th century attracted the wealth of not only Asia, but also Africa. At that time, the countries of Southern Europe through the Mediterranean Sea traded with the countries of North Africa, mainly with Egypt and with the rich and cultural states of the Maghreb - Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. However, until the end of the XV century. most of the African continent was unknown to Europeans; there were no direct ties between Europe and Western Sudan, isolated from the countries of the Mediterranean by the rugged Sahara desert and the part of the Atlantic Ocean unknown to Europeans.

At the same time, the cities of the coast of North Africa traded with the tribes of the interior regions of the Sudan and Tropical Africa, who exchanged ivory and slaves. Along the caravan routes across the Sahara, gold, slaves and other goods from the Western Sudan and from the Guinean coast were delivered to the cities of the Maghreb and fell into the hands of Europeans, arousing their desire to reach these unknown rich regions of Africa by sea.

“To what extent,” says Engels, “at the end of the 15th century, money undermined and corroded the feudal system from within, is clearly seen from the thirst for gold, which in this era took possession of Western Europe; the Portuguese were looking for gold on the African coast, in India, in the entire Far East; gold was the magic word that drove the Spaniards across the Atlantic to America; gold - that's what the white man first demanded, as soon as he set foot on the newly opened shore. F. Engels, The Peasant War in Germany, M. 1953, Applications, p. 155.) Thus, in Western Europe in the XV century. there was a need to search for new sea routes from Europe to Africa, India and East Asia.

But the distant and dangerous sea voyages undertaken from the end of the 15th century. with the aim of opening new routes to Africa and the East and to conquer new countries, became possible because by this time, as a result of the development of productive forces, important improvements had been introduced in the field of navigation and military affairs.

Sailing ships with a keel, introduced by the Normans as early as the 10th century, gradually became widespread in all countries and replaced the multi-tiered rowing Greek and Roman ships.

During the XV century. the Portuguese, during their voyages along the west coast of Africa, using the Genoese type of a three-masted sea vessel, created a new high-speed and light sailboat suitable for long-distance voyages, - caravel. Unlike coastal (coastal) navigation vessels, the caravel had three masts and was equipped with big amount straight and oblique sails, thanks to which she could move even with an unfavorable wind direction. She had a very capacious hold, which made it possible to make large sea passages; the crew of the caravel was small. Significantly increased the safety of navigation due to the fact that the compass and nautical charts - portolans were improved; in Portugal, the astrolabe, borrowed from the Arabs, was improved - a goniometric tool with which the positions of the stars and latitude were calculated; at the end of the 15th century. tables of planetary movements were published to facilitate the calculation of latitude at sea.

The improvement of firearms was important.

A serious obstacle to the organization of sea voyages were geographical representations based on the teachings of the Greek geographer Ptolemy, which dominated medieval Europe. Ptolemy rejected the doctrine of the movement of the Earth and believed that the Earth stands motionless at the center of the universe; he admitted the idea of ​​a spherical shape of the Earth, but argued that somewhere in the south Southeast Asia is connected to East Africa, the Indian Ocean is closed on all sides by land; thus, it is allegedly impossible to get from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean and by sea to reach the shores of East Asia. According to the views prevailing in the Middle Ages, borrowed from ancient authors, the Earth was divided into five climatic zones, and it was believed that life is possible only in two temperate zones, at both poles there are completely lifeless regions of eternal cold, and at the equator there is a zone of terrible heat, where the sea boils and ships and people on them burn.

In the XV century. with the success of the Renaissance culture in Europe, these ideas began to be increasingly questioned. Even in the XIII century. Marco Polo and other travelers proved that in reality the eastern coast of Asia does not extend endlessly to the east, as Ptolemy thought, but is washed by the sea. On some maps of the XV century. Africa was depicted as a separate mainland tapering to the south. The hypothesis about the spherical shape of the Earth and a single ocean washing the land, expressed even by ancient scientists, was found in the 15th century. an increasing number of supporters. Based on this hypothesis, in Europe they began to express the idea of ​​​​the possibility of reaching the eastern coast of Asia by sea, sailing from Europe to the west, across the Atlantic Ocean. In 1410 French Bishop Pierre d'Alli wrote the book "Picture of the World", in which he cited the statements of ancient and medieval scientists about the sphericity of the earth and argued that the distance from the coast of Spain to India across the ocean is small and can be covered with a fair wind in a few days.

At the end of the XV century. The idea of ​​the possibility of a western route to India was especially ardently promoted by the Florentine physician and cosmographer Paolo Toscanelli. He depicted on the map the Atlantic Ocean, washing Europe in the east, and Japan, China and India in the west, and thus tried to show that the western route from Europe to the East was the shortest. “I know,” he wrote, “that the existence of such a path can be proved on the basis that the Earth is a sphere ...”

The Nuremberg merchant and astronomer Martin Beheim donated to his hometown the first globe he made with a characteristic inscription: “Let it be known that the whole world is measured out on this figure, so that no one doubts how simple the world is, and that everywhere you can travel by ship or pass as shown here ... "

Navigation and maritime geography among the peoples of Asia in the Middle Ages

The peoples of Asia - Indians, Chinese, Malays and Arabs - during the Middle Ages achieved significant success in the field of geographical knowledge, the development of navigation in the Indian and Pacific Oceans and the art of navigation, which was important for the geographical discoveries of Europeans in Asia and Africa and their expansion to territories of these continents.

Long before the appearance of Europeans in the Indian Ocean, these peoples discovered and mastered the great South Asian sea route, which connected the countries of the most ancient culture in the East, from the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to South China Sea. Along the western section of this route, from the Malabar coast of India to East Africa, Arabia and Egypt, Indian ships sailed in antiquity; their helmsmen skillfully used the monsoons - seasonal winds in the southern seas. In the first centuries of our era, Chinese, Indian and Malay merchants and sailors laid routes in the eastern part of the Indian Ocean, the South China and Java Seas, establishing trade links between the countries of Southeast Asia. At the beginning of the 5th century the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Fa Xian traveled on a Malay ship from the Bengal coast to Shandong, visiting Ceylon, Sumatra and Java on the way; in the 7th century such journeys were frequent.

After the Arab conquests and the formation of the Caliphate, the leadership in trade and navigation in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf and the western Indian Ocean passed to the Arabs. In their hands were Aden, the island of Socotra and a number of cities on the east coast of Africa. Enterprising Arab merchants were intermediaries in South Asia's trade with Europe. Their ships sailed to India, Ceylon, Java, and China; Arab trading posts arose in many cities of South Asia; there were such trading posts in Canton and Quanzhou. The cities of the coast of medieval India flourished, through which the flow of goods transported along the sea routes of Asia passed. “Here,” one Chinese described the Indian city of Calicut at the beginning of the 15th century, “there is pepper, rose oil, pearls, incense, amber, corals ... colored cotton fabrics, but all this is imported from other countries ... and they buy gold here , silver, cotton fabrics, blue and white porcelain, beads, mercury, camphor, musk, and there are large warehouses where goods are stored ... "

However, maritime trade in Southeast Asia was mainly in the hands of the Chinese and Malays.

In the period from the X to the XV century. China has become a mighty maritime power; his seaside towns became centers of world trade. Canton at the beginning of the 14th century, according to one European traveler who visited it, was equal to three Venices. “There are not as many goods in all of Italy as there are in this city alone,” he notes. At that time, large quantities of silk, porcelain, art products were exported from China to other countries, and spices, cotton fabrics, medicinal herbs, glass and other goods were imported. In Chinese ports for long-distance voyages, large sea vessels were built, which had several decks, many rooms for the crew and merchants; the crew of such a ship usually numbered up to a thousand sailors and soldiers, which was necessary in case of a meeting with pirates, who were especially numerous in the waters of the Malay Archipelago. These ships were propelled by sails made of reed mats fixed on movable yards, which made it possible to change the position of the sails in accordance with the direction of the wind; when calm, these ships moved with the help of large oars. The geographical map was known to Chinese sailors even before our era. From the end of the XI century. a compass appeared on Chinese ships (the Chinese knew the property of a magnet in ancient times). “The helmsmen are aware of the outlines of the coast, and at night they determine the path by the stars, during the day - by the sun. If the sun is hidden behind clouds, then they use a south-pointing needle, ”says the navigation of Chinese sailors in one treatise of the beginning of the 12th century. Chinese sailors had a thorough knowledge of the monsoons in the southern seas, sea currents, shoals, typhoons, obtained by the centuries-old practice of Asian sailors. There was also an extensive geographical literature in China, containing descriptions of overseas countries with detailed information about the goods brought from them to China.

The naval power of medieval China was especially clearly manifested in the successful implementation of the largest naval expeditions to the Indian Ocean, undertaken by the Emperor of the Ming Dynasty Chengzu in the period from 1405 to 1433. While the Portuguese had just begun their advance into the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean, the Chinese fleet in consisting of 60 to 100 different ships with a total crew of up to 25-30 thousand people made seven voyages to the west, visiting Indo-China, Java, Ceylon, the Malabar coast in India, Aden, Ormuz in Arabia; in 1418 Chinese ships visited the Somali coast of Africa. In the seas of the Malay Archipelago, this fleet defeated numerous pirate gangs that hindered the development of China's maritime trade with the countries of South Asia. All these expeditions were led by the great Chinese navigator Zheng He, who came from an humble family and was promoted to the emperor's court for his military merits. Zheng He's expeditions not only strengthened China's influence in South Asia and contributed to the growth of its economic and cultural ties, but also expanded the geographical knowledge of the Chinese: their participants studied, described and mapped the lands and waters they visited. “Countries beyond the horizon and at the edge of the earth have now become subject (to China - Ed.) And to the most western and northernmost edges, and perhaps even beyond their borders, and all paths have been traveled and distances have been measured,” - this is how he assessed the results of his voyages of Zheng He.

Maritime affairs were also highly developed among the Malays who inhabited the islands of the Malay Archipelago, which included the Moluccas - the birthplace of spices exported from here to all countries of the East. The cities of Java and Sumatra and Malacca were in the XIV-XV centuries. the largest centers of trade, navigation and geographical science in the East; the Javanese helmsmen were known as experienced sailors, and the charts drawn up by the Malays were highly valued in the ports of Asia for the accuracy and thoroughness of the information contained in them.

Another center of trade and navigation in the XV century. there were Arab cities on the East African coast - Kilva, Mombasa, Malindi, Sofala, the island of Zanzibar, etc. They carried on a lively maritime trade with all Asian countries, exporting ivory, slaves, and gold exchanged by neighboring tribes for handicrafts from Arabian cities. Arab sailors knew the sea routes well from the countries of the Red Sea to the Far East; there is evidence that around 1420, one Arab sailor passed from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic, rounding the southern tip of Africa. "Arab pilots have compasses for guiding ships, instructions for observing and nautical charts," wrote Vasco da Gama. A special literature on navigation was created - descriptions of routes, sailing directions, marine guides - summarizing the most important achievements in the field of shipping and navigation over many centuries. In the second half of the XV century. one of the most experienced Arab pilots in the western Indian Ocean was Ahmed ibn Majid, who came from a family of hereditary sailors. He was the author of many writings on maritime affairs, widely known among the sailors of Asia; the largest of these was the "Book of useful data on the basics of marine science and its rules." It described in detail the routes along the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf along Africa, to India, to the islands of the Malay Archipelago, to the shores of China and Taiwan, the methods of driving ships both during coastal navigation and on the high seas, instructions on the use of a compass and rhumbs, on astronomical observations, about seashores, reefs, monsoons and currents. Ibn Majid knew especially well the sea routes between Africa and the Malabar coast of India, which the Portuguese later took advantage of during their first voyage to India.

Opening of the sea route from Europe to India and the Far East

Portugal and Spain were the first European countries to undertake the search for sea routes to Africa and India. The nobles, merchants, clergy and royalty of these countries were interested in the search. With the end of the reconquista (in Portugal it ended in the middle of the 13th century, and in Spain at the end of the 15th century), the mass of small-scale nobles - hidalgos, for whom the war with the Moors was the only occupation - was left without work. These nobles despised all activities except war, and when, as a result of the development of a commodity-money economy, their need for money increased, many of them very soon found themselves in debt to the city usurers. Therefore, the idea of ​​getting rich in Africa or in the eastern countries seemed to these knights of the reconquista, left without work and without money, especially fascinating. The ability to fight, acquired by them in the wars with the Moors, the love of adventure, the thirst for military booty and glory were quite suitable for a new difficult and dangerous business - the discovery and conquest of unknown trade routes, countries and lands. It was from the environment of poor Portuguese and Spanish nobles that they emerged in the 15th-16th centuries. brave sailors, cruel conquerors-conquistadors who destroyed the states of the Aztecs and Incas, greedy colonial officials. “They walked with a cross in their hands and with an insatiable thirst for gold in their hearts,” writes one contemporary about the Spanish conquistadors. Wealthy citizens of Portugal and Spain willingly gave money for sea expeditions, which promised them the possession of the most important trade routes, rapid enrichment and a dominant position in European trade. The Catholic clergy sanctified the bloody deeds of the conquistadors with a religious banner, since thanks to the latter they acquired a new flock at the expense of tribes and peoples newly converted to Catholicism and increased their land holdings and incomes. The royal authorities of Portugal and Spain were no less interested in opening up new countries and trade routes. The impoverished, feudalized peasantry and underdeveloped cities could not give the kings enough money to cover the expenses demanded by the absolutist regime; in the possession of the most important trade routes and colonies, the kings saw a way out of financial difficulties. In addition, numerous militant nobles who remained idle after the reconquista posed a serious danger to the king and cities, since they could easily be used by large feudal lords in the fight against the unification of the country and the strengthening of royal power. The kings of Portugal and Spain therefore sought to captivate the nobles with the idea of ​​discovering and conquering new countries and trade routes.

The sea route connecting the Italian trading cities with the countries of North-Western Europe passed through the Strait of Gibraltar and skirted the Iberian Peninsula. With the development of maritime trade in the XIV-XV centuries. the importance of coastal Portuguese and Spanish cities increased. However, the expansion of Portugal and Spain was possible only towards the unknown Atlantic Ocean, because trade in the Mediterranean had previously been captured by the powerful sea cities of the republics of Italy, and trade in the North and to the Baltic Seas- the union of German cities - the Hansa. The geographical position of the Iberian Peninsula, pushed far to the west into the Atlantic Ocean, favored this direction of the expansion of Portugal and Spain. When in the 15th century in Europe, the need to look for new sea routes to the East increased, least of all in these searches was the Hansa, which monopolized all trade between the countries of North-Western Europe, and equally Venice, which continued to profit from the Mediterranean trade.

As a result of these internal and external reasons, Portugal and Spain were pioneers in the search for new sea routes across the Atlantic Ocean.

The Portuguese were the first to enter the ocean routes. After the conquest by the Portuguese troops in 1415 of the Moroccan port of Ceuta - the fortress of the Mauritanian pirates located on the southern coast of the Strait of Gibraltar, the Portuguese began to advance south, along west coast Africa to Western Sudan, from where golden sand, slaves and ivory were brought overland to the north. The Portuguese sought to penetrate further south from Ceuta, into the "sea of ​​darkness", as the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean, unknown to Europeans, was then called. Strong Arab states in Northwest Africa did not allow the Portuguese to expand to the east, along mediterranean coast Africa. West Side mediterranean sea actually was in the hands of Arab pirates.

In the organization of expeditions of the Portuguese in the first half of the XV century. along the West African coast, the Portuguese prince Enrico, better known in history under the name of Henry the Navigator, took part. On the southwestern coast of Portugal, in Sagris, on a rocky promontory, protruding far into the ocean, an observatory and shipyards were built for the construction of ships, and a nautical school was founded. Sagrish became a maritime academy for Portugal. In it, Portuguese fishermen and sailors, under the guidance of Italian and Catalan sailors, were trained in maritime affairs, there they improved ships and navigational instruments, drew sea charts according to information brought by Portuguese sailors, and developed plans for new expeditions to the south. Since the Reconquest, the Portuguese have been familiar with Arabic mathematics, geography, navigation, cartography and astronomy. Heinrich drew funds for the preparation of travels from the income of the spiritual and knightly order of Jesus headed by him, and also received by organizing a number of trading companies on shares with wealthy nobles and merchants who hoped to increase their income through overseas trade.

At first, seafaring developed slowly in Portugal; it was difficult to find daredevils who would risk going into the "sea of ​​darkness." But the situation improved significantly after the Portuguese captured the Azores in 1432 in the west, and in 1434 Zhil Eannish rounded Cape Bojador, south of which life was considered impossible in the Middle Ages; 10 years later, another Portuguese sailor sailed 400 miles south of this cape and brought gold and Negro slaves to Portugal, initiating the Portuguese slave trade. In the mid-40s, the Portuguese had already rounded Cape Verde and reached the coast between the Senegal and Gambia rivers, densely populated and rich in golden sand, ivory and spices. Following this, they penetrated deep into the mainland. Prince Henry the Navigator, objecting in words to the slave trade, in fact encouraged it in every possible way; V West Africa his ships began to regularly go to catch slaves and acquire golden sand, ivory and spices, exchanged with negroes for trinkets; usually the prince received a significant share of the brought booty.

The hope of plundering the entire African coast accelerated the Portuguese advance to the south. In the 60s and 70s, Portuguese sailors reached the coast of the Gulf of Guinea and crossed the equator; new characteristic names appeared on the Portuguese maps of Africa: "Pepper Coast", "Ivory Coast", "Slave Coast", "Gold Coast". In the early 80s, the sailor Diego Cao made three trips to the south of the Gold Coast, passed the mouth of the Congo River and set up his “padran” at the southern tropic - a stone pillar erected in an open area as a sign of its accession to the possessions of the King of Portugal. Finally, in 1487, Bartolomsu Dias reached the Cape of Good Hope, rounded it and entered the Indian Ocean. However, the crew of his ships, tired of the difficulties of the journey, refused to continue sailing, and Diaz was forced to return to Lisbon without reaching the shores of India. But he maintained that from South Africa it was possible to go by sea to the shores of India. This was also confirmed by Pedro Covellano, who was sent in 1487 by the Portuguese king in search of the shortest route to India through the countries of North Africa and the Red Sea and visited the Malabar coast of India, the cities of East Africa and Madagascar; in his report to the king, sent from Cairo, he, according to a contemporary, reported that the Portuguese caravels, “which trade in Guinea, sailing from one country to another on a course to this island (Madagascar) and Sofala, can easily pass into these eastern sea ​​and approach Calicut, for, as he learned, the sea is everywhere here.

To complete the search for a sea route to India, the Portuguese king Manoel sent an expedition led by one of his courtiers, Vasco da Gama, who came from poor nobles. In the summer of 1497, four ships under his command left Lisbon and, having circled Africa, passed along its eastern coast to Malindi, a rich Arab city who traded directly with India. The Portuguese entered into an "alliance" with the Sultan of this city, which allowed them to take with them the famous Ahmed ibn Majid as a pilot, under whose leadership they completed their voyage. On May 20, 1498, the ships of Vasco da Gama anchored off the Indian city of Calicut, one of the largest shopping centers Asia, "the marina of all Indian Sea”, as the Russian merchant Afanasy Nikitin called this city, who visited India in the second half of the 15th century. With the permission of the local raja, they began to buy spices in the city. The Arab merchants, who held in their hands all the overseas trade of the city, saw this as a threat to their monopoly and began to restore the rajah and the population of the city against the Portuguese. The Portuguese had to hastily leave Calicut and head back. In September 1499, Vasco da Gama returned to Lisbon. By the end of a two-year difficult voyage, less than half of the crew had survived.

The return to Lisbon of Portuguese ships loaded with spices from India was solemnly celebrated.

With the opening of the sea route to India, Portugal began to take over the entire maritime trade of South and East Asia. The Portuguese waged a fierce struggle against Arab trade and shipping in the Indian Ocean and began to seize the most important trade and strategic points in South Asia. In 1501, the navigator Cabral arrived in Indian waters with a military flotilla, bombarded Calicut and bought a cargo of spices in Cochin. Two years later, Vasco da Gama again set off for the Indian Ocean; as "Admiral of India" he plundered and sank the ships of Arab merchants and, returning to Lisbon with a huge booty, left a permanent military squadron in Indian waters to piracy the plunder of ships plying between Egypt and India. Soon the Portuguese captured the island of Socotra, at the entrance to the Gulf of Aden, and the fortress of Diu on the northwestern coast of India, and thus established their control over the sea routes connecting the Red Sea and South Asia. “Replenishments began to come to them from Portugal, and they began to cross the road to the Muslims, taking captive, robbing and seizing by force all kinds of ships,” reports one Arab historian of the 16th century. The lands and cities they captured in India became a stronghold for the further expansion of Portugal into Asia. Viceroy of Portuguese India d "Albuquerque took possession of the Goa fortress on the western coast of India and the Iranian port of Hormuz, and in 1511 took Malacca, a rich trading city in the Strait of Malacca, blocking the entrance to the Indian Ocean from the east. "The best of all that is in the world, "- this is how Albuquerque assessed Malacca. With the capture of Malacca, the Portuguese cut off the main route connecting the countries of Asia Minor with the main supplier of spices - the Moluccas, and entered the Pacific Ocean. A few years later they capture these islands and start maritime trade with the South Finally, in 1542, they reach the shores of distant Japan and establish the first European trading post there.

Carrying out this expansion to the East, the Portuguese conquerors used the methods of navigation of the sailors of the East, Arabic and Javanese maps of the countries and seas of South Asia. One map of a Javanese helmsman, which fell into the hands of the Portuguese in 1512, depicted the Cape of Good Hope, the Portuguese possessions, the Red Sea, the Moluccas, the sea routes of the Chinese with straight roads where ships pass, and with the interior of the country. According to this map, the Portuguese ships moved through the seas of the Malay Archipelago to the Moluccas. The captains of the Portuguese ships were instructed to use Ceylon and Javanese helmsmen as pilots.

Thus, the sea route from Western Europe to India and East Asia was opened. Together with this discovery, through conquests, a huge colonial empire of Portugal was created, stretching from Gibraltar to the Strait of Malacca. The Portuguese Viceroy of India, who was in Goa, was subject to five governors governing Mozambique, Hormuz, Muscat, Ceylon and Malacca. The Portuguese also subjugated the largest cities of East Africa. The most important opening of the sea route in the history of mankind, which connected Europe with Asia, was used by feudal Portugal for its own enrichment, for plundering and oppressing the peoples of Africa and Asia.

From that time until the digging of the Suez Canal in the 60s of the XIX century. the sea route around South Africa was the main road along which trade was carried out between the countries of Europe and Asia and the penetration of Europeans into the basins of the Indian and Pacific Oceans took place.

Discovery of America and Spanish conquests

In the spring of 1492, the Spaniards took Granada, the last stronghold of the Moors on the Iberian Peninsula, and on August 3 of the same year, three caravels of Christopher Columbus set off from the Spanish port of Paloe on a long voyage across the Atlantic Ocean in order to open the western route to India and East Asia. Not wanting to aggravate relations with Portugal, the Spanish kings Ferdinand and Isabella initially preferred to hide the real purpose of this trip. Columbus was appointed "admiral and viceroy of all the lands that he discovers in these seas-oceans", with the right to keep for his own benefit one tenth of all income from them, "whether it be pearls or precious stones, gold or silver, spices and others things and goods".

Biographical information about Columbus is very scarce. He was born in 1451 in Italy, not far from Genoa, in the family of a weaver, but there is no exact information about where he studied and when he became a navigator. It is known that in the 80s he lived in Lisbon and, obviously, participated in several voyages to the coast of Guinea, but these voyages were not what attracted him. He hatched a project to open the shortest route from Europe to Asia across the Atlantic Ocean; he studied the work of Pierre d'Agli (which was mentioned above), as well as the works of Toscanelli and other cosmographers of the 14th-15th centuries, who proceeded from the doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth, but significantly underestimated the length of the western route to Asia. However, to interest the Portuguese king in his Columbus’s project failed The “Council of Mathematicians” in Lisbon, which had previously discussed the plans of all expeditions, rejected his proposals as fantastic, and Columbus had to leave for Spain, where the project of opening a new route unknown to the Portuguese to Asia was supported by Ferdinand and Isabella.

On October 12, 1492, 69 days after departure from the Spanish port of Palos, Columbus' caravels, having overcome all the difficulties of the journey, reached San Salvador (apparently modern Watling), one of the islands of the Bahamas group, located off the coast of a new, unknown Europeans of the mainland: this day is considered the date of the discovery of America. The success of the expedition was achieved not only thanks to the leadership of Columbus, but also to the stamina of the entire crew, recruited from the inhabitants of Palos and other seaside cities of Spain who knew the sea well. In total, Columbus made four expeditions to America, during which he discovered and explored Cuba, Hispaniola (Haiti), Jamaica and other islands of the Caribbean Sea, the eastern coast of Central America and the coast of Venezuela in the northern part of South America. On the island of Hispaniola, he founded a permanent colony, which later became the stronghold of the Spanish conquests in America.

During his expeditions, Columbus proved to be not only a passionate seeker of new lands, but also a man who strove for enrichment. In the diary of his first trip, he wrote: “I am doing everything possible to get to where I can find gold and spices ...” “Gold,” he writes from Jamaica, “is perfection Gold creates treasures, and the one who owns it , can do whatever he wants, and is even capable of introducing human souls into paradise "To increase the profitability of the islands he discovered, on which, as it soon turned out, there was not so much gold and spices, he suggested taking slaves out of there to Spain:" And let, - he writes to the Spanish kings, - even slaves die on the way, yet not all of them face such a fate.

Columbus could not geographically correctly assess his discoveries and conclude that he had discovered a new continent unknown to him. Until the end of his life, he assured everyone that he had reached the shores of Southeast Asia, about the fabulous riches of which Marco Polo wrote and the Spanish nobles and merchants dreamed , kings. He called the lands he discovered "Indies" and their inhabitants - "Indians" Even during his last trip, he reported to Spain that Cuba is South China, and the coast of Central America is part of the Malay Peninsula and that to the south of it there should be a strait through which you can get to rich India.

The news of the discovery of Columbus caused great alarm in Portugal. The Portuguese believed that the Spaniards had violated their right to own all the lands south and east of Cape Bojador, confirmed earlier by the Pope, and ahead of them in reaching the shores of India; they even prepared a military expedition to seize the lands discovered by Columbus. In the end, Spain turned to the pope to resolve this dispute. With a special bull, the pope blessed the seizure by Spain of all the lands discovered by Columbus. In Rome, these discoveries were evaluated in terms of spreading the Catholic faith and increasing the influence of the church. The pope resolved the dispute between Spain and Portugal as follows: Spain was granted the right to own all the lands located west of the line passing through the Atlantic Ocean one hundred leagues (about 600 km) west of the Cape Verde Islands In 1494, on the basis of this bull, Spain and Portugal divided the spheres of conquest among themselves under an agreement concluded in the Spanish city of Tordesillas; the boundary line between the colonial possessions of both states was established 370 leagues (over 2 thousand km) west of the above islands. Both states arrogated to themselves the right to pursue and seize all foreign ships that appeared in their waters, impose duties on them, judge their crews according to their laws and etc.

But the discoveries of Columbus gave Spain too little gold, and soon after the success of Vasco da Gama, the country became disillusioned with the Spanish "Indies", Columbus began to be called a deceiver, who instead of the fabulously rich India discovered a country of grief and misfortune, which became the place of death of many Castilian nobles. The Spanish kings deprived him of the monopoly right to make discoveries in the western direction and that share of the income received from the lands discovered by him, which was initially determined for him. He lost all his property, which went to cover debts to his creditors. Columbus, abandoned by all, died in 1506. Contemporaries forgot not a single navigator, they even gave the name of the mainland he discovered by the name of the Italian scientist Amerigo Vespucci, who in 1499-1504 took part in exploration of the shores of South America and whose letters caused big interest in Europe. "These countries should be called the New World .." - he wrote.

After Columbus, other conquistadors in search of gold and slaves continued to expand the colonial possessions of Spain in America. In 1508, two Spanish Nina courts received royal patents for the establishment of colonies on the American mainland. The following year, the Spanish colonization of the Isthmus of Panama began; in 1513, conquistador Vasco Nunez Balboa with a small the first detachment of Europeans crossed the Isthmus of Panama and went to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, which he called the "South Sea". A few years later, the Spaniards discovered the Yucatan and Mexico, and also reached the mouth of the Mississippi River. Attempts were made to find a strait connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific, and thus complete the work begun by Columbus - to reach the shores of East Asia by the western route. This strait was searched for in 1515-1516. the Spanish sailor de Solis, who, moving along the Brazilian beret, reached the La Plata River; the Portuguese navigators who made their expeditions to big secret. In Europe, some geographers were so sure of the existence of this not yet discovered strait that they put it on maps in advance.

A new plan for a large expedition to search for a southwestern passage to the Pacific Ocean and reach Asia by the western route was proposed to the Spanish king by Fernando Magellan, a Portuguese sailor from poor nobles who lived in Spain. Magellan fought under the banner of the Portuguese king in Southwest Asia on land and at sea, participated in the capture of Malacca, in campaigns in North Africa, but returned to his homeland without great ranks and wealth; after being denied even a minor promotion by the king, he left Portugal. Magellan, while still in Portugal, began to develop an expedition project to search for the southwestern strait from the Atlantic Ocean to the open Balboa "South Sea", through which, as he assumed, it was possible to reach the Moluccas. In Madrid, in the "Council of Indian Affairs", which was in charge of all matters relating to the Spanish colonies, they became very interested in Magellan's projects; the council members liked his assertion that the Moluccas, under the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas, should belong to Spain and that the shortest route to them was through the southwestern strait into the "South Sea", which was owned by Spain. Magellan was absolutely sure of the existence of this strait, although, as subsequent facts showed, the only source of his confidence was the maps on which this strait was plotted without any reason. Under the agreement concluded by Magellan with the Spanish king Charles I, he received five ships and the funds needed for the expedition; he was appointed admiral with the right to keep for his own benefit a twentieth of the income that the expedition and the new possessions that he added to the Spanish crown would bring. “Since I,” the king wrote to Magellan, “is known for certain that there are spices on the Molucco islands, I send you mainly in search of them, and it is my will that you go straight to these islands.”

On September 20, 1519, five ships of Magellan left San Lucar for this journey. It went on for three years. Having overcome the great difficulties of navigation in the unexplored southern part of the Atlantic Ocean, he found the southwestern strait, later named after him. The strait was much further south than indicated on the maps that Magellan believed. Having entered the "South Sea", the expedition headed for the shores of Asia. Magellan called the "South Sea" the Pacific Ocean, "because, as one of the expedition members reports, we have never experienced the slightest storm." For more than three months the flotilla sailed across the open ocean; part of the crew, who suffered greatly from hunger and thirst, died from scurvy. In the spring of 1521, Magellan reached the islands off the east coast of Asia, later called the Philippine.

Pursuing the goal of conquering the lands he discovered, Magellan intervened in the feud between two local rulers and was killed on April 27 in a skirmish with the inhabitants of one of these islands. The crew of the expedition, after the death of their admiral, completed this most difficult voyage; only two ships reached the Moluccas, and only one ship, the Victoria, was able to continue on its way to Spain with a cargo of spices. The crew of this ship, under the command of d "Elcano, made a long voyage to Spain around Africa, managing to avoid meeting with the Portuguese, who were ordered from Lisbon to detain all members of Magellan's expedition. Of the entire crew of Magellan's expedition, unparalleled in courage (265 people), only 18 returned to their homeland people; but "Victoria" brought a large cargo of spices, the sale of which covered all the expenses of the expedition and gave a significant profit.

The great navigator Magellan completed the work begun by Columbus - he reached the Asian mainland and the Moluccas by the western route, opening a new sea route from Europe to Asia, although it did not gain practical importance due to the distance and difficulty of navigation. This was the first circumnavigation in the history of mankind; it irrefutably proved the spherical shape of the earth and the inseparability of the oceans washing the land.

In the same year, when Magellan went in search of a new sea route to the Moluccas, a small detachment of Spanish conquistadors, who had horses and armed with 13 cannons, set off from Cuba to the interior of Mexico to conquer the Aztec state, whose wealth was not inferior to the wealth of India. hidalgo Hernando Cortes. Cortes, who came from a family of impoverished hidalgos, according to one of the participants in this campaign, "had little money, but a lot of debt." But, having acquired plantations in Cuba, he was able to organize an expedition to Mexico, partly at his own expense.

In their clashes with the Aztecs, the Spaniards, who possessed firearms, steel armor and horses not previously seen in America and instilled panic in the Indians, as well as using improved combat tactics, received an overwhelming superiority of forces. In addition, the resistance of the Indian tribes to foreign conquerors was weakened by the enmity between the Aztecs and the tribes they conquered. This explains the rather easy victories of the Spanish troops.

Having landed on the Mexican coast, Cortes led his detachment to the capital of the Aztec state, the city of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City). The path to the capital passed through the area of ​​Indian tribes who were at war with the Aztecs, and this made the trip easier. Entering Tenochtitlan, the Spaniards were amazed at the size and wealth of the Aztec capital. Soon they managed to treacherously capture the supreme ruler of the Aztecs, Montezuma, and on his behalf begin to rule the country. They demanded from the Indian leaders subject to Montezuma an oath of allegiance to the Spanish King I, paying tribute in gold. In the building where the Spanish detachment was located, a secret room was discovered, in which there was a rich treasure of gold items and precious stones. All the gold things were poured into square bars and divided among the participants in the campaign, and most of it went to Cortes, the king and governor of Cuba.

Soon a great uprising broke out in the country against the power of greedy and cruel foreigners; the rebels laid siege to the Spanish detachment, which sat down with the captive supreme ruler in his household. With heavy losses, Cortés managed to break out of the siege and withdraw from Tenochtitlan; many Spaniards died because they rushed to riches and took so much that they could hardly walk.

And this time, the Spaniards were helped by those Indian tribes who took their side and were now afraid of the revenge of the Aztecs. In addition, Cortes replenished his squad with Spaniards who arrived from Cuba. Having gathered an army of 10,000, Cortes again approached the capital of Mexico and laid siege to the city. The siege was long; during it, most of the population of this populous city died of hunger, thirst and disease. August 1521, the Spaniards finally entered the ruined Aztec capital.

The Aztec state became Spanish colony; the Spaniards seized a lot of gold and precious stones in this country, distributed the lands to their colonists, and Indian population turned into slaves and serfs. “The Spanish conquest,” says Engels about the Aztecs, “cut off any further independent development of them” ( F. Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, Gospolitizdat, 1953, p. 23.).

Soon after the conquest of Mexico, the Spaniards conquered Guatemala and Honduras in Central America, and in 1546, after several invasions, they subjugated the Yucatan Peninsula, inhabited by the Mayan people. “There were too many rulers and they plotted against each other too much,” one of the Indians explained the defeat of the Maya.

The Spanish conquest in North America did not extend beyond Mexico. This is due to the fact that in the areas located north of Mexico, the Spanish seekers of profit did not find cities and states rich in gold and silver; on Spanish maps, these areas of the American mainland were usually indicated by the inscription: "Lands that do not generate income."

After the conquest of Mexico, the Spanish conquistadors turned all their attention to the south, to the mountainous regions of South America, rich in gold and silver. In the 30s, the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro, an illiterate man who was a swineherd in his youth, undertook the conquest of the "golden kingdom", the state of the Incas in Peru; about his fabulous wealth, he heard stories from local residents on the Isthmus of Panama during the Balboa campaign, of which he was a member. With a detachment of 200 people and 50 horses, he invaded this state, having managed to use the struggle of two heir brothers for the throne of the country's supreme ruler; he captured one of them - Atahualpa, and on his behalf began to rule the country. A large ransom was taken from Atahualpa in gold things, many times greater than the treasure that the detachment of Cortes took possession of; this booty was divided among the members of the detachment, for which all the gold was turned into ingots, destroying the most valuable monuments of Peruvian art. The ransom did not give Atahualpa the promised freedom; the Spaniards treacherously put him on trial and executed him. After that, Pizarro occupied the capital of the state - Cusco and became the complete ruler of the country (1532); he put on the throne the supreme ruler of his adherent, one of the nephews of Atahualpa. In Cuzco, the Spaniards plundered the treasures of the rich temple of the Sun, and in its building they created a Catholic monastery; in Potosi (Bolivia) they seized the richest silver mines.

In the early 40s, the Spanish conquistadors conquered Chile, and the Portuguese (in the 30s-40s) - Brazil, which was discovered by Cabral in 1500 during his expedition to India (Cabral's ships were on the way to the Cape of Good Hope to the west by the South Equatorial Current). In the second half of the XVI century. The Spaniards took control of Argentina.

Thus the New World was discovered and the colonial possessions of feudal-absolutist Spain and Portugal were created on the American mainland. The Spanish conquest of America interrupted the independent development of peoples American continent and put them under the yoke of colonial enslavement.

Discoveries in North America and Australia

Despite the agreement on the division of the spheres of conquest between Porgalia and Spain, sailors and merchants from other European countries began to penetrate into unexplored parts of the globe in search of profit and wealth. So, John Cabot (Italian Giovanni Caboto, who moved to England), went on an expedition to find northwest path to the Indian Ocean, first reached Newfoundland or the Labrador Peninsula in 1497, and his son, Sebastian Cabot, reached the northeast coast of North America in 1498 and explored it. Subsequently, English and French navigators explored the eastern part of North America, and the Dutch, as a result of a series of voyages made during the 17th century, discovered Australia, about which ancient geographers had vague information. In 1606, a Dutch ship under the command of Willem Janz reached the northern coast of Australia for the first time, and in 1642-1644. Dutch navigator Tasman made two voyages to the Australian coast and, having passed south of Australia to the island of Tasmania he discovered, proved that Australia is an independent new continent.

The London merchants, in their own words, "seeing how surprisingly quickly the wealth of the Spaniards and the Portuguese was growing due to the discovery of new countries and the search for new trading markets", organized in 1552 an expedition of three ships under the command of Willoughby, who attempted to find a northeast passage to China, rounding the coast of Siberia. The ships of the Willoughby expedition in the Barents Sea were separated by a storm, two of them were covered with ice in the southern part of this sea, and their entire crew froze, and the third passed into the White Sea, reached the mouth of the Northern Dvina; his captain Chancellor traveled to Moscow and was received by Ivan the Terrible. In 1556 and 1580. the British again tried to find the northeast passage, however, further than the entrance to the Kara Sea, their ships due to solid ice could not get through.

Dutch merchants at the end of the 16th century. three expeditions were sent to search for this passage, led by the Dutch navigator Bill Barents, but these ships could not pass east of Novaya Zemlya, where Barents wintered during his last expedition (1596-1597), as his ship was covered with ice.

Russian geographical discoveries of the 16th - 17th centuries.

The Russian people contributed to the great geographical discoveries of the first half of the 17th century. significant contribution. Russian travelers and navigators made a number of discoveries (mainly in the northeast of Asia) that enriched world science.

The reason for the increased attention of Russians to geographical discoveries was the further development of commodity-money relations in the country and the associated process of folding the all-Russian market, as well as the gradual inclusion of Russia in the world market. During this period, two main directions were clearly outlined - northeast (Siberia and the Far East) and southeast (Central Asia, Mongolia, China), along which Russian travelers and sailors moved.

Of great educational importance for contemporaries were the trade and diplomatic trips of Russian people in the 16th-17th centuries. to the countries of the East, a survey of the shortest overland routes for communication with the states of Central and Central Asia and with China.

By the middle of the XVII century. the Russians thoroughly studied and described the routes to Central Asia. Detailed and valuable information of this kind was contained in the embassy reports (“article lists”) of the Russian ambassadors I. D. Khokhlov (1620-1622), Anisim Gribov (1641-1643 and 1646-1647) and others.

Distant China aroused close attention among the Russian people. Back in 1525, while in Rome, the Russian ambassador Dmitry Gerasimov informed the writer Pavel Iovius that it was possible to travel from Europe to China by water through the northern seas. Thus, Gerasimov expressed a bold idea about the development of the Northern Route from Europe to Asia. This idea, thanks to Jovius, who published a special book on Muscovy in the Gerasimov embassy, ​​became widely known in Western Europe and was received with lively interest. It is possible that the organization of the expeditions of Willoughby and Barents was caused by the messages of the Russian ambassador. In any case, the search for the Northern Sea Route to the east was already in the middle of the 16th century. led to the establishment of direct maritime links between Western Europe and Russia.

The first reliable evidence of a journey to China is information about the embassy of the Cossack Ivan Petlin in 1618-1619. Petlin from Tomsk through the territory of Mongolia passed to China and visited Beijing. Returning to his homeland, he presented in Moscow "a drawing and painting about the Chinese region." The information collected as a result of Petlin's trip about the routes to China, about natural resources and the economy of Mongolia and China contributed to the expansion of the geographical horizons of contemporaries.

Of great importance in the history of geographical discoveries of that era was the survey of the vast expanses of the north and northeast of Asia from Ural Range to the coast of the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, that is, all of Siberia.

The annexation of Siberia was started in 1581 by a campaign of a detachment of the Cossack ataman Ermak Timofeevich. His detachment, consisting of 840 people, carried away by rumors about the untold riches of the Siberian Khanate, was equipped at the expense of large landowners and salt producers of the Urals Stroganovs. The government-supported campaign of Yermak (1581-1584) led to the fall of the Siberian Khanate and the annexation of Western Siberia to the Russian state.

Even in the middle of the XVI century. Sailings of Russian polar sailors from the European part of the country to the Gulf of Ob and to the mouth of the Yenisei are mentioned. They moved along the coast Arctic Ocean on small keels sailing ships- Kochs, well adapted to navigation in the ice of the Arctic due to the ovoid shape of the hull, which reduced the risk of ice compression. Used by Russian sailors of the XVI-XVII centuries. compass ("womb") and maps. In the first two decades of the 17th century there was already a fairly regular water communication of the West Siberian cities with Mangazeya along the Ob, the Gulf of Ob and the Arctic Ocean (the so-called "Mangazeya passage"). The same message was maintained between Arkhangelsk and Mangazeya. According to contemporaries, from Arkhangelsk to "Mangazeya, many trading and industrial people walk at night with all sorts of German (i.e. foreign, Western European) goods and bread." It was extremely important to establish the fact that the Yenisei flows into the very “Cold Sea”, along which people from Western Europe swim to Arkhangelsk. This discovery belongs to the Russian merchant Kondraty Kurochkin, who was the first to explore the fairway of the lower Yenisei up to the mouth.

A serious blow to the "Mangazeya move" was inflicted by government prohibitions of 1619-1620. use the sea route to Mangazeya, aimed at preventing the penetration of foreigners there.

Moving east into the taiga and tundra of Eastern Siberia, the Russians discovered one of the largest rivers in Asia - the Lena. Among the northern expeditions to the Lena, the Penda campaign (until 1630) stands out. Starting his journey with 40 companions from Turukhansk, he went through the entire Lower Tunguska, crossed the portage and reached the Lena. Having descended along the Lena to the central regions of Yakutia, Penda then sailed along the same river to reverse direction almost to the top. From here, passing through the Buryat steppes, he got to the Angara (Upper Tunguska), the first Russian sailed down the entire Angara, overcoming its famous rapids, after which he went to the Yenisei, and returned along the Yenisei to his starting point - Turukhansk. Penda and his companions made an unparalleled circular journey of several thousand kilometers through difficult terrain.

In 1633, brave seafarers Ivan Rebrov and Ilya Perfilyev went east from the mouth of the Lena at night, who reached the river by sea. Yana, and in 1636, the same Rebrov made a new cruise and reached the mouth of the Indigirka.

Almost simultaneously across the mainland in northeast direction detachments of Russian servicemen and industrial people (Posnik Ivanov and others) moved, discovering the mentioned rivers from land. Posnik Ivanov "and his comrades" made their long and difficult journey through the mountain ranges on horseback.

An important discovery in northeast Asia ended in the early 40s of the 17th century. Expedition of Mikhail Stadukhin. The detachment of the Cossack foreman and merchant Stadukhin, in which Semyon Dezhnev was, descended on a koch along the Indigirka, in 1643 reached the “Kov River” by sea, that is, reached the mouth of the Kolyma River. The Nizhne-Kolyma winter hut was laid here, from which, a few years later, Cossack Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev and industrial man Fedot Alekseev (known by the surname Popov) set out on their famous voyage around the northeastern tip of the Asian mainland.

An outstanding event of this era was the discovery in 1648 of the strait between America and Asia, made by Dezhnev and Fedot Alekseev (Popov).

Back in 1647, Semyon Dezhnev tried to go by sea to the mysterious Anadyr River, about which there were rumors among the Russian people, but “the ice didn’t let the river through to Anadyr”, and he was forced to return back. But the determination to achieve the intended goal did not leave Dezhnev and his comrades. On June 20, 1648, a new expedition set off from the mouth of the Kolyma in search of the Anadyr River on seven horses. The expedition, led by Dezhnev and Alekseev, included about a hundred people. Soon after the start of the campaign, four kochas disappeared from sight and the participants in this extremely difficult ice voyage had no further news about them. The remaining three ships under the command of Dezhnev, Alekseev and Gerasim Ankudinov continued their journey to the northeast. Koch Ankudinov died not far from the Chukchi nose (later named after Dezhnev). The crews of the other two ships took on board wrecked and stubbornly moved across the Arctic Ocean. In September 1648, the Dezhnev-Alekseev expedition rounded the extreme northeastern tip of Asia - the Chukchi (or Bolshoi Kamenny) nose and passed through the strait separating America from Asia (later called the Bering Strait). In bad sea weather, Kochi Dezhnev and Alekseev lost sight of each other. Koch Dezhnev, on which there were 25 people, was carried along the waves for a long time and, finally, was thrown onto the shore of the sea, which was later called the Bering Sea. Semyon Dezhnev then moved with his comrades into the depths of the mainland and after a heroic 10-week transition, during which his participants walked “cold and hungry, naked and barefoot” through a completely unfamiliar country, he reached the goal of his expedition - the Anadyr River. So it was, an outstanding geographical discovery was made, which proved that America was separated by sea from Asia and was an isolated continent, and a sea route around Northeast Asia was opened.

There are reasons to believe that Kamchatka in the middle of the 17th century. was discovered by Russian people. According to later reports, Koch Fedot Alekseev and his companions reached Kamchatka, where the Russians lived for a long time among the Itelmens. The memory of this fact was preserved among the local population of Kamchatka, and the Russian scientist of the first half of the 18th century. Krasheninnikov reported about him in his work "Description of the Land of Kamchatka". There is an assumption that part of the ships of the Dezhnev expedition, which disappeared on the way to the Chukchi nose, reached Alaska, where they founded a Russian "settlement. In 1937, during earthworks on the Kenai Peninsula (Alaska), the remains of dwellings of three hundred years ago were discovered, which scientists attributed to those built by Russian people.

In addition, Dezhnev and his companions are credited with discovering the Diomede Islands, where the Eskimos lived, and exploring the Anadyr River basin.

The discovery of Dezhnev - Alekseev was reflected on the geographical maps of Russia in the 17th century, which marked the free sea ​​passage from Kolyma to Amur.

During 1643-1651. Russian detachments of V. Poyarkov and E. Khabarov made campaigns on the Amur, which delivered a number of valuable information about this river not studied by Europeans.

So, over a relatively short historical period (from the 80s of the 16th century to the 40s of the 17th century), Russian people traveled through the steppes, taiga, tundra through the whole of Siberia, sailed through the seas of the Arctic and made a number of outstanding geographical discoveries.

Consequences of geographical discoveries for Western Europe

During the XV-XVII centuries. thanks to the bold expeditions of navigators and travelers from many European countries, most of the earth's surface, seas and oceans washing it were discovered and explored; Many inland areas of America, Asia, Africa and Australia have fallen into the unknown. The most important sea routes were laid that connected the continents with each other. But at the same time, geographical discoveries marked the beginning of the monstrous enslavement and extermination of the peoples of open countries, which became for European profit-seekers the object of the most shameless robbery and exploitation: treachery, deceit, consumption of local residents were the main methods of the conquerors. This price was the creation in Western Europe of the conditions for the emergence of capitalist production.

The colonial system, which arose as a result of geographical discoveries, contributed to the accumulation in the hands of the bourgeoisie in Europe of large amounts of money necessary for the organization of large-scale capitalist production, and also published a market for its products, thus being one of the levers of the process of so-called primitive accumulation. With the establishment of the colonial system, the world market began to take shape, which served as a powerful impetus to the emergence and development of capitalist relations in Western Europe. “The colonies,” writes Marx, “provided a market for rapidly emerging manufactories, and the monopoly possession of this market ensured increased accumulation. Treasures obtained outside of Europe through robbery, enslavement of the natives, murders flowed into the metropolis and then turned into capital.

The so-called price revolution of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries also contributed to the rise of the European bourgeoisie. It was caused by the importation from America to Europe of a large amount of gold and silver mined by the cheap labor of serfs and slaves. In the middle of the XVI century. in the colonies, gold and silver were mined 5 times more than they were mined in Europe before the conquest of America, and the total number of voiced coins circulating in European countries increased more than 4 times over the 16th century. This influx of cheap gold and silver into Europe led to a sharp decrease in the purchasing power of money and to a strong increase in prices (2-3 times or more) for all goods, both agricultural and industrial. In the city, everyone suffered from this rise in prices, he received wages, and the bourgeoisie enriched itself. In the countryside, the main beneficiaries were those nobles who set up a new type of economy, using hired labor and selling products to the market at high prices, and wealthy peasants, who also sold a significant part of agricultural products. In addition, landowners who leased land on a short-term lease benefited. Finally, the long-term tenants, the peasant holders, who paid the traditional fixed cash rent, benefited. leased out credential terms on the condition of receiving a fixed annuity in cash.

Where it seemed possible, the feudal lords compensated for their losses by intensifying their offensive against the peasants, by increasing the monetary rent, by switching from cash quitrent to natural duties, or by driving the peasants off the land. The "price revolution" also affected the poorest peasants, forced to partly live by selling their labor power, and agricultural wage workers. Marx writes about the “price revolution”: “The consequence of the increase in the means of exchange was, on the one hand, the depreciation of wages and land rent, and on the other hand, the growth of industrial profits. In other words: to the extent that the class of landowners and the class of working people, the feudal lords and the people, have declined, the class of capitalists, the bourgeoisie, has risen to the same extent. K. Marx, The Poverty of Philosophy, K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., vol. 4, p. 154.) Thus, the "price revolution" was also one of the factors contributing to the development of capitalism in Western Europe.

As a result of the great geographical discoveries, Europe's ties with the countries of Africa, South and East Asia increased, and relations with America were established for the first time. Trade has become global. The center of economic life moved from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean, the countries of Southern Europe fell into decline, primarily the Italian cities through which Europe had previously connected with the East, new centers of trade rose up: Lisbon - in Portugal, Seville - in Spain, Antwerp - in the Netherlands. Antwerp became the richest city in Europe, colonial goods, especially spices, were traded on a large scale, large international trade and credit operations were carried out, which was facilitated by the fact that, unlike other cities, Antwerp was established absolute freedom commercial and credit transactions. In 1531, a special building was built in Antwerp for the implementation of trade and financial transactions - the stock exchange with a characteristic inscription on the pediment: "For the needs of merchants of all nations and languages." Concluding a trade deal on the stock exchange, the buyer examined only samples of goods. Loan obligations of the bill were quoted on the stock exchange as securities; a new type of profit appeared - stock speculation.

Period of great geographical discoveries began in the 15th century and continued until the 17th century. During this period, the inhabitants of Europe, mainly through sea routes, discovered and explored new lands, and also began to colonize them. During this period, new continents were discovered - Australia, North and South America, trade routes were laid from Europe to the countries of Asia, Africa, and the islands of Oceania. Navigators played a leading role in the development of new lands Spain and Portugal.

The impetus for the great geographical discoveries, in addition to scientific interest and curiosity, was an economic interest, and sometimes a direct thirst for profit. In those days, distant India seemed to Europeans a fabulous country in placers of silver, gold and precious stones. In addition, Indian spices, brought by caravan routes to Europe by Arab merchants, cost a fortune in Europe. Therefore, the Europeans sought to reach India and trade with the Indians directly, without the mediation of Arab merchants. Or rob them...

In 1492 Christopher Columbus, who was looking for a direct sea route to India, America was discovered. Shortly before this, the Portuguese found a sea route to the Indian Ocean and reached it for the first time. But the desired India remained all the same unattainable. A whole century after Columbus Vasco de Gama yet managed to be the first of the Europeans to reach India by sea, rounding the African mainland. And soon Marco Polo reached China.

Completely destroyed the idea of ​​​​believers about a flat earth Ferdinand Magellan, who made the world's first trip around the world on his ships in 1522. Now it has become clear even to the most backward inhabitants of the Earth that the Earth is round and is a sphere.

Great geographical discoveries made great cultural exchange between different countries and civilizations. It also changed the biological balance of the planet. In addition to getting to know the culture, traditions and inventions of different countries, Europeans also transported animals, plants, and slaves around the planet. Races mixed, some plants and animals crowded out others. Europeans brought smallpox to America, to which the locals had no immunity, and they died en masse from the disease.

AMUNDSEN Rual

Travel routes

1903-1906 - Arctic expedition on the ship "Yoa". R. Amundsen was the first to cross the Northwest Passage from Greenland to Alaska and determined the exact position of the North Magnetic Pole at that time.

1910-1912 - Antarctic expedition on the ship "Fram".

On December 14, 1911, a Norwegian traveler with four comrades on dog sledding reached the South Pole of the earth, ahead of the expedition of the Englishman Robert Scott by a month.

1918-1920 - on the ship "Maud" R. Amundsen passed through the Arctic Ocean along the coast of Eurasia.

1926 - together with the American Lincoln Ellsworth and the Italian Umberto Nobile R. Amundsen made a flight on the airship "Norway" along the route Svalbard - North Pole - Alaska.

1928 - during the search for the missing expedition in the Barents Sea, U. Nobile Amundsen died.

Name on a geographical map

The name of the Norwegian traveler is given to a sea in the Pacific Ocean, a mountain in East Antarctica, a bay near the coast of Canada and a basin in the Arctic Ocean.

The US Antarctic Research Station is named after the pioneers: Amundsen-Scott Pole.

Amundsen R. My life. - M.: Geografgiz, 1959. - 166 p.: ill. - (Travel; Adventure; Fantasy).

Amundsen R. South Pole: Per. from Norwegian - M.: Armada, 2002. - 384 p.: ill. - (Green series: Around the world).

Booman-Larsen T. Amundsen: Per. from Norwegian - M.: Mol. guard, 2005. - 520 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

The chapter dedicated to Amundsen, Y. Golovanov called "Traveling gave me the happiness of friendship ..." (pp. 12-16).

Davydov Yu.V. Captains are looking for a way: Tales. - M.: Det. lit., 1989. - 542 p.: ill.

Pasetsky V.M., Blinov S.A. Roald Amundsen, 1872-1928. - M.: Nauka, 1997. - 201 p. - (Scientific biographical series).

Treshnikov A.F. Roald Amundsen. - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1976. - 62 p.: ill.

Tsentkevich A., Tsentkevich Ch. The Man Called by the Sea: The Tale of R. Amundsen: Per. from est. - Tallinn: Eesti raamat, 1988. - 244 p.: ill.

Yakovlev A.S. Through the Ice: A Tale of a Polar Explorer. - M.: Mol. guard, 1967. - 191 p.: ill. - (Pioneer means first).

Bellingshausen Faddey Faddeevich

Travel routes

1803-1806 - F.F. Bellingshausen took part in the first Russian circumnavigation under the command of I.F. Kruzenshtern on the ship "Nadezhda". All the maps that were subsequently included in the "Atlas of Captain Kruzenshtern's trip around the world" were compiled by him.

1819-1821 - F.F. Bellingshausen led a round-the-world expedition to the South Pole.

On January 28, 1820, on the sloops Vostok (under the command of F.F. Bellingshausen) and Mirny (under the command of M.P. Lazarev), Russian sailors were the first to reach the shores of Antarctica.

Name on a geographical map

In honor of F.F. Bellingshausen, a sea in the Pacific Ocean, a cape on South Sakhalin, an island in the Tuamotu archipelago, an ice shelf and a basin in Antarctica.

The name of the Russian navigator is the Russian Antarctic research station.

Frost V. Antarctica: History of discovery / Khudozh. E. Orlov. - M.: White City, 2001. - 47 p.: ill. - (Russian history).

Fedorovsky E.P. Bellingshausen: East. novel. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2001. - 541 p.: ill. - (Golden library of the source of the novel).

BERING Vitus Jonassen

Danish navigator and explorer in Russian service

Travel routes

1725-1730 - V. Bering led the 1st Kamchatka expedition, the purpose of which was to search for a land isthmus between Asia and America (there was no exact information about the voyage of S. Dezhnev and F. Popov, who actually discovered the strait between the continents in 1648). The expedition on the ship "Saint Gabriel" rounded the shores of Kamchatka and Chukotka, discovered the island of St. Lawrence and the strait (now Bering).

1733-1741 - 2nd Kamchatka, or the Great Northern Expedition. On the ship "Saint Peter" Bering crossed the Pacific Ocean, reached Alaska, explored and mapped its shores. On the way back during wintering on one of the islands (now Commander Islands), Bering, like many members of his team, died.

Name on a geographical map

In addition to the strait between Eurasia and North America, islands, a sea in the Pacific Ocean, a cape on the coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and one of the largest glaciers in southern Alaska bear the name of Vitus Bering.

Konyaev N.M. Revision of Commander Bering. - M.: Terra-Kn. club, 2001. - 286 p. - (Fatherland).

Orlov O.P. To unknown shores: A story about the Kamchatka expeditions undertaken by Russian navigators in the 18th century under the leadership of V. Bering / Fig. V.Yudina. - M.: Malysh, 1987. - 23 p.: ill. - (Pages of the history of our Motherland).

Pasetsky V.M. Vitus Bering: 1681-1741. - M.: Nauka, 1982. - 174 p.: ill. - (Scientific biographical series).

The last expedition of Vitus Bering: Sat. - M.: Progress: Pangea, 1992. - 188 p.: ill.

Sopotsko A.A. The history of V. Bering's navigation on the boat "St. Gabriel" to the Arctic Ocean. - M.: Nauka, 1983. - 247 p.: ill.

Chekurov M.V. Mysterious Expeditions. - Ed. 2nd, revised, add. - M.: Nauka, 1991. - 152 p.: ill. - (Man and environment).

Chukovsky N.K. Bering. - M.: Mol. guard, 1961. - 127 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

VAMBERI Arminius (German)

Hungarian orientalist

Travel routes

1863 - A. Vamberi's journey under the guise of a dervish along Central Asia from Tehran through the Turkmen desert along the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea to Khiva, Mashhad, Herat, Samarkand and Bukhara.

Vambery A. Journey through Central Asia: Per. with him. - M.: Institute of Oriental Studies RAN, 2003. - 320 p. - (Stories about the countries of the East).

Vamberi A. Bukhara, or History of Mavarounnahr: Excerpts from the book. - Tashkent: Lit. and lawsuit, 1990. - 91 p.

Tikhonov N.S. Vambery. - Ed. 14th. - M.: Thought, 1974. - 45 p.: ill. - (Remarkable geographers and travelers).

VANCOUVER George

English navigator

Travel routes

1772-1775, 1776-1780 - J. Vancouver as a cabin boy and midshipman participated in the second and third round-the-world voyages of J. Cook.

1790-1795 - A round-the-world expedition under the command of J. Vancouver explored the northwestern coast of North America. It was determined that the proposed waterway connecting the Pacific Ocean and Hudson Bay did not exist.

Name on a geographical map

In honor of J. Vancouver, several hundred geographical objects are named, including an island, a bay, a city, a river, a ridge (Canada), a lake, a cape, a mountain, a city (USA), a bay (New Zealand).

Malakhovskiy K.V. In the new Albion. - M.: Nauka, 1990. - 123 p.: ill. - (Stories about the countries of the East).

GAMA Vasco yes

Portuguese navigator

Travel routes

1497-1499 - Vasco da Gama led an expedition that opened for Europeans a sea route to India around the African continent.

1502 - second expedition to India.

1524 - the third expedition of Vasco da Gama, already as Viceroy of India. Died during the expedition.

Vyazov E.I. Vasco da Gama: Discoverer of the sea route to India. - M.: Geographizdat, 1956. - 39 p.: ill. - (Remarkable geographers and travelers).

Camoens L., de. Sonnets; Lusiads: Per. from Portuguese. - M.: EKSMO-Press, 1999. - 477 p.: ill. - (Home library of poetry).

Read the Lusiads.

Kent L.E. They walked with Vasco da Gama: A Tale / Per. from English Z. Bobyr // Fingaret S.I. Great Benin; Kent L.E. They walked with Vasco da Gama; Zweig S. The feat of Magellan: East. story. - M.: TERRA: UNIKUM, 1999. - S. 194-412.

Kunin K.I. Vasco da Gama. - M.: Mol. guard, 1947. - 322 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

Khazanov A.M. The secret of Vasco da Gama. - M.: Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, 2000. - 152 p.: ill.

Hart G. Sea route to India: A story about the voyages and exploits of Portuguese sailors, as well as about the life and time of Vasco da Gama, admiral, viceroy of India and Count Vidigueira: Per. from English. - M.: Geographizdat, 1959. - 349 p.: ill.

GOLOVNIN Vasily Mikhailovich

Russian navigator

Travel routes

1807-1811 - V.M. Golovnin leads the round-the-world voyage on the sloop "Diana".

1811 - V.M. Golovnin conducts research on the Kuril and Shantar Islands, the Tatar Strait.

1817-1819 - circumnavigation on the sloop "Kamchatka", during which a description of a part of the Aleutian ridge and the Commander Islands was made.

Name on a geographical map

Several bays, a strait and a seamount, as well as a city in Alaska and a volcano on Kunashir Island are named after the Russian navigator.

Golovnin V.M. Notes of the fleet of Captain Golovnin about his adventures in captivity with the Japanese in 1811, 1812 and 1813, with the addition of his remarks about Japanese State and the people. - Khabarovsk: Prince. publishing house, 1972. - 525 p.: ill.

Golovnin V.M. Voyage around the world, made on the sloop-of-war "Kamchatka" in 1817, 1818 and 1819 by Captain Golovnin. - M.: Thought, 1965. - 384 p.: ill.

Golovnin V.M. Journey on the sloop "Diana" from Kronstadt to Kamchatka, made under the command of the fleet of Lieutenant Golovnin in 1807-1811. - M.: Geographizdat, 1961. - 480 p.: ill.

Golovanov Ya. Etudes about scientists. - M.: Mol. guard, 1983. - 415 p.: ill.

The chapter devoted to Golovnin is called “I feel a lot…” (pp. 73-79).

Davydov Yu.V. Evenings in Kolmov: The Tale of G. Uspensky; And before your eyes...: Experience of the biography of a sailor-marinist: [About V.M. Golovnin]. - M.: Book, 1989. - 332 p.: ill. - (Writers about writers).

Davydov Yu.V. Golovnin. - M.: Mol. guard, 1968. - 206 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

Davydov Yu.V. Three Admirals: [About D.N. Senyavin, V.M. Golovnin, P.S. Nakhimov]. - M.: Izvestia, 1996. - 446 p.: ill.

Divin V.A. The Tale of a Glorious Navigator. - M.: Thought, 1976. - 111 p.: ill. - (Remarkable geographers and travelers).

Lebedenko A.G. The sails of the ships rustle: A novel. - Odessa: Mayak, 1989. - 229 p.: ill. - (Marine library).

Firsov I.I. Twice Captured: East. novel. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2002. - 469 p.: ill. - (Golden library of the source of the novel: Russian travelers).

HUMBOLDT Alexander, background

German naturalist, geographer, traveler

Travel routes

1799-1804 - Expedition to Central and South America.

1829 - a journey through Russia: the Urals, Altai, the Caspian Sea.

Name on a geographical map

Ranges in Central Asia and North America, a mountain on the island of New Caledonia, a glacier in Greenland, a cold current in the Pacific Ocean, a river, a lake and a series of settlements in USA.

A number of plants, minerals, and even a crater on the moon are named after the German scientist.

The university in Berlin bears the name of the brothers Alexander and Wilhelm Humboldt.

Zabelin I.M. Return to descendants: A novel-study of the life and work of A. Humboldt. - M.: Thought, 1988. - 331 p.: ill.

Safonov V.A. Alexander Humboldt. - M.: Mol. guard, 1959. - 191 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

Skurla G. Alexander Humboldt / Abbr. per. with him. G. Shevchenko. - M.: Mol. guard, 1985. - 239 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

DEZHNEV Semyon Ivanovich

(c. 1605-1673)

Russian explorer, navigator

Travel routes

1638-1648 - S.I. Dezhnev took part in river and land campaigns in the area of ​​the Yana River, on Oymyakon and Kolyma.

1648 - a fishing expedition led by S.I. Dezhnev and F.A. Popov rounded the Chukotka Peninsula and reached the Gulf of Anadyr. Thus, the strait between the two continents was opened, which was later named Bering.

Name on a geographical map

A cape on the northeastern tip of Asia, a ridge in Chukotka and a bay in the Bering Strait are named after Dezhnev.

Bakhrevsky V.A. Semyon Dezhnev / Fig. L. Khailova. - M.: Malysh, 1984. - 24 p.: ill. - (Pages of the history of our Motherland).

Bakhrevsky V.A. Walking to meet the sun: East. story. - Novosibirsk: Prince. publishing house, 1986. - 190 p.: ill. - (Destinies connected with Siberia).

Belov M. The feat of Semyon Dezhnev. - M.: Thought, 1973. - 223 p.: ill.

Demin L.M. Semyon Dezhnev - pioneer: East. novel. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2002. - 444 p.: ill. - (Golden library of the source of the novel: Russian travelers).

Demin L.M. Semyon Dezhnev. - M.: Mol. guard, 1990. - 334 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

Kedrov V.N. To the End of the World: East. story. - L.: Lenizdat, 1986. - 285 p.: ill.

Markov S.N. Tamo-rus Maclay: Tales. - M.: Sov. writer, 1975. - 208 p.: ill.

Read the story "Dezhnev's Feat".

Nikitin N.I. Pathfinder Semyon Dezhnev and his time. - M.: Rosspen, 1999. - 190 p.: ill.

DRAKE Francis

English navigator and pirate

Travel routes

1567 - F. Drake took part in the expedition of J. Gaukins to the West Indies.

Since 1570 - annual pirate raids in the Caribbean.

1577-1580 - F. Drake led the second round-the-world voyage of Europeans after Magellan.

Name on a geographical map

The name of the brave navigator is the widest strait on the globe, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

Francis Drake / Retelling by D. Berkhin; Artistic L. Durasov. - M.: White City, 1996. - 62 p.: ill. - (History of piracy).

Malakhovskiy K.V. Circumnavigation of the Golden Doe. - M.: Nauka, 1980. - 168 p.: ill. - (Countries and peoples).

The same story can be found in the collection of K. Malakhovsky "Five Captains".

Mason F. van V. Golden Admiral: Novel: Per. from English. - M.: Armada, 1998. - 474 p.: ill. - (Great pirates in novels).

Muller V.K. Pirate of Queen Elizabeth: Per. from English. - St. Petersburg: LENKO: Gangut, 1993. - 254 p.: ill.

DUMONT-DURVILLE Jules Sebastien Cesar

French navigator and oceanographer

Travel routes

1826-1828 - circumnavigation on the ship "Astrolabe", as a result of which part of the coast of New Zealand and New Guinea was mapped, island groups in the Pacific Ocean were examined. On the island of Vanikoro, Dumont-D'Urville discovered traces of the lost expedition of J. Laperouse.

1837-1840 - Antarctic expedition.

Name on a geographical map

The sea in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Antarctica is named after the navigator.

The French scientific Antarctic station bears the name of Dumont-D'Urville.

Varshavsky A.S. The Journey of Dumont-D'Urville. - M.: Thought, 1977. - 59 p.: ill. - (Remarkable geographers and travelers).

The fifth part of the book is called "Captain Dumont d'Urville and his belated discovery" (pp. 483-504).

IBN BATTUTA Abu Abdallah Muhammad

Ibn al-Lawati at-Tanji

Arab traveler, itinerant merchant

Travel routes

1325-1349 - Departing from Morocco on a hajj (pilgrimage), Ibn Battuta traveled to Egypt, Arabia, Iran, Syria, Crimea, reached the Volga and lived for some time in the Golden Horde. Then through Central Asia and Afghanistan he arrived in India, visited Indonesia and China.

1349-1352 - travel to Muslim Spain.

1352-1353 - a trip to Western and Central Sudan.

At the request of the ruler of Morocco, Ibn Battuta, together with a scholar named Juzay, wrote the book "Rikhla", where he summarized the information about the Muslim world that he had collected during his travels.

Ibragimov N. Ibn Battuta and his travels in Central Asia. - M.: Nauka, 1988. - 126 p.: ill.

Miloslavsky G. Ibn Battuta. - M.: Thought, 1974. - 78 p.: ill. - (Remarkable geographers and travelers).

Timofeev I. Ibn Battuta. - M.: Mol. guard, 1983. - 230 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

Columbus Christopher

Portuguese and Spanish navigator

Travel routes

1492-1493 - H. Columbus led the Spanish expedition, the purpose of which was to find the shortest sea route from Europe to India. During the voyage on three caravels "Santa Maria", "Pinta" and "Nina" the Sargasso Sea was discovered, Bahamas, Cuba and Haiti.

October 12, 1492, when Columbus reached the island of Samana, is recognized as the official day of the discovery of America by Europeans.

During three subsequent expeditions across the Atlantic (1493-1496, 1498-1500, 1502-1504), Columbus discovered the Greater Antilles, part of the Lesser Antilles, the coasts of South and Central America and the Caribbean Sea.

Until the end of his life, Columbus was sure that he had reached India.

Name on a geographical map

The name of Christopher Columbus is carried by a state in South America, mountains and plateaus in North America, a glacier in Alaska, a river in Canada and several cities in the United States.

In the United States of America there is Columbia University.

Travels of Christopher Columbus: Diaries, letters, documents / Per. from Spanish and comment. I. Sveta. - M.: Geographizdat, 1961. - 515 p.: ill.

Blasco Ibanez V. In search of the Great Khan: Novel: Per. from Spanish - Kaliningrad: Prince. publishing house, 1987. - 558 p.: ill. - (Marine romance).

Verlinden C. Christopher Columbus: Mirage and Perseverance: Trans. with him. // Conquerors of America. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1997. - S. 3-144.

Irving W. History of the life and travels of Christopher Columbus: Per. from English. // Irving V. Sobr. cit.: In 5 volumes: T. 3, 4. - M .: Terra - Book. club, 2002-2003.

Clients A.E. Christopher Columbus / Art. A. Chauzov. - M.: White City, 2003. - 63 p.: ill. - (East novel).

Kovalevskaya O.T. Admiral's brilliant mistake: How Christopher Columbus, without knowing it, discovered the New World, which was later called America / Lit. edited by T. Pesotskaya; Artistic N. Koshkin, G. Alexandrova, A. Skorikov. - M.: Interbuk, 1997. - 18 p.: ill. - (The greatest journeys).

Columbus; Livingston; Stanley; A. Humboldt; Przhevalsky: Biogr. storytelling. - Chelyabinsk: Ural LTD, 2000. - 415 p.: ill. - (Life of remarkable people: Biogr. F. Pavlenkov's library).

Cooper J.F. Mercedes from Castile, or Journey to Cathay: Per. from English. - M.: Patriot, 1992. - 407 p.: ill.

Lange P.V. The Great Drifter: The Life of Christopher Columbus: Per. with him. - M.: Thought, 1984. - 224 p.: ill.

Magidovich I.P. Christopher Columbus. - M.: Geographizdat, 1956. - 35 p.: ill. - (Remarkable geographers and travelers).

Reifman L. From the harbor of hopes to the seas of anxiety: The life and times of Christopher Columbus: East. chronicles. - St. Petersburg: Lyceum: Soyuzteatr, 1992. - 302 p.: ill.

Rzhonsnitsky V.B. Discovery of America by Columbus. - SPb.: St. Petersburg Publishing House. un-ta, 1994. - 92 p.: ill.

Sabatini R. Columbus: Novel: Trans. from English. - M.: Respublika, 1992. - 286 p.

Light Ya.M. Columbus. - M.: Mol. guard, 1973. - 368 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

Subbotin V.A. Great discoveries: Columbus; Vasco da Gama; Magellan. - M.: Publishing house of URAO, 1998. - 269 p.: ill.

Chronicles of the Discovery of America: New Spain: Book. 1: East documents: Per. from Spanish - M.: Academic project, 2000. - 496 p.: ill. - (B-ka Latin America).

Shishova Z.K. Great voyage: East. novel. - M.: Det. lit., 1972. - 336 p.: ill.

Edberg R. Letters to Columbus; Spirit of the Valley / Per. from the Swedish L. Zhdanova. - M.: Progress, 1986. - 361 p.: ill.

Krasheninnikov Stepan Petrovich

Russian naturalist, the first explorer of Kamchatka

Travel routes

1733-1743 - S.P. Krasheninnikov took part in the 2nd Kamchatka expedition. First, under the guidance of academicians G.F. Miller and I.G. Gmelin, he studied Altai and Transbaikalia. In October 1737, Krasheninnikov went to Kamchatka on his own, where until June 1741 he carried out research, on the basis of which he subsequently compiled the first Description of the Land of Kamchatka (vols. 1-2, ed. 1756).

Name on a geographical map

An island near Kamchatka, a cape on Karaginsky Island and a mountain near Lake Kronotskoe are named after S.P. Krasheninnikov.

Krasheninnikov S.P. Description of the land of Kamchatka: In 2 volumes - Reprint. ed. - St. Petersburg: Science; Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky: Kamshat, 1994.

Varshavsky A.S. Sons of the Fatherland. - M.: Det. lit., 1987. - 303 p.: ill.

Mixon I.L. The Man Who...: East. story. - L .: Det. lit., 1989. - 208 p.: ill.

Fradkin N.G. S.P. Krasheninnikov. - M.: Thought, 1974. - 60 p.: ill. - (Remarkable geographers and travelers).

Eidelman N.Ya. What is there beyond the sea-ocean?: A story about the Russian scientist S.P. Krasheninnikov, the discoverer of Kamchatka. - M.: Malysh, 1984. - 28 p.: ill. - (Pages of the history of our Motherland).

KRUZENSHTERN Ivan Fyodorovich

Russian navigator, admiral

Travel routes

1803-1806 - I.F. Kruzenshtern led the first Russian round-the-world expedition on the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva". I.F. Kruzenshtern - author of the Atlas South Sea» (vols. 1-2, 1823-1826)

Name on a geographical map

The name of I.F. Kruzenshtern bears the strait in the northern part of the Kuril Islands, two atolls in the Pacific Ocean and the southeastern passage of the Korea Strait.

Kruzenshtern I.F. Travel around the world in 1803, 1804, 1805 and 1806 on the ships Nadezhda and Neva. - Vladivostok: Far East. book. publishing house, 1976. - 392 p.: ill. - (Dalnevost. ist. b-ka).

Zabolotskikh B.V. To the glory of the Russian flag: The Tale of I.F. Kruzenshtern, who led the first trip of Russians around the world in 1803-1806, and O.E. Kotzebue, who made an unprecedented voyage on the Rurik brig in 1815-1818. - M.: Autopan, 1996. - 285 p: ill.

Zabolotskikh B.V. Petrovsky Fleet: East. essays; To the Glory of the Russian Flag: A Tale; The Second Journey of Kruzenshtern: A Tale. - M.: Classics, 2002. - 367 p.: ill.

Pasetsky V.M. Ivan Fyodorovich Kruzenshtern. - M.: Nauka, 1974. - 176 p.: ill.

Firsov I.I. Russian Columbuses: The history of the round-the-world expedition of I. Kruzenshtern and Yu. Lisyansky. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001. - 426 p.: ill. - (Great geographical discoveries).

Chukovsky N.K. Captain Kruzenshtern: A Tale. - M.: Bustard, 2002. - 165 p.: ill. - (Honor and courage).

Steinberg E.L. Glorious sailors Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky. - M.: Detgiz, 1954. - 224 p.: ill.

COOK James

English navigator

Travel routes

1768-1771 - round-the-world expedition on the frigate "Endeavor" under the command of J. Cook. Defined insular position New Zealand Open Big barrier reef and the east coast of Australia.

1772-1775 - the goal of the second expedition led by Cook on the ship "Resolution" (to find and map the southern mainland) was not achieved. As a result of the search, the South Sandwich Islands, New Caledonia, Norfolk, South Georgia were discovered.

1776-1779 - Cook's third round-the-world expedition on the ships "Resolution" and "Discovery" aimed to find the Northwest Passage connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The passage was not found, but were opened Hawaiian Islands and part of the coast of Alaska. On the way back J.Cook was killed on one of the islands by natives.

Name on a geographical map

The highest mountain in New Zealand, a bay in the Pacific Ocean, islands in Polynesia and the strait between the North and South Islands of New Zealand are named after the English navigator.

James Cook's first circumnavigation of the world: The Endeavour, 1768-1771. / J.Cook. - M.: Geographizdat, 1960. - 504 p.: ill.

Second circumnavigation of the world by James Cook: Voyage to the South Pole and around the world in 1772-1775. / J.Cook. - M.: Thought, 1964. - 624 p.: ill. - (Geographic Ser.).

James Cook's third circumnavigation of the world: Sailing in the Pacific 1776-1780. / J.Cook. - M.: Thought, 1971. - 636 p.: ill.

Vladimirov V.I. Cook. - M.: Spark of Revolution, 1933. - 168 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

McLean A. Captain Cook: History of geogr. discoveries of the great navigator: Per. from English. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001. - 155 p.: ill. - (Great geographical discoveries).

Middleton H. Captain Cook: The famous navigator: Per. from English. / Il. A. Marx. - M.: AsKON, 1998. - 31 p.: ill. - (Great names).

Light Ya.M. James Cook. - M.: Thought, 1979. - 110 p.: ill. - (Remarkable geographers and travelers).

Chukovsky N.K. Frigate Drivers: A Book of Great Navigators. - M.: ROSMEN, 2001. - 509 p. - (Golden Triangle).

The first part of the book is titled "Captain James Cook and his three voyages around the world" (pp. 7-111).

LAZAREV Mikhail Petrovich

Russian naval commander and navigator

Travel routes

1813-1816 - circumnavigation on the ship "Suvorov" from Kronstadt to the coast of Alaska and back.

1819-1821 - commanding the Mirny sloop, M.P. Lazarev participated in a round-the-world expedition led by F.F. Bellingshausen.

1822-1824 - M.P. Lazarev led round the world expedition on the frigate "Cruiser".

Name on a geographical map

A sea in the Atlantic Ocean, an ice shelf and an underwater trench in East Antarctica, a village on the Black Sea coast are named after M.P. Lazarev.

The Russian Antarctic Research Station also bears the name of MP Lazarev.

Ostrovsky B.G. Lazarev. - M.: Mol. guard, 1966. - 176 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

Firsov I.I. Half a century under sail. - M.: Thought, 1988. - 238 p.: ill.

Firsov I.I. Antarctica and Navarino: A Novel. - M.: Armada, 1998. - 417 p.: ill. - (Russian commanders).

LIVINGSTON David

English explorer of Africa

Travel routes

Since 1841 - numerous trips to the interior regions of South and Central Africa.

1849-1851 - Research of the area of ​​Lake Ngami.

1851-1856 - Research of the Zambezi River. D. Livingston discovered the Victoria Falls and was the first European to cross the African continent.

1858-1864 - Exploration of the Zambezi River, Lakes Chilwa and Nyasa.

1866-1873 - several expeditions in search of the sources of the Nile.

Name on a geographical map

The waterfalls on the Congo River and the city on the Zambezi River are named after the English traveler.

Livingston D. Travels around South Africa: Per. from English. / Il. author. - M.: EKSMO-Press, 2002. - 475 p.: ill. - (Wind rose: Epochs; Continents; Events; Seas; Discoveries).

Livingston D., Livingston C. Traveling the Zambezi, 1858-1864: Per. from English. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001. - 460 p.: ill.

Adamovich M.P. Livingston. - M.: Mol. guard, 1938. - 376 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

Votte G. David Livingston: The Life of an African Explorer: Per. with him. - M.: Thought, 1984. - 271 p.: ill.

Columbus; Livingston; Stanley; A. Humboldt; Przhevalsky: Biogr. storytelling. - Chelyabinsk: Ural LTD, 2000. - 415 p.: ill. - (Life of remarkable people: Biogr. F. Pavlenkov's library).

MAGELLAN Fernand

(c. 1480-1521)

Portuguese navigator

Travel routes

1519-1521 - F. Magellan led the first round-the-world voyage in the history of mankind. Magellan's expedition discovered the coast of South America south of La Plata, circled the continent, crossed the strait, later named after the navigator, then crossed the Pacific Ocean and reached the Philippine Islands. On one of them Magellan was killed. After his death, the expedition was led by J.S. Elcano, thanks to which the only one of the ships ("Victoria") and the last eighteen sailors (out of two hundred and sixty-five crew members) were able to reach the coast of Spain.

Name on a geographical map

The Strait of Magellan lies between the mainland South America and the Tierra del Fuego archipelago, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

Boytsov M.A. Way of Magellan / Khudozh. S. Boyko. - M.: Malysh, 1991. - 19 p.: ill.

Kunin K.I. Magellan. - M.: Mol. guard, 1940. - 304 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

Lange P.V. Like the sun: The life of F. Magellan and the first circumnavigation of the world: Per. with him. - M.: Progress, 1988. - 237 p.: ill.

Pigafetta A. Journey of Magellan: Per. with it.; Mitchell M. El Cano - 1st circumnavigator: Per. from English. - M.: Thought, 2000. - 302 p.: ill. - (Travel and travelers).

Subbotin V.A. Great discoveries: Columbus; Vasco da Gama; Magellan. - M.: Publishing house of URAO, 1998. - 269 p.: ill.

Travinsky V.M. Navigator's Star: Magellan: East. story. - M.: Mol. guard, 1969. - 191 p.: ill.

Khvilevitskaya E.M. How the earth turned out to be a ball / Art. A. Ostromentsky. - M.: Interbuk, 1997. - 18 p.: ill. - (The greatest journeys).

Zweig S. Magellan; Amerigo: Per. with him. - M.: AST, 2001. - 317 p.: ill. - (World classics).

Miklukho-Maclay Nikolay Nikolaevich

Russian scientist, explorer of Oceania and New Guinea

Travel routes

1866-1867 - travel to the Canary Islands and Morocco.

1871-1886 - the study of the indigenous people of Southeast Asia, Australia and Oceania, including the Papuans of the Northeast coast of New Guinea.

Name on a geographical map

The Miklouho-Maclay Coast is located in New Guinea.

The Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences also bears the name of Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay.

Man from the moon: Diaries, articles, letters of N.N.Miklukho-Maclay. - M.: Mol. guard, 1982. - 336 p.: ill. - (Arrow).

Balandin R.K. N.N.Miklukho-Maclay: Book. for students / Fig. author. - M.: Enlightenment, 1985. - 96 p.: ill. - (People of science).

Golovanov Ya. Etudes about scientists. - M.: Mol. guard, 1983. - 415 p.: ill.

The chapter dedicated to Miklouho-Maclay is titled “I do not foresee the end of my travels…” (pp. 233-236).

Greenop F.S. About the one who wandered alone: ​​Per. from English. - M.: Nauka, 1986. - 260 p.: ill.

Kolesnikov M.S. Miklukho Maclay. - M.: Mol. guard, 1965. - 272 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

Markov S.N. Tamo - Russian Maclay: Tales. - M.: Sov. writer, 1975. - 208 p.: ill.

Orlov O.P. Come back to us, Maclay!: A story. - M.: Det. lit., 1987. - 48 p.: ill.

Putilov B.N. NN Miklukho-Maclay: Traveler, scientist, humanist. - M.: Progress, 1985. - 280 p.: ill.

Tynyanova L.N. A friend from afar: a story. - M.: Det. lit., 1976. - 332 p.: ill.

NANSEN Fridtjof

Norwegian polar explorer

Travel routes

1888 - F. Nansen made the first ever ski crossing through Greenland.

1893-1896 - Nansen on the Fram ship drifted across the Arctic Ocean from the New Siberian Islands to the Svalbard archipelago. As a result of the expedition, extensive oceanographic and meteorological material was collected, but Nansen failed to reach the North Pole.

1900 - expedition to study the currents of the Arctic Ocean.

Name on a geographical map

An underwater basin and an underwater ridge in the Arctic Ocean, as well as a number of geographical objects in the Arctic and Antarctic, are named after Nansen.

Nansen F. To the country of the future: The Great Northern Route from Europe to Siberia through the Kara Sea / Authoriz. per. from Norwegian A. and P. Hansen. - Krasnoyarsk: Prince. publishing house, 1982. - 335 p.: ill.

Nansen F. Through the eyes of a friend: Chapters from the book "Through the Caucasus to the Volga": Per. with him. - Makhachkala: Dagestan book. publishing house, 1981. - 54 p.: ill.

Nansen F. "Fram" in the polar sea: At 2 o'clock: Per. from Norwegian - M.: Geographizdat, 1956.

Kublitsky G.I. Fridtjof Nansen: His Life and Extraordinary Adventures. - M.: Det. lit., 1981. - 287 p.: ill.

Nansen-Heyer L. Book about the father: Per. from Norwegian - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1986. - 512 p.: ill.

Pasetsky V.M. Fridtjof Nansen, 1861-1930. - M.: Nauka, 1986. - 335 p.: ill. - (Scientific biographical series).

Sannes T.B. "Fram": Adventures of polar expeditions: Per. with him. - L .: Shipbuilding, 1991. - 271 p.: ill. - (Remarkable ships).

Talanov A. Nansen. - M.: Mol. guard, 1960. - 304 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

Holt K. Competition: [About the expeditions of R.F. Scott and R. Amundsen]; Wandering: [On the expedition of F. Nansen and J. Johansen] / Per. from Norwegian L. Zhdanova. - M.: Physical culture and sport, 1987. - 301 p.: ill. - (Extraordinary travel).

Please note that this book (in the appendix) contains an essay by the famous traveler Thor Heyerdahl Fridtjof Nansen: A Warm Heart in a Cold World.

Tsentkevich A., Tsentkevich Ch. What will you become, Fridtjof: [Tales about F. Nansen and R. Amundsen]. - Kyiv: Dnipro, 1982. - 502 p.: ill.

Shackleton E. Fridtjof Nansen - researcher: Per. from English. - M.: Progress, 1986. - 206 p.: ill.

NIKITIN Afanasy

(? - 1472 or 1473)

Russian merchant, traveler in Asia

Travel routes

1466-1472 - A. Nikitin's journey through the countries of the Middle East and India. On the way back, stopping at the Cafe (Feodosia), Afanasy Nikitin wrote a description of his travels and adventures - "Journey beyond the three seas."

Nikitin A. Journey beyond three seas Athanasius Nikitin. - L.: Nauka, 1986. - 212 p.: ill. - (Lit. monuments).

Nikitin A. Journey beyond three seas: 1466-1472. - Kaliningrad: Amber Tale, 2004. - 118 p.: ill.

Varzhapetyan V.V. The Tale of the Merchant, the Pinto Horse and the Talking Bird / Fig. N. Nepomniachtchi. - M.: Det. lit., 1990. - 95 p.: ill.

Vitashevskaya M.N. The wanderings of Athanasius Nikitin. - M.: Thought, 1972. - 118 p.: ill. - (Remarkable geographers and travelers).

All peoples are one: [Coll.]. - M.: Sirin, B.g. - 466 p.: ill. - (History of the Fatherland in novels, stories, documents).

The collection includes the story of V. Pribytkov "The Tver Guest" and the book of Afanasy Nikitin himself "Journey Beyond the Three Seas".

Grimberg F.I. Seven songs of a Russian foreigner: Nikitin: East. novel. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2003. - 424 p.: ill. - (Golden library of the source of the novel: Russian travelers).

Kachaev Yu.G. Far away / Fig. M. Romadina. - M.: Malysh, 1982. - 24 p.: ill.

Kunin K.I. Over Three Seas: The Journey of the Tver Merchant Athanasius Nikitin: Ist. story. - Kaliningrad: Amber Tale, 2002. - 199 p.: ill. - (Cherished pages).

Murashova K. Afanasy Nikitin: The Tale of a Tver Merchant / Khudozh. A. Chauzov. - M.: White City, 2005. - 63 p.: ill. - (East novel).

Semenov L.S. Travel of Athanasius Nikitin. - M.: Nauka, 1980. - 145 p.: ill. - (History of science and technology).

Soloviev A.P. Journey beyond three seas: a novel. - M.: Terra, 1999. - 477 p. - (Fatherland).

Tager E.M. The Tale of Afanasy Nikitin. - L .: Det. lit., 1966. - 104 p.: ill.

PIRI Robert Edwin

American polar explorer

Travel routes

1892 and 1895 - two trips through Greenland.

From 1902 to 1905 - several unsuccessful attempts to conquer the North Pole.

Finally, R. Piri announced that he had reached the North Pole on April 6, 1909. However, seventy years after the traveler's death, when, according to his will, the diaries of the expedition were declassified, it turned out that Piri could not actually reach the pole, he stopped at 89˚55΄ N.

Name on a geographical map

peninsula on far north Greenland is called the Land of Piri.

Piri R. North Pole; Amundsen R. South Pole. - M.: Thought, 1981. - 599 p.: ill.

Pay attention to the article by F. Treshnikov "Robert Pirie and the conquest of the North Pole" (pp. 225-242).

Piri R. North Pole / Per. from English. L. Petkyavichute. - Vilnius: Vituris, 1988. - 239 p.: ill. - (World of discoveries).

Karpov G.V. Robert Peary. - M.: Geographizdat, 1956. - 39 p.: ill. - (Remarkable geographers and travelers).

POLO Marco

(c. 1254-1324)

Venetian merchant, traveler

Travel routes

1271-1295 - M. Polo's journey through the countries of Central and East Asia.

The memoirs of the Venetian about wanderings in the East made up the famous "Book of Marco Polo" (1298), which for almost 600 years remained the most important source of information for the West about China and other Asian countries.

Polo M. A book about the diversity of the world / Per. from old French I.P. Minaeva; Foreword H.L. Borges. - St. Petersburg: Amphora, 1999. - 381 p.: ill. - (Personal library of Borges).

Polo M. Book of Wonders: An excerpt from the "Book of Wonders of the World" from the Nat. libraries of France: Per. from fr. - M.: White City, 2003. - 223 p.: ill.

Davidson E., Davis G. Son of Heaven: The Wanderings of Marco Polo / Per. from English. M. Kondratiev. - SPb.: ABC: Terra - Book. club, 1997. - 397 p. -( New Earth: Fantasy).

A novel-fantasy on the theme of the wanderings of a Venetian merchant.

Maink W. The Amazing Adventures of Marco Polo: [Ist. story] / Abbr. per. with him. L. Lungina. - St. Petersburg: Brask: Epoch, 1993. - 303 p.: ill. - (Version).

Pesotskaya T.E. Treasures of a Venetian merchant: How Marco Polo wandered around the East a quarter of a century ago and wrote a famous book about various miracles that no one wanted to believe in / Khudozh. I. Oleinikov. - M.: Interbuk, 1997. - 18 p.: ill. - (The greatest journeys).

Pronin V. Life of the great Venetian traveler Messer Marco Polo / Khudozh. Yu.Saevich. - M.: Kron-Press, 1993. - 159 p.: ill.

Tolstikov A.Ya. Marco Polo: Venetian Wanderer / Art. A. Chauzov. - M.: White City, 2004. - 63 p.: ill. - (East novel).

Hart G. Venetian Marco Polo: Per. from English. - M.: TERRA-Kn. club, 1999. - 303 p. - (Portraits).

Shklovsky V.B. Land Scout - Marco Polo: East. story. - M.: Mol. guard, 1969. - 223 p.: ill. - (Pioneer means first).

Aers J. Marco Polo: Per. from fr. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1998. - 348 p.: ill. - (Mark on history).

Przhevalsky Nikolai Mikhailovich

Russian geographer, explorer of Central Asia

Travel routes

1867-1868 - research expeditions in the Amur region and the Ussuri region.

1870-1885 - 4 expeditions to Central Asia.

The scientific results of the expeditions N.M. Przhevalsky outlined in a number of books, giving a detailed description of the relief, climate, vegetation and wildlife of the studied territories.

Name on a geographical map

The name of the Russian geographer is given to a ridge in Central Asia and a city in the southeastern part of the Issyk-Kul region (Kyrgyzstan).

The wild horse, first described by the scientist, is called Przewalski's horse.

Przhevalsky N.M. Journey in the Ussuri region, 1867-1869 - Vladivostok: Far East. book. publishing house, 1990. - 328 p.: ill.

Przhevalsky N.M. Travel in Asia. - M.: Armada-press, 2001. - 343 p.: ill. - (Green series: Around the world).

Gavrilenkov V.M. Russian traveler N.M. Przhevalsky. - Smolensk: Mosk. worker: Smolenskoe department, 1989. - 143 p.: ill.

Golovanov Ya. Etudes about scientists. - M.: Mol. guard, 1983. - 415 p.: ill.

The chapter devoted to Przhevalsky is called "The exceptional good is freedom ..." (pp. 272-275).

Grimailo Ya.V. Great Pathfinder: A Tale. - Ed. 2nd, revised. and additional - Kyiv: Young, 1989. - 314 p.: ill.

Kozlov I.V. Great traveler: Life and work of N.M. Przhevalsky, the first explorer of the nature of Central Asia. - M.: Thought, 1985. - 144 p.: ill. - (Remarkable geographers and travelers).

Columbus; Livingston; Stanley; A. Humboldt; Przhevalsky: Biogr. storytelling. - Chelyabinsk: Ural LTD, 2000. - 415 p.: ill. - (Life of remarkable people: Biogr. F. Pavlenkov's library).

Overclocking L.E. “Ascetics are needed like the sun…” // Razgon L.E. Seven lives. - M.: Det. lit., 1992. - S. 35-72.

Repin L.B. “And again I return ...”: Przhevalsky: Pages of life. - M.: Mol. guard, 1983. - 175 p.: ill. - (Pioneer means first).

Khmelnitsky S.I. Przhevalsky. - M.: Mol. guard, 1950. - 175 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

Yusov B.V. N.M. Przhevalsky: Prince. for students. - M.: Enlightenment, 1985. - 95 p.: ill. - (People of science).

PRONCHISHCHEV Vasily Vasilievich

Russian navigator

Travel routes

1735-1736 - VV Pronchishchev took part in the 2nd Kamchatka expedition. A detachment under his command explored the coast of the Arctic Ocean from the mouth of the Lena to Cape Thaddeus (Taimyr).

Name on a geographical map

A part of the eastern coast of the Taimyr Peninsula, a ridge (hill) in the north-west of Yakutia and a bay in the Laptev Sea bear the name of V.V. Pronchishchev.

Golubev G.N. “Descendants for the news…”: Ist.-dokum. story. - M.: Det. lit., 1986. - 255 p.: ill.

Krutogorov Yu.A. Where Neptune Leads: East. story. - M.: Det. lit., 1990. - 270 p.: ill.

SEMENOV-TIAN-SHANSKY Petr Petrovich

(before 1906 - Semyonov)

Russian scientist, researcher of Asia

Travel routes

1856-1857 - Expedition to the Tien Shan.

1888 - expedition to Turkestan and the Transcaspian region.

Name on a geographical map

A ridge in Nanshan, a glacier and a peak in the Tien Shan, mountains in Alaska and Svalbard are named after Semenov-Tyan-Shansky.

Semenov-Tyan-Shansky P.P. Journey to the Tien Shan: 1856-1857. - M.: Geografgiz, 1958. - 277 p.: ill.

Aldan-Semenov A.I. For you, Russia: Tales. - M.: Sovremennik, 1983. - 320 p.: ill.

Aldan-Semenov A.I. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. - M.: Mol. guard, 1965. - 304 p.: ill. - (Life is noticed by people).

Antoshko Ya., Solovyov A. At the origins of Jaksart. - M.: Thought, 1977. - 128 p.: ill. - (Remarkable geographers and travelers).

Dyadyuchenko L.B. Pearl in the wall of the barracks: a novel-chronicle. - Frunze: Mektep, 1986. - 218 p.: ill.

Kozlov I.V. Pyotr Petrovich Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. - M.: Enlightenment, 1983. - 96 p.: ill. - (People of science).

Kozlov I.V., Kozlova A.V. Pyotr Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky: 1827-1914. - M.: Nauka, 1991. - 267 p.: ill. - (Scientific biographical series).

Overclocking L.E. Tien Shan // Acceleration L.E. Seven lives. - M.: Det. lit., 1992. - S. 9-34.

SCOTT Robert Falcon

English explorer of Antarctica

Travel routes

1901-1904 - Antarctic expedition on the ship "Discovery". As a result of this expedition, King Edward VII Land, the Transantarctic Mountains, the Ross Ice Shelf were discovered, and Victoria Land was explored.

1910-1912 - Expedition of R. Scott to Antarctica on the ship "Terra-Nova".

January 18, 1912 (33 days later than R. Amundsen) Scott and four of his companions reached the South Pole. On the way back, all travelers died.

Name on a geographical map

An island and two glaciers off the coast of Antarctica, part of the western coast of Victoria Land (Scott Coast) and mountains on Enderby Land are named after Robert Scott.

The US Antarctic Research Station is named after the first explorers of the South Pole - "Amundsen-Scott Pole".

The name of the polar traveler is also the New Zealand scientific station on the coast of the Ross Sea in Antarctica and the Institute of Polar Research in Cambridge.

The last expedition of R. Scott: Personal diaries of Captain R. Scott, which he kept during the expedition to the South Pole. - M.: Geographizdat, 1955. - 408 p.: ill.

Golovanov Ya. Etudes about scientists. - M.: Mol. guard, 1983. - 415 p.: ill.

The chapter dedicated to Scott is called "Fight to the last cracker ..." (pp. 290-293).

Ladlem G. Captain Scott: Per. from English. - Ed. 2nd, rev. - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1989. - 287 p.: ill.

Priestley R. Antarctic Odyssey: Northern party of R. Scott's expedition: Per. from English. - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1985. - 360 p.: ill.

Holt K. Contest; Wandering: Per. from Norwegian - M.: Physical culture and sport, 1987. - 301 p.: ill. - (Extraordinary travel).

Cherry-Garrard E. The most terrible journey: Per. from English. - L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1991. - 551 p.: ill.

STANLEY (STANLEY) Henry Morton

(real name and surname - John R o l e n d s)

journalist, African researcher

Travel routes

1871-1872 - G. M. Stanley, as a correspondent for the New York Herald, participated in the search for the missing D. Livingston. The expedition was successful: great explorer Africa was found near Lake Tanganyika.

1874-1877 - GM Stanley crosses the African continent twice. Explores Lake Victoria, the Congo River, looking for the source of the Nile.

1887-1889 - G. M. Stanley leads an English expedition that crosses Africa from West to East, and explores the Aruvimi River.

Name on a geographical map

In honor of G. M. Stanley, waterfalls in the upper reaches of the Congo River are named.

Stanley G.M. In the wilds of Africa: Per. from English. - M.: Geographizdat, 1958. - 446 p.: ill.

Karpov G.V. Henry Stanley. - M.: Geografgiz, 1958. - 56 p.: ill. - (Remarkable geographers and travelers).

Columbus; Livingston; Stanley; A. Humboldt; Przhevalsky: Biogr. storytelling. - Chelyabinsk: Ural LTD, 2000. - 415 p.: ill. - (Life of remarkable people: Biogr. F. Pavlenkov's library).

KHABAROV Erofey Pavlovich

(c. 1603, according to other sources, c. 1610 - after 1667, according to other sources, after 1671)

Russian explorer and navigator, explorer of the Amur region

Travel routes

1649-1653 - E.P. Khabarov made a number of campaigns in the Amur region, compiled a “Drawing of the Amur River”.

Name on a geographical map

A city and a region in the Far East, as well as the railway station Yerofey Pavlovich on the Trans-Siberian Railway, are named after the Russian explorer.

Leontieva G.A. Explorer Erofey Pavlovich Khabarov: Book. for students. - M.: Enlightenment, 1991. - 143 p.: ill.

Romanenko D.I. Erofei Khabarov: A novel. - Khabarovsk: Prince. publishing house, 1990. - 301 p.: ill. - (Far East library).

Safronov F.G. Erofey Khabarov. - Khabarovsk: Prince. publishing house, 1983. - 32 p.

SCHMIDT Otto Yulievich

Russian mathematician, geophysicist, Arctic explorer

Travel routes

1929-1930 - O.Yu. Schmidt equipped and led the expedition on the ship "George Sedov" to Severnaya Zemlya.

1932 - expeditions led by O.Yu. Schmidt on the icebreaker "Sibiryakov" managed for the first time to pass from Arkhangelsk to Kamchatka in one navigation.

1933-1934 - O.Yu.Shmidt led the northern expedition on the steamer "Chelyuskin". The ship caught in ice captivity was crushed by ice and sank. The expedition members, who had been drifting on the ice floes for several months, were rescued by the pilots.

Name on a geographical map

The name of O.Yu. Schmidt is given to an island in the Kara Sea, a cape on the coast of the Chukchi Sea, the peninsula of Novaya Zemlya, one of the peaks and a pass in the Pamirs, a plain in Antarctica.

Voskoboynikov V.M. On an ice trip. - M.: Malysh, 1989. - 39 p.: ill. - (Legendary heroes).

Voskoboynikov V.M. Call of the Arctic: Heroic Chronicle: Academician Schmidt. - M.: Mol. guard, 1975. - 192 p.: ill. - (Pioneer means first).

Duel I.I. Lifeline: Dokum. story. - M.: Politizdat, 1977. - 128 p.: ill. - (Heroes of the Soviet Motherland).

Nikitenko N.F. O.Yu. Schmidt: Book. for students. - M.: Enlightenment, 1992. - 158 p.: ill. - (People of science).

Otto Yulievich Schmidt: Life and work: Sat. - M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1959. - 470 p.: ill.

Matveeva L.V. Otto Yulievich Schmidt: 1891-1956. - M.: Nauka, 1993. - 202 p.: ill. - (Scientific biographical series).

Without the Russian pioneers, the map of the world would be completely different. Our compatriots - travelers and navigators - have made discoveries that have enriched world science. About the eight most notable - in our material.

Bellingshausen's first Antarctic expedition

In 1819, the navigator, captain of the 2nd rank, Thaddeus Bellingshausen led the first Antarctic expedition around the world. The purpose of the voyage was to explore the waters of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans, as well as to prove or disprove the existence of the sixth continent - Antarctica. Having equipped two sloops - "Mirny" and "Vostok" (under the command), Bellingshausen's detachment went to sea.

The expedition lasted 751 days and wrote many bright pages in the history of geographical discoveries. The main one - - was made on January 28, 1820.

By the way, attempts to open white mainland undertaken earlier, but did not bring the desired success: there was not enough luck, or maybe Russian perseverance.

So, the navigator James Cook, summing up his second circumnavigation, wrote: “I went around the ocean of the southern hemisphere in high latitudes and rejected the possibility of the existence of the mainland, which, if it can be found, is only near the pole in places inaccessible to navigation.”

During Antarctic expedition More than 20 islands were discovered and mapped by Bellingshausen, sketches were made of the views of Antarctica and the animals living on it, and the navigator himself went down in history as a great discoverer.

“The name of Bellingshausen can be directly put on a par with the names of Columbus and Magellan, with the names of those people who did not retreat before the difficulties and imaginary impossibilities created by their predecessors, with the names of people who went their own way, and therefore were the destroyers of barriers to discoveries, by which epochs are designated, ”wrote the German geographer August Petermann.

Discoveries of Semenov Tien-Shansky

Central Asia at the beginning of the 19th century was one of the least explored areas of the globe. An indisputable contribution to the study of the "unknown land" - as geographers called Central Asia - was made by Peter Semenov.

In 1856 came true main dream explorer - he went on an expedition to the Tien Shan.

“My work on Asian geography led me to a thorough acquaintance with everything that was known about inner Asia. In particular, the most central of the Asian mountain ranges, the Tien Shan, beckoned me to itself, on which the foot of a European traveler had not yet set foot and which was known only from scarce Chinese sources.

Semenov's research in Central Asia lasted two years. During this time, the sources of the Chu, Syrdarya and Sary-Jaz rivers, the peaks of Khan-Tengri and others were put on the map.

The traveler established the location of the Tien Shan ranges, the height of the snow line in this area and discovered the huge Tien Shan glaciers.

In 1906, by decree of the emperor, for the merits of the discoverer, they began to add a prefix to his surname - Tien Shan.

Asia Przewalski

In the 70s-80s. XIX century Nikolai Przhevalsky led four expeditions to Central Asia. This little explored area has always attracted the researcher, and traveling to Central Asia was his old dream.

Over the years of research have been studied mountain systems Kun-Lun , the ranges of Northern Tibet, the sources of the Yellow River and the Yangtze, basins Kuku-burrow and Lob-burrow.

Przhevalsky was the second person after Marco Polo to reach lakes-bogs Lob-burrow!

In addition, the traveler discovered dozens of species of plants and animals that are named after him.

“Happy fate made it possible to make a feasible study of the least known and most inaccessible countries of inner Asia,” Nikolai Przhevalsky wrote in his diary.

Around the world Krusenstern

The names of Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky became known after the first Russian round-the-world expedition.

For three years, from 1803 to 1806. - this is how long the first circumnavigation of the world lasted - the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva", having passed through the Atlantic Ocean, rounded Cape Horn, and then reached Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin by the waters of the Pacific Ocean. The expedition refined the map of the Pacific Ocean, collected information about the nature and inhabitants of Kamchatka and the Kuriles.

During the voyage, Russian sailors crossed the equator for the first time. This event was celebrated, according to tradition, with the participation of Neptune.

A sailor dressed as the ruler of the seas asked Kruzenshtern why he had come here with his ships, because the Russian flag had not been seen in these places before. To which the expedition commander replied: "For the glory of science and our fatherland!"

Expedition of Nevelskoy

Admiral Gennady Nevelskoy is rightfully considered one of the outstanding navigators of the 19th century. In 1849, on the transport ship Baikal, he went on an expedition to the Far East.

The Amur expedition continued until 1855, during which time Nevelskoy made several major discoveries in the area downstream Amur and northern shores Sea of ​​Japan, annexed vast expanses of the Amur and Primorye to Russia.

Thanks to the navigator, it became known that Sakhalin is an island that is separated by the navigable Tatar Strait, and the mouth of the Amur is accessible for ships to enter from the sea.

In 1850, the Nikolaevsky post was founded by the Nevelsky detachment, which today is known as Nikolaevsk-on-Amur.

“The discoveries made by Nevelsky are invaluable for Russia,” wrote Count Nikolai Muravyov-Amursky , - many previous expeditions to these lands could achieve European fame, but not one of them achieved domestic benefit, at least to the extent that Nevelskoy did it.

North Vilkitsky

The purpose of the hydrographic expedition of the Arctic Ocean in 1910-1915. was the development of the Northern Sea Route. By chance, the captain of the 2nd rank Boris Vilkitsky assumed the duties of the head of navigation. The icebreaking ships Taimyr and Vaygach put to sea.

Vilkitsky moved along the northern waters from east to west, and during the voyage he managed to draw up a true description of the northern coast of Eastern Siberia and many islands, received key information about currents and climate, and also became the first to make a through voyage from Vladivostok to Arkhangelsk.

The expedition members discovered the Land of Emperor Nicholas I. I., known today as Novaya Zemlya - this discovery is considered the last of the significant ones on the globe.

In addition, thanks to Vilkitsky, the islands of Maly Taimyr, Starokadomsky and Zhokhov were put on the map.

At the end of the expedition, the First World War began. Traveler Roald Amundsen, having learned about the success of Vilkitsky's voyage, could not resist exclaiming to him:

“In peacetime, this expedition would stir up the whole world!”

Kamchatka campaign of Bering and Chirikov

The second quarter of the 18th century was rich in geographical discoveries. All of them were made during the First and Second Kamchatka expeditions, which immortalized the names of Vitus Bering and Alexei Chirikov.

During the First Kamchatka campaign Bering - the leader of the expedition and his assistant Chirikov explored and mapped pacific coast Kamchatka and Northeast Asia. They discovered two peninsulas - Kamchatsky and Ozerny, Kamchatsky Bay, Karaginsky Bay, Cross Bay, Providence Bay and St. Lawrence Island, as well as the strait, which today bears the name of Vitus Bering.

Companions - Bering and Chirikov - also led the Second Kamchatka Expedition. The goal of the campaign was to find a route to North America and explore the islands of the Pacific.

IN Avacha Bay The members of the expedition founded the Petropavlovsk prison - in honor of the ships of the voyage "Saint Peter" and "Saint Pavel" - which was later renamed Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

When the ships set sail for the shores of America, by the will of evil fate, Bering and Chirikov began to act alone - because of the fog, their ships lost each other.

"Saint Peter" under the command of Bering reached the western coast of America.

And on the way back, the expedition members, who had many difficulties, were thrown by a storm onto a small island. Here the life of Vitus Bering ended, and the island on which the expedition members stopped to spend the winter was named after Bering.
"Saint Pavel" Chirikov also reached the shores of America, but for him the voyage ended more safely - on the way back he discovered a number of islands of the Aleutian ridge and safely returned to the Peter and Paul prison.

"Non-Yasak Lands" by Ivan Moskvitin

Little is known about the life of Ivan Moskvitin, but this man nevertheless went down in history, and the reason for this was the new lands he discovered.

In 1639, Moskvitin, leading a detachment of Cossacks, set sail for the Far East. The main goal of the travelers was to "find new unclaimed lands", to collect furs and fish. The Cossacks crossed the rivers Aldan, Maya and Yudoma, discovered the Dzhugdzhur ridge, which separates the rivers of the Lena basin from the rivers flowing into the sea, and along the Ulya river they entered the Lamskoye, or Sea of ​​Okhotsk. Having explored the coast, the Cossacks opened the Taui Bay and entered the Sakhalin Bay, rounding the Shantar Islands.

One of the Cossacks said that the rivers in the open lands “are sable, there are a lot of animals, and fish, and the fish is big, there is no such thing in Siberia ... there are so many of them - just run a net and you can’t drag it out with fish ... ".

The geographical data collected by Ivan Moskvitin formed the basis of the first map of the Far East.