Cyprus history of the state. New rise of Cyprus. State structure of Cyprus

Once in Cyprus, you do not immediately feel the breath of history. Over the centuries, many civilizations have changed on the island, located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia and Africa. The island has seen Phoenicians and Assyrians, Persians and Egyptians, Romans and Crusaders, Byzantines and Venetians, Turks and British, but its inhabitants have always managed to maintain their individuality.

In the late Bronze Age, the Mycenaean Greeks landed in Cyprus and put down the roots of the Greek civilization on the island, which today has been here for more than 3 thousand years. The cult of the goddess of love Aphrodite is the best characterization of this small country. The sense of continuity and continuity is the most important feature of the historical development of the island. Today, the ruins of castles serve as a frame for modern traditions and holidays, which, in turn, originate in distant antiquity.

As a result of archaeological excavations, it has been established that the most ancient settlements arose in Cyprus about 10 thousand years ago. This ancient civilization developed on the northern and southern coasts of the island. The first inhabitants of the Neolithic period used only stone tools. Only after 5000 BC. pottery was invented.

During the Bronze Age, the use and processing of copper enriches the island and promotes trade relations with the Middle East, Egypt and the Aegean region, where Cyprus is known as Alasia. After 1400 BC The first merchants from Greece, the Mycenaeans, arrive in Cyprus. Following them, in the XII-XI centuries, the Achaean Greeks settled on the island and brought here the Greek language, traditions and religion, which subsequently become widespread in Cyprus. The Greeks found the city-states of Paphos, Salamis, Kition, Kourion and others. Later, ten independent city-states arose in Cyprus.

8th century BC. - A century of rapid economic growth in Cyprus. The cult of Aphrodite flourishes. But Cyprus is increasingly becoming a tasty prey for foreign invaders. The Assyrians invade the island, overthrowing at least seven Cypriot kingdoms. The Egyptians follow. During the reign of Pharaoh Ahmose II (569-525 BC), the island was calm, but soon Cyprus became a hostage to the conflict between Greece and Persia. King Evagoras (411-374 BC) unites the island for the first time, turning it into one of the leading political and cultural centers of the Greek world in 333-325. BC with the capital in Salamis. Later, Cyprus becomes part of the great empire of Alexander the Great - he uses the island's shipyards to prepare his fleet in order to conquer the Middle East. After long disputes about the inheritance that broke out after the death of Alexander the Great between his military leaders, Cyprus becomes a province of the Hellenic Ptolemaic state with its capital in Alexandria (Egypt); for the next two centuries Cyprus remains part of the Alexandrian world. The Ptolemies abolished the independent city-states and united the island, declaring Paphos as its capital. Today, this period is called the "golden age of the island." During this time of prosperity and peace, the population of the island reached 1.5 million people. The historical landmark of Cyprus - "Tombs of the Kings" - refers to this era. During this period, the Cypriot philosopher Zeno of Kition (an area near modern Larnaca) organized his famous Stoic philosophical school in Athens.

In 58 BC - 330 years. AD Cyprus becomes a province of the Roman Empire. In 45 A.D. the apostles Paul and Barnabas visited Paphos. They managed to convert the Roman consul Sergius Paul to the Christian faith. Thus, even at the dawn of a new era, Cyprus became the first state in world history to have a Christian ruler. In the 1st century BC. and in the 1st c. AD the island survived a series of earthquakes, after which the cities were rebuilt. In 313, by the Edict of Milan, Christianity was allowed throughout Cyprus, and in 325, at the historic Council of Nicaea, which laid the foundation for modern Christian institutions in Europe, the bishops of Cyprus occupied a place of honor.

After the division of the Roman Empire, Cyprus becomes part of the Eastern Empire, known as "Byzantium", with its capital in Constantinople. During this period, Empress Saint Helena visited Cyprus, returning from Jerusalem with a precious relic - the remains of the cross on which Jesus Christ was crucified, and founded three monasteries here. The Cypriot archbishop finds the tomb of St. Barnabas with the manuscript of the Gospel according to Matthew, as a result, Emperor Zeno affirms the autocephalous status of the churches of Cyprus. In 647, the Arab conquerors invaded the island and for three centuries tried several times to retake the island from Byzantium, until the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros Phocas II expelled them from Cyprus in 965.

In 1191, part of the ships of Richard the Lionheart during the third crusade crashed in the region of Cyprus. Outraged by the rude behavior of the ruler of Cyprus, Isaac Komnenos, Richard overthrew the self-proclaimed emperor and married his bride Berengaria of Navvar in Limassol Castle, proclaiming her Queen of England. But a year later, the island was sold to the Knights Templar, who in turn resell it to Guy de Lusignan, the deposed King of Jerusalem.

1192-1489 - the beginning of the feudal system in Cyprus. The Catholic Church officially replaced the Orthodox, which, however, managed to survive a period of severe persecution. Lefkosia, Ammochostos and Lemesos are renamed Nicosia, Famagusta and Limassol by the Lusignans. Ammochostos (Famagusta) becomes one of the richest cities in the Middle East. In 1489, the last queen of the Lusignan dynasty, Caterina Coronaro, cedes the island to Venice. The Venetian principality used Cyprus as a bulwark against Turkish expansion in the eastern Mediterranean. The Venetians build military fortifications here, reduce the borders of Lefkosia (Nicosia), squeezing the city into the fortified walls. Similar walls are being erected around Ammochostos. During the reign of the Venetians, the population of Cyprus suffered from excessive taxes and diseases. In 1546, an uprising was raised against Venetian rule, but it was easily suppressed. There is a legend according to which the Ottoman Sultan Selim II once tasted sweet Cypriot wine, and he liked it so much that he gave the order to drive the Venetians out of the island in 1570.

1571-1878 - The Turkish army attacked Cyprus, killing more than 20 thousand people and besieging the city of Ammochostos. Mark Antonio Bragadino fought to the last to defend the city, but to no avail; Turkish commander Lala Mustafa ordered to kill the valiant Venetian, subjecting him to terrible torture, skinning him alive. This event angered the European powers, and the army under the command of Don Juan of Austria dealt a crushing blow to the Turkish fleet at the Battle of Lepanto. The Ottomans restored the rights of the Orthodox Church, but the inhabitants of Cyprus were forced to pay for this with high taxes and social oppression.

According to the 1878 convention, the Turks hand over control of Cyprus to Great Britain, while retaining sovereignty over the island. In 1914, when Turkey enters the First World War on the side of Germany, Great Britain annexes Cyprus. In 1923, under the Treaty of Lausanne, Turkey recognizes the legality of the annexation, and two years later Cyprus becomes a British colony. In 1940, Cypriot volunteers serve in the ranks of the British Army. From 1955 to 1959, when all possible peaceful means were exhausted, the national struggle of the Cypriots for liberation from the colonial regime began.

In 1960, as a result of the signing of the Zurich-London Agreement, Cyprus was proclaimed an independent sovereign Republic. The country was headed by Archbishop Makarios III, who became the first president of the island. Under the aforementioned agreement, the UK retained two sovereign military bases at Dhekelia and Akrotiri, totaling 99 sq. miles. Greece, Türkiye and Great Britain were declared the guarantors of the independence of the young state. Soon, practice showed the incapacity of the country's constitution. Amendments to the constitution in 1963 led to tensions between the Greek and Turkish communities of the island, which led to threats of a possible invasion from Turkey.

In July 1974, the military junta in power in Greece launched a military coup against the Cypriot government, which gave Turkey a long-awaited excuse to invade and led to the occupation of 37% of the island, as well as the appearance of a large number of refugees. Thousands of innocent people were killed. 40% of Greek Cypriots were forced to leave their homes, abandon their property and move to territories free from occupation. Approximately 35 thousand Turkish invaders continue to illegally remain in the territory of Northern Cyprus. UN peacekeeping forces control the situation throughout the island, located along the buffer zone, which runs even through the center of Lefkosia (Nicosia). The Turkish military occupation continues despite the condemnation of the world community, ongoing negotiations and the efforts of diplomatic circles.

An independent Republic since 1960, Cyprus has a presidential system of government, a democratic government, and free presidential and parliamentary elections every five years. However, the "Cyprus problem" has not yet been resolved; but since 1974 there has not been a single armed conflict on the island, and the country remains one of the most stable in the region. The Republic of Cyprus is a member of the UN, the Council of Europe, the British Commonwealth and the Non-Aligned Movement.

Briefly about Cyprus:

Capital - Nicosia
Area - 9,250 km 2 (162 in the world).
State languages- Greek, Turkish.
Currency - Cypriot pound. Public holiday - October 1 (Independence Day).

About Cyprus on Ozone:

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Greece and Cyprus. Culinary guide.
Cyprus. Travel guide with mini-phrasebook.

10,000-1,050 BC.

The first human settlements in Cyprus arose in the Neolithic era, in the 10th millennium BC. In the west of the island, wells were discovered - the oldest in the world, archaeologists attribute them to 9-10 millennium BC.

Prehistoric Cypriots were engaged in agriculture, hunting, raising livestock, settled in small villages away from the coastline.
Settlements of the Neolithic era (6-7 thousand BC) have survived to this day - round houses with a pebble foundation, baked clay floors and adobe walls. The found objects of that era - stone vessels and weapons - are stored in the archaeological museums of Cyprus.

Copper Stone Period

3.5 thousand BC - 2500 years. BC.

In 4.5 millennium BC. people learned how to make ceramic dishes, from 3.5 thousand - copper products (primarily jewelry). Society develops, a social hierarchy emerges. In 2500-2200 years. BC. (Bronze Age) the quality of life of the ancient islanders is significantly improving: they are already building rectangular multi-room houses, they have learned how to process copper, a plow, a loom, etc. are used in the economy.

Bronze Age

2500 - 1100 BC.

In 1650-1050. BC. the first settlements appear on the coast, thanks to the emerging trade, they develop into powerful city-states. Rich and easily mined copper deposits contribute to the growth of wealth. Writing appears (not yet deciphered). There are strong trade ties with Greece, Crete, Egypt, Syria, Palestine. From the XIII century BC. the number of immigrants from mainland Greece is increasing.

1300-1200 BC. - the era of large-scale development of ancient city-states. This is a completely new format of cities: rectangular streets, rich facades. The wealth and favorable location of the island attract pirates and conquering neighbors. The first fortresses are being built. In the XI century BC. a series of large earthquakes destroyed big cities.

historical period

iron age

At the beginning of the new period, the influence of Greek culture is very great. New city-states are being built - according to myths, they are founded by the heroes of the Trojan War returning from the campaign (Cyprus becomes an active arena of Greek myths). The Greek language and the cult of the Greek gods spread. When building, classical Greek elements and architectural solutions. Salamis becomes the most important city.
People have learned how to mine and process iron, which gradually replaces copper and becomes the main material for making tools and weapons.

geometric period

1050 - 700 BC.

The geometric period is named after the red and black geometric patterns on pottery, and is marked by the capture of the southeastern territories by the Phoenicians (Kition and Salamis). Later, this ornament began to be used by the Cypriots.

archaic period

700 - 480 BC.

In the VIII century BC. Cyprus was captured by the Assyrians, and in VI by the Egyptians and Persians. The city-states of the island retained their independence and culture, but were obliged to pay tribute to their conquerors.

Separately, it is necessary to mention the cosmopolitanism of the Cypriots. All peoples arriving in Cyprus assimilated and mixed with the population of the island, enjoying the same rights and bringing part of their culture to the culture of the islanders, while in such Greek cities there was always a clear separation between citizens and non-citizens.

In 526 B.C. the Persians in Cyprus defeated the Egyptians, and the island passed into the possession of Persia, still maintaining cultural and social independence.

Period of ancient Hellenism

480-30 AD BC.

In 490-449 BC. (intermittently) Greece is waging war to liberate Greek territories from Persian rule. Cyprus became the battlefield of the Greco-Persian wars, and in 449 BC. the Athenian fleet of 200 ships captured Marion, Soli and Kition, and then repelled a counterattack from Cilicia.

The Persians did not leave their claims to the island, in 380 BC. it was again introduced into the empire on the rights of autonomy, while maintaining its independence. It was during this period that Cyprus became a major political and cultural center of Hellas.

In 350-344 years. BC. in Salamis, a liberation movement arose, Cyprus finally withdrew from the Persian Empire only in 321 BC, as a result of the campaign of Alexander the Great. Alexander was welcomed on the island as a liberator. Largely thanks to the most modern ships of that time built in Cyprus with five rows of oars, Alexander the Great won his naval victories.

After the death of Alexander the Great, one of his commanders, Ptolemy, became the ruler of the island. Cyprus became part of Hellenistic Egypt. For ease of communication with the capital of Egypt, Alexandria, the capital is transferred from Salamis to Paphos. The island becomes a military transshipment base for Egypt, and a supplier of copper, ship timber and agricultural products.

Hellenistic culture has a strong influence on the culture of Cyprus, which is reflected both in urban planning and in sculpture of that time. The contribution of Cyprus to the Hellenistic culture should not be underestimated: we note Eudemos, a friend of Plato and Aristotle and the author of the doctrine of eudemonism, according to which happiness is the highest goal of human life; and Zeno of Kition, founder of the Stoic school.

Roman period

58-395 AD

Cyprus as part of Hellenistic Egypt entered in 58 BC. into the Roman Empire as a "peaceful" territory, which did not greatly affect the life of its population. The Roman Empire continued active copper mining, the welfare of the inhabitants grew. Gold ornaments and utensils found in burials belong to this period.

The most important event of this period was the adoption of Christianity by the inhabitants of the island. In the year 45, the apostles Barnabas (a native of Salamis) and Paul brought the word of God to Cyprus and traveled from Salamis to Paphos. Roman proconsul Sergius Paul converted to Christianity, becoming the first high-ranking representative of the Roman Empire - a Christian. One of the first bishops, Bishop of Kitia, was Lazarus, who moved to the island after his miraculous resurrection.

Byzantine period

395-1191

After the final division of the Roman Empire in 395, Cyprus became part of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine) with its center in Antioch. Christianity was recognized as the official religion of the state, the church received new opportunities for development. From the very beginning, the Cypriot church was in the thick of events in the Orthodox world: it participated in Ecumenical and local councils, in the fight against heretical teachings, and carried out educational work - the writings of Cypriot theologians became widely known in the Christian world. Referring to the apostolic origin, in 488 the Cypriot Orthodox Church received autocephaly.

The largest Cypriot cities were destroyed by devastating earthquakes in the 4th century: Paphos, Salamis, ... A new city was built on the site of Salamis - Constantia, to which the capital was transferred from Paphos. The surviving inhabitants of the destroyed cities create new settlements - Arsinoe (Ammochostos, later Famagusta) near Salamis, Amaphunta (Lemesos, Limassol) between Amathus and Kourion, Lefkosia (Nicosia) near Ledra.

The Byzantine period was overshadowed by the centuries-old Byzantine-Arab wars, devastating raids on the island began. The inhabitants of Cyprus were destroyed during the raids or were surrounded by unbearable requisitions, many monasteries and temples were looted and destroyed, the cities of Constantia, Kourion and Paphos suffered most of all during the raids. In 649, there was the most cruel raid: Caliph Muawiyah sent 1,700 ships to Constance (Salamin). The city was captured, plundered and turned into ruins, and most of the inhabitants were killed.

In 688, the Arabs captured all the major cities of Cyprus. Despite the incessant mainland wars, Emperor Justinian II of Byzantium and Caliph Abd al-Malik were able to reach an unprecedented agreement: Cyprus is under the rule of both Byzantium and the Arab Caliphate as a condominium. For almost 300 years, until 965, Cyprus served as a transshipment base for the troops of the two empires, enduring regular skirmishes between the Arabs and the Byzantines. Only in 965 Byzantium finally conquered the island.

In 1183-84, taking advantage of the unrest in Byzantium, Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus usurped power in Cyprus, in 1184 taking the title of despot. Isaac Komnenos enlisted the support of King William II of Sicily, who had an agreement with the Sultan of Egypt, according to which Cyprus was to close the harbors for the Crusaders. The power of the usurper ended in 1191 during the III Crusade of Richard the Lionheart.

Frankish period

1192-1489

In May 1191, during the III Crusade, Cyprus was conquered by the English king Richard I the Lionheart. On May 12, he married his bride Berengaria in the church of St. George in Lemessos, and already in June he sold the island to the Knights Templar and left for Jerusalem. A year later, the island passed to the former king of Jerusalem, Guy Lusignan, who founded the Kingdom of Cyprus. A feudal system was established in Cyprus, Catholicism became the state religion.

The capital Nicosia and the commercial city of Famagusta are gaining great influence. Cyprus is becoming one of the most important trading centers in the eastern Mediterranean.

The economic and political heyday of the kingdom came in the second half of the 14th century, but the defeat in the Cypriot-Genoese war of 1373-1374 led to the economic decline and decline of the state. In 1489 the island became one of the Venetian colonies.

Venetian period

1489-1571

The last queen of the Lusignan dynasty, Caterina Cornaro, a Venetian by birth, handed over Cyprus to the Venetian Empire and abdicated.

The Venetians used Cyprus as a transit base for merchant and military fleets, built fortresses in Famagusta, Kyrenia and Nicosia. The island is regularly raided by the troops of the Ottoman Empire. In 1570, despite a heroic rebuff, Famagusta fell in battle with the Ottoman troops.

Ottoman rule

1571-1878

The Turks carried out raids throughout the Venetian domination. On July 1, 1570, the troops of the Ottoman Empire defeated Limassol; on September 9, after a 45-day siege, Nicosia was captured; on September 17, the siege of the last Venetian fortress, Famagusta, began; on September 1, 1951, Famagusta capitulated. Venice renounced its rights to the island. Muslim settlements appeared in Cyprus.

Ottoman rule in every possible way contributed to the strengthening of the Cypriot Orthodox Church, in order to avoid the strengthening of the influence of the Western European Catholic Church. The archbishop of the Cypriot Orthodox Church became not only a religious leader, but also a leader of the people, defending his interests in the face of the Ottoman rulers. The archbishops were made responsible for order on the island and even for the timely collection of taxes.

At the beginning of the 18th century, the situation in Cyprus improved: the influence of the Ottoman Empire weakened, representative offices of other countries appeared in Larnaca, and relations with Greece strengthened. Coastal cities grew, the well-being of the islanders improved. At the same time, nationalist sentiments were on the rise.

1878-1960

In 1878 british empire concluded the Cyprus Convention with Turkey: Turkey transfers Cyprus to Britain, in return receives military assistance if Russia, holding the captured Batum, Ardagan and Kars, continues to conquer the lands of Asia Minor. The island was finally annexed in 1914 during the First World War, the power on the island passed to the British governor.

The news of the end of Ottoman rule was greeted with joy by the people and the clergy, but hope quickly faded. After the announcement of the colonization of Cyprus by Great Britain in 1923, a liberation movement began on the island, which included the church.

Already in 1931, riots broke out in Cyprus, demanding independence from England and reunification with Greece, to suppress them, Great Britain hired a “reserve” police force from Turkish Cypriots. Throughout the history of the colonization of Cyprus, and even later, Great Britain pitted the Greek and Turkish communities against each other.

In the Second World War, the Greek Cypriots fight on the side of Great Britain, at the end of the war, Cyprus is counting on independence. In a referendum in 1950, the majority votes for reunification with Greece, but Britain does not recognize the results of the referendum. From 1955 to 59, the national organization EOKA (Union of Fighters for the Liberation of the Nation), with the support of the church, conducts armed demonstrations, England increases its military presence and resorts to repression, the Turkish community opposes the Greek Cypriots and forms its own militant organization.

In 1960, the independence of Cyprus was declared, one of the conditions was a ban on the unification of Cyprus with Greece. England retains two military bases on the island. An agreement to grant independence to Cyprus was prepared by representatives of Turkey, Greece and England, if the agreement was not signed, Cyprus was threatened with the division of the island.

In 1974, the United States, through Greece, organized a coup d'état in Cyprus, and the president, Archbishop Macarius III, was removed from his post. The Turkish army, under the pretext of restoring the republic, invaded the territory of the island and occupied the northern part, equal to 37% of the island's area.

Currently, Cyprus is divided into two parts. The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is an unrecognized state, only Türkiye has recognized it.

On May 1, 2004, the Republic of Cyprus became a member of the European Union, and since 2008 - to the euro zone (its membership in the Schengen zone is planned for 2016).

The search for a solution to the Cyprus problem continues, but neither side comes to an agreement. In 2004, at the initiative of UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, a plan was developed to unify the island (the "Annan Plan"). The new state of the United Republic of Cyprus would consist of two autonomies, Greek and Turkish. It was supposed to reduce the "Turkish" part from 37 to 28.5%, the return of the Greek Cypriots to their homes (mainly in the Famagusta region) and the quota of the national composition of the government. According to the results of the referendum, the plan was adopted Turkish side, but rejected by the Greek Cypriots, since it did not involve the withdrawal of Turkish troops from the territory of the island, and the houses promised to the Cypriots have long been occupied by new settlers from Turkey (with the exception of the buildings of Varosha that are no longer habitable).

Obviously, life on the island came from the mainland. From where exactly? And what made people leave their homes?

Scientists have no doubt that life came to the island from the mainland, and there is a lot of factual evidence for this. Firstly, it was during the Late Paleolithic period in the east of the Mediterranean that the art of navigation began to actively develop. Secondly, in the areas of human habitation, archaeologists have found many household items made from materials that were not on the island at that time. For example, carnelian and obsidian (volcanic glass). Thirdly, with the advent of people, the fauna of the island also changed: deer, goats, sheep, pigs, as well as cats, dogs and foxes appeared in Cyprus. Before the arrival of man, only pygmy hippos and pygmy elephants lived in Cyprus. It can be assumed that deer and pigs could get to the island on their own - by swimming. But goats, sheep and cats have never been able to swim. So, they were brought by man from the mainland.

In addition to the previous facts, it can be added that the grains and legumes found in the areas of the settlement also appeared on the island only with the arrival of man, because their fossilized remains were found only near the settlements of ancient people - they did not grow in other areas of the island.

Confirmation of the existence of the connection of the ancient islanders with the mainland is their knowledge of the technique of polishing stones and weaving, as well as wall paintings discovered in Cyprus.

Since organized warfare already occurred during the Neolithic period, people who came from the mainland brought with them the tradition of fortifying their settlements. Despite the fact that Khirokitia at that time was practically the only settlement on the island, the walls of the city were well fortified.

All these facts indicate that the island was once colonized by man (that is, people came to the island from outside), although they do not tell absolutely anything about the reasons why the island was abandoned. However, scientists managed to determine from where animals, natural materials and technologies were “imported” to the island. Scientists argue that, for example, animals came to Cyprus from the Eastern Mediterranean (modern territories of Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Israel). In the same areas, wall paintings identical to the Cypriot ones were also found.

Since it is generally accepted that the first people came to the island around 8000-9000 BC, it can be assumed that the mass migration of that period, which affected the banks of the Euphrates River, Syria and Jordan, also affected Cyprus. Scientists call this phenomenon Neolithic Exodus ("Neolithic exodus") - an extensive migration of the Neolithic period.

PEOPLE LEAVING CYPRUS

After the entire infrastructure for the normal life of an ancient person was created in Khirokitia, this village, like other Neolithic settlements of the island, was suddenly abandoned by people. Scientists claim that after that the island remained uninhabited for a long time.

Why did people leave the island? Why did the period of the pre-ceramic Neolithic on the island end so hastily and mysteriously? And where did the people go? This question has not yet been answered. Scientists say that during that period there were no drastic climate changes, and there were also no strong natural disasters that could disrupt the ecological situation in the region or destroy resources for food production. No traces of epidemics, wars or attacks were found either.

Perhaps people left the island as a result of the same migration of ancient man. Although it sounds unconvincing: they left fortified houses, cultivated fields and the graves of their ancestors.

But with the arrival new civilization, the so-called Ceramic Neolithic, marked by the appearance of ceramics, people returned to the island again. Unfortunately, scientists have not yet found traces of their life: neither architectural nor cultural.

Life in Cyprus resumes

Around 4500 B.C. people are returning to Cyprus. Some settle in the same places as several thousand years ago, but bring with them a culture of a different type, which is usually called the culture of the second Neolithic period. These people formed the backbone of the local population of the island, who was the creator of all subsequent cultural values ​​of Cyprus, up to the arrival of the Mycenaean Greeks.

Scientists suggest that "homo sapiens" came to Cyprus, most likely from Syria or Palestine, bringing with them the culture and traditions characteristic of those lands. The last, third in a row, settlement in Khirokitiya dates back to the same time. Its characteristic features are a much more perfect technique for making stone tools and a developed production of red-polished clay vessels.

The first really significant changes in traditions and culture that influenced all aspects of life local residents, occurred on the island around 2400-2200. BC. Small houses were replaced by large houses with several rooms, new tools appeared. The dwellings of Neolithic people were arranged in a peculiar way in the settlement of Epiktito, which is 6 km from Kyrenia. Their houses were located in natural underground voids so that each such "void" contained six or more small, irregularly shaped buildings. Similar underground architecture is also characteristic of the settlements of Filja, Kalavaso and Lemba.

But the most important change, which had a huge impact on the entire later life islanders, it became that the Cypriots began to process copper! And they began to make tools for agricultural work from copper! It was a huge breakthrough in economic development: people began to cultivate the land much faster and better. As a result, they were able to cultivate larger areas, which allowed them to harvest more crops. Copper was also used to make kitchen utensils and jewelry.

Despite the economic explosion, local residents still did not maintain any ties, including trade, with other peoples who lived on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea.

Archaeological finds dating back to 1650-1050 BC testify that people gradually began to move their settlements closer to the sea line, in addition to copper, other minerals began to be mined, and trade with the peoples of the Middle East and Egypt began to develop. One of the most important changes in the life of the island is the fact that writing appeared in Cyprus!

Cypriot-Minoan writing

The writing of the ancient Cypriots has come down to us only in very meager fragments, which scientists have not yet been able to decipher. This script is also called the "Cypriot syllabary", since this script is a type of syllabary, where the sequence of consonants and vowels is represented by one sign.

The ancient Cypriot syllabary is represented today only in a few brief inscriptions on pottery, clay balls and cylinders, the purpose of which is also still unclear. This letter was used to record texts in an unknown, dead language today, which has the conditional name "Eteocypriot language".

Attempts to decipher the Cypriot syllabic inscriptions do not stop to this day. After many failures, scientists realized that the worldview of ancient people and their way of expressing their ideas about the world are so far from the worldview of modern humanity that any attempts by representatives of today's science to interpret archaic sign systems most often do not lead to results, and the true meaning of ancient inscriptions is still remains a mystery.

FEATURES OF ANCIENT CYPRUS CERAMICS

From about 1300 BC. more and more people moved from the Greek mainland to Cyprus. The Greeks brought with them the technology for the production of ceramics, which was used in everyday life and for religious ceremonies. Images of bulls and chariots are often found in the subjects of painting dishes of this time.

Vase from Enkomi. XIII century BC Height 28.7 cm.

In Cyprus, among the archaeological finds of that time, clay vessels and even entire compositions occupy a special place, the obligatory element of which are the attributes associated with the image of a bull.

THE SYMBOL OF THE BULL IN THE ANCIENT CULTURE OF CYPRUS

During this period, the Crete-Minoan civilization reached its peak, the founder of which was Minos, the son of Zeus the Bull and Europe, and therefore the significance of the symbol of the Bull in the spiritual life of mankind of that era is very great. The symbol of the Bull influenced both the culture and the worldview of the people of that time, in which the concept of omnipotent gods appears and then completely dominates, connected with people by special relationships, requiring people to complete obedience and dependence, as well as performing intricate rituals and bizarre rituals. The main symbol of this relationship was the obligatory ritual of sacrifice.

CULT FIGURINES

The migratory wave of immigrants from the Syrian coast brought with it completely new forms of ceramics and sculpture. It was at this time that decorations and cruciform figurines made of soft, but hardening when heated, gray-green stone - steatite, appeared in Cyprus. Probably, these figurines became symbols of a new system of views on the relationship between God, man and the universe, that is, a kind of "religious cult." The new system of views on the world was also reflected in the traditions of people: the dead began to be buried outside the living quarters.

Summing up, we can say that this period of life on the island has become a kind of transitional stage: the most ancient and in many ways still misunderstood era of human history has finally and irrevocably gone into the past. The so-called "prehistoric" period in the development of civilization on the island is over. The historical period has begun.

Greeks come to the island

So, the main milestones of the Cypriot civilization in the transition from the prehistoric period to the historical were two main events. The first is political: city-states appeared in Cyprus. The second is economic: the Cypriots got acquainted with the technology of iron production.

Approximately 3,000 years ago, all the settlements built by people who came to the island from Syria and Palestine were destroyed by natural disasters, including strong earthquakes. Around this period, the Trojan War also ended, and the fighters returning from campaigns remained on the adjacent lands, building houses and acquiring families. Scientists say that the first cities in Cyprus were built by the heroes of the Trojan War.

This statement is also supported by the fact that it was with the arrival of these warriors on the island that the active resettlement of the Achaean Greeks to Cyprus began. The Achaean Greeks bring Greek culture and language with them. Ties are being strengthened with other Greek islands such as Euboea and Crete.

As a result of these migrations and the introduction to Cyprus of a new Greek culture for the islanders, the political system of people's lives is also changing - city-states appear in Cyprus.

What was the ancient city-state like? As a rule, it was a small region, in the center of which was the city that controlled this region. Judging by the documents of that era, these primary state formations were quite small, and they were headed by kings. Being independent, many such cities joined the unions that were ruled by strong and influential kings. Some alliances were formed as a result of conquest, but many were formed as peaceful alliances or for mutual protection and support. IN modern world examples of city-states are Monaco and the Vatican.

City-states of ancient Cyprus:
1. Paphos (Πάφος).
2. Salamis (Σαλαμίς).
3. Sols (Σόλοι).
4. Curion (Κούριον).
5. Kytra (Χῦτροι).
6. Kition (Κίτιον).
7. Amathus (Ἀμαθούς).
8. Idalion (Ἰδάλιον).
9. Ledra (Λῆδραι).
10. Tamassos (Ταμασσός).
Later, Kyrenia (Κυρηνεία), Lapethos (Λάπηθος) and Marion (Μάριον) were also included in them.

The foundation of many Cypriot city-states was associated with the heroes of Greek myths. For example, the legendary Kinir is considered the founder of the city of Amathus - according to mythology, he was the first king of Cyprus, and the city got its name in honor of his mother Amatea. The name of the city Idalion comes from the word Idalia (from the Latin Idalie) - the name of Aphrodite found among Roman poets. Catullus even claims in his writings that Aphrodite resided in Idalion.

IRON AGE

The second important event that radically changed the lives of people on the island was the introduction of iron manufacturing technology. The discovery of this metal of legend is attributed to the Asia Minor people of the Khalibs: from their name comes the Greek word Χάλυβας - “steel”, “iron”. Aristotle left a description of the Khalib method for producing iron: the Khalibs washed the river sand of their country several times, added some kind of refractory substance to it and melted it in furnaces of a special design. The metal thus obtained had a silvery color and was stainless. As a raw material for iron smelting, magnetite sands were used, the reserves of which are found along the entire coast of the Black Sea. This discovery served as an impetus for the further development of iron metallurgy, including from ore mined in mines. Clement of Alexandria in his encyclopedic work Stromata (ch. 21) mentions that according to Greek traditions iron was discovered on Mount Ida - that was the name of the mountain range near Troy, opposite the island of Lesbos (in the Iliad it is mentioned as Mount Ida, from which Zeus watched the battle of the Greeks with the Trojans).

Interestingly, at first in Cyprus, iron was used only for making jewelry. However, soon the craftsmen appreciated all the advantages of this material, and iron began to gradually replace copper. It was from it, as the most durable material, that they began to make tools and tools.

GEOMETRIC PERIOD

This is the name given to this period of development of civilization on the island. This happened due to the fact that at that time ceramic products began to be decorated with drawings in the form of geometric shapes. This period coincided with the arrival of the Phoenicians in Cyprus. They captured one of their then largest city-states, Kition (now Larnaca). The Phoenicians brought their culture and traditions to the island. Including beautiful pottery with red and black ornaments. This dish was liked by the locals. Soon the Cypriots adopted the technology of its manufacture, and the tradition of decorating dishes made of clay in this way took root in Cyprus for a long time.

This period refers to approximately 750-480 years. BC. It coincided with another important event - Cyprus was captured by the Assyrians, a people descended from the ancient population of Western Asia. This people was the founder of the Assyrian Empire - an ancient state in the Northern Mesopotamia (the territory of modern Iraq).

Cypriot city-states could maintain their independence only on condition that tribute was paid to the Assyrian governor. The tablets of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon (673 BC) list ten city-states of ancient Cyprus. These city-states were divided into Greek, Greek-Phoenician and Greek-Eteocypriot.

EGYPTIAN PHARAOH AMASIS IN CYPRUS

Amasis II (the Greek version of the ancient Egyptian name Khnumibra Ahmose II) is the pharaoh of Ancient Egypt, who ruled around 570-526 BC. It was his soldiers who took the island from the Assyrians. The Egyptians brought to the island a new culture and a new religion for the Cypriots. From this period of time, a huge influence can be traced Eastern cultures on the life of the islanders.

The history of Cyprus is an endless series of wars

CYPRUS EGYPTIAN

Amasis first of all began to take care of the strengthening of Egypt in the international arena. To this end, the pharaoh built a large fleet, which allowed the Egyptians to conquer Cyprus. Without hiding his love for the Greeks and their culture, Amasis made generous offerings to Greek temples. At the same time, he did not forget about the Egyptian gods. Therefore, this period is characterized by a strong influence of Greek and Eastern cultures on all aspects of the life of the island, including religion.

At that time, the Cypriot city of Alasia (the modern name of Engomi) played a huge role in the Eastern Mediterranean, being the largest producer of copper and bronze. Studies of modern historians have shown that clay for the manufacture of clay tablets on which the letters of the ruler of Alasia to the Egyptian pharaoh were written was mined in Cyprus, in deposits near the modern settlement of Kalavasos.

In the correspondence, the rulers, in particular, discussed trade relations between Cyprus and Egypt. A running theme in their letters was the amount of copper that Cyprus sent to Egypt, and how much silver and ivory would be sent to the island in return. One letter to the pharaoh, for example, mentions 500 talents of copper (about 12.5 tons), and apologizes for the fact that so little copper was sent this time. In his response letters, the Egyptian pharaoh calls the ruler of Cyprus a brother, thereby emphasizing the equality of their position. The pharaoh expressed such respect to the Cypriot ruler, realizing the economic power of the island.

GRECO-PERSIAN WARS

In 525 BC. Egypt was conquered by the Persian king Cambyses. Since the Egyptian fleet surrendered without a fight, Cyprus automatically became part of the new empire. At the same time, Cyprus retained relative independence, and its city-states even issued their own coin.

The Greek population of the new empire was gaining strength and very soon, around 480 BC. - 330 AD, Cyprus was drawn into the Greco-Persian wars. The Greeks set themselves the task of expelling the Persians from all Greek lands. At that time, there were about ten Greek city-states in Cyprus. The Greeks of Cyprus had close political and economic ties with the Greeks living on the mainland. For example, timber was supplied to Greece from Cyprus for the construction of ships.

Therefore, when the uprising of the Ionian Greeks began, Cyprus joined them. In memory of those events, traces of the siege near the city of Paphos have been preserved (read the history of the Paphos fortress in previous issues). The Persians assembled a huge fleet, each part of which was led by the king of the city from which the ships arrived. The most impressive part of the fleet (a quarter) were Phoenician and Cypriot ships. In total, Cyprus gave 150 ships. The Greek Cypriots also took part in the Persian campaigns. So in 480 BC. a detachment of Cypriot ships was led by the king of Salamis Philaon. But the huge fleet was defeated in the Gulf of Salamis on October 23, 480 BC. Three quarters of the Persian fleet was destroyed. The Persians blamed the Phoenicians and Cypriots for the defeat.

In 460 BC. Greece was at war between Athens and Sparta. The failure of the Athenian expedition in Egypt meant a lull in the war. Cyprus was briefly left alone. When the war with Persia resumed in 449 BC, the Athenian commander Cimon sent a fleet to Cyprus. Cimon approached Kitius with 200 ships, but fell seriously ill during the siege. Dying, Cimon ordered his companions to set sail immediately, hiding his death, which was done. Almost simultaneously with his death, his fleet and land forces defeated the Persians on land and at sea. After the death of Cimon, peace was concluded, as a result of which the Persians lost many islands and the coast of Asia Minor inhabited by the Greeks. But Cyprus remained part of the Persian Empire. On the famous embankment of Larnaca - Finikoudes - a monument was erected to the commander Kimon.

Even before the end of the Greco-Persian wars in Cyprus, the rivalry between the Phoenician and Greek cities intensified. In 450 B.C. The Phoenicians from Kitia, with the help of the Persians, took the city of Idalion. In the same year, the Phoenicians expelled the Greek dynasty from Salamis. But the Persians no longer trusted the Greeks, and therefore they relied on the Phoenicians of Cyprus. The Phoenicians, on the other hand, were weakened by the long and difficult war of Persia with the Greeks. This predetermined the outcome of the struggle.

In 411 BC. Evagoras the Greek took the throne at Salamis. In a short time, he took control of the entire island and formed a union of Greek cities. Evagora's desire to capture all of Cyprus led to a break with Persia. The Phoenician cities turned to the Persians for help. The Persian commander Tiribaz defeated Evagoras, invited him to abandon all conquests and become king only of Salamis. But Evagoras continued the war, recognizing Persian authority only when a huge army laid siege to Salamis in 380 BC. As a result of a ten-year war, he was forced to limit himself to power over Salamis and pay tribute to the Persians. After his death, Isocrates composed in memory of Evagoras a eulogy praising him as a ruler.

During the entire period when the island was ruled by the Persians, the Greek influence in Cyprus remained very strong. The inhabitants worshiped the Greek gods, visited their temples, made sacrifices, participated in holidays dedicated to them, observed rituals (on the official website of the newspaper Vestnik Kipra www.vestnikkipra.com you can find detailed information on this topic in the articles on the temples of Apollo and Aphrodite). Greek motifs were used in the painting of pots, and were also present on the coins that were minted in the Cypriot city-states.

THE CAMPAIGN OF ALEXANDER THE MACEDONIAN

Although by 332 BC. the Persians had suffered several crushing defeats at the hands of Alexander the Great, the Persian fleet dominated the seas, and Cyprus was still in Persian hands. From the island, the Persians could threaten the coast of the regions already captured by the Macedonians and even Greece itself, and therefore Alexander the Great considered it impossible to continue the war while Cyprus was in the hands of the enemy. The capture of Cyprus becomes Alexander's goal.

“25, and nothing for immortality...”, the young Tsar Alexander, one of the greatest commanders, said sadly about his life. By this time, he had already begun to build his empire. His name was on the lips of many peoples: Alexander the Great, Alexander III the Great, λέξανδρος Μέγας (Greek), Alexander Magnus (Latin), among the Muslim peoples Iskander Zulkarnayn - these are just a few names that this great king was called.

ALEXANDER'S CHILDHOOD

Alexander was born in the Macedonian capital of Pella on July 21, 356 BC. The parents of the future commander were the Macedonian king Philip and the daughter of the Epirus king Olympus. According to legend, the genus of Alexander was descended from the mythical Hercules through the kings of Argos, who were considered the ancestors of the first Macedonian king.

Being a great commander, Alexander did not have a heroic build, he was indifferent to athletic competitions, preferring battles and fun feasts. At the age of 20, Alexander became king of Macedonia. The German historian F. Schlosser wrote that Alexander's father, seeing the corruption of morals and the decline of the Greek spirit, understood that Macedonia needed a king who could transform republican forms of life into monarchical ones. By his activity, he prepared all the conditions for this, and, having ascended the throne, Alexander only had to do this.

Alexander's father carefully chose teachers for the future king. For example, Alexander received a classical Greek education under the guidance of the great philosopher Aristotle. Philip from early childhood prepared his heir for diplomacy, politics, war.

The ambition of the young king was boundless. Indifferent to wealth, he passionately envied his father's fame and dreamed of brilliant deeds. And although, under the influence of his teacher, Alexander respected philosophers and was interested in Greek literature, his favorite book was Homer's Iliad. He was indifferent to carnal pleasures, did not show interest in women, but at the age of ten he tamed a stallion, which Tsar Philip refused due to obstinacy.

In 336 BC. Philip was killed. The Macedonian army, who knew Alexander well and had seen him in battle more than once, proclaimed him king. First of all, Alexander dealt with the alleged participants in the conspiracy against his father and, according to the Macedonian tradition, with possible contenders for the throne. He won the nobility and the Macedonian people to his side by abolishing taxes, and in the spring of 335 BC. the young king set off on a campaign against the Thracian and Illyrian tribes. The barbarians were defeated, the survivors preferred to enter into an alliance with Macedonia.

At this time, a rebellion broke out in Thebes. The city was immediately captured, plundered, and the entire population was enslaved. Greece was amazed both by the fate of the ancient city, one of the largest and most powerful in Hellas, and by the quick victory of the Macedonian king. And now the political situation has allowed Alexander to carry out the long-standing plan of his father Philip - an all-Hellenic conquest campaign against the Persian Empire!

VICTORIES OF ALEXANDER

From 334 to 332 BC Alexander conquered Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt, then the Persian state was also defeated. The Cypriots were directly involved in the battles of Alexander the Great. Historians say that 120 ships from Cyprus joined his fleet. In addition, the inhabitants of the island built siege engines. The Cypriot ships repulsed the Phoenician attempt to break through the blockade and participated in the final assault. Subsequently, the Macedonian fleet, the lion's share of which was Cypriot ships, cleared the Aegean from the Persians.

Having become the ruler of Asia, Alexander stopped looking at the Persians as a conquered people and decided to equalize the winners with the vanquished, uniting them into a single monarchy. Alexander began to introduce new rules in his kingdom, which at first concerned external forms like oriental clothes, a harem, Persian court ceremonies - he wanted to live with the Persians in the same way as their former kings. But his fighting comrades-in-arms, accustomed to the simplicity of morals and friendly relations between the king and subjects, grumbled, refusing to accept Eastern concepts. They especially disliked the Eastern tradition of prostration and kissing the king's feet.

By this time, the Macedonian army was tired of a long campaign, the soldiers wanted to return home - they did not share the goals of their king to become the master of the whole world. A difficult time began for Alexander. First, one conspiracy against him was uncovered, all participants of which were executed. In the summer of 327 BC. the “conspiracy of the pages” was revealed - noble youths under the Macedonian king. In addition to the "pages", Callisthenes, a historian and philosopher, was also executed, who alone dared to object to the king. Soon Clit Cherny, the commander of the royal bodyguards, was killed.

In 329-327 years. BC. Alexander makes a trip to Central Asia. After the conquest of the peoples of Asia, his path lay further east, to fabulous India. In the spring of 326 BC. his army invaded the lands of the Indian peoples. In the summer of the same year, the campaign ended - Alexander's army refused to follow the king. The reason for disobedience was discontent and fatigue from a long campaign, the end of which was not foreseen. Having subdued his pride, Alexander turned his army to the south in order to capture as many new countries as possible during the retreat to Persia. In February 324 BC. Alexander reached Persia, thus completing the Indian campaign. This was the first European attempt to take over India. The second attempt was made only after 2000 years.

Alexander's campaign lasted ten years. In February 323 B.C. Alexander stopped in Babylon, where he began to plan new wars of conquest. His immediate goal was the Arab tribes of the Arabian Peninsula, and in the future - an expedition against Carthage. Alexander ordered to lay 1000 ships in Cyprus and Phenicia for a new grandiose campaign.

But five days before the start of the campaign against the Arabs, Alexander fell ill. Just ten days later, on June 10, 323 B.C. Alexander the Great has died. He did not live to see his 33rd birthday just over a month. Alexander did not leave orders about the heirs. After his death, all members of the royal family and people close to him became victims of the struggle for power, and his great empire was soon divided among his associates. When divided, Cyprus went to Alexander's best friend Ptolemy.

CYPROM IS RULED BY THE PTOLEMAIS

Even when the Persians ruled Cyprus, the Greek influence on the culture of the island remained very strong: the Cypriots worshiped Greek gods, and Greek motifs were present on fabrics, clay pots and even on Cypriot coins minted in the city-states of the island. The Persians lost control of the island when Alexander the Great began his campaign to the east. After the death of Macedon, Ptolemy, one of the commanders, brother and close friend of Alexander, became the ruler of Cyprus.

At the end of 332 BC. Alexander moved to Egypt. Soon the country was enslaved, and the Persians who ruled Egypt were expelled. At the same time, the city of Alexandria was founded, which quickly turned into the center of Hellenistic culture and became the residence of the Ptolemies - the new rulers of Egypt. The first in the dynasty - Ptolemy I - was the half-brother of Alexander the Great, since he was the illegitimate son of his father Philip.

Ptolemy was a close friend of Alexander and his faithful assistant during the strengthening of the power of the young king in Greece, and then during the aggressive wars with the Persians. Shortly after Alexander's death, the great empire was divided among his associates. During the division, Ptolemy got Egypt and Cyprus.

Acting thoughtfully and humanely in relation to the locals, Ptolemy from the very beginning managed to establish his authority in new territories. He preserved in his kingdom the general structure of native life, and Egypt recovered more quickly than other satrapies after the grandiose struggle begun by Alexander. Ptolemy assumed the royal title and soon annexed Syria and Lycia to his territories. In the future, he interfered little in the affairs of foreign policy, if they did not concern Egypt.

Modern historians evaluate Ptolemy I as an intelligent and talented politician. This is also indicated by the fact that he was the only one of the Diadochi - as the commanders of Alexander the Great were called - died of natural causes. Ptolemy declared that Alexander the Great was the patron of his family. This was confirmed by the fact that Alexander was buried in Alexandria. Very quickly, the cult of Alexander spread throughout Egypt. When Arsinoe II, the wife of Ptolemy II, died, she was deified. Subsequently, the rulers became gods already during their lifetime, immediately after ascending the throne. This cult, deliberately inherited from Ancient Egypt, was supported and strengthened by the Ptolemaic dynasty in order to prove its legitimacy and strengthen power.

It was during the reign of the Ptolemaic dynasty that Egypt rose to its height and reached its greatest power. The power of the Ptolemies belonged to Syria, Palestine, Cyprus, the western part of Asia Minor, the coast of Thrace and the islands of the Aegean Sea.

At the initiative of Ptolemy, the famous Alexandrian Library and Museum were opened in Alexandria. From now on, it was there, in Alexandria, which became the center of intellectual life, that the best philosophers, poets and scientists flocked.

IMPACT ON CYPRUS CULTURE

During the reign of the Ptolemaic island, the Cypriot culture was strongly influenced by the capital of the Ptolemaic kingdom - Alexandria. This influence can be seen most clearly when looking at the Cypriot sculptures and pottery of that period.

CAMEL - EGYPT'S HERITAGE

There is another fact confirming the close relationship between Egypt and Cyprus in those distant times. Around 250 B.C. Dromedaries, one-humped camels, were brought to Egypt. The one-humped camel was distributed in many regions of Asia and Africa as a pet for transportation of goods or riding, but its wild populations have become extinct in our time. The name "dromedary" comes from the Greek word δρόμος. Around the same period of time, such camels appeared in Cyprus.

These camels are superbly adapted to dry climates. Due to their nature, they can go without water for a long time, keeping it in large quantities in their body. The hump on the back of a camel contains reserves of fat, which is gradually used by the animal's body for energy. Camels store liquid not in the hump, as is commonly believed, but in the stomach. The kidneys of the dromedary carefully extract fluid, leaving very concentrated urine. And even from the feces, almost all the liquid is removed before being excreted.

The body temperature of a one-humped camel drops sharply at night, and during the day the body heats up slowly, which allows the animal not to sweat. During a particularly dry season, a humped camel is able to lose more than 25% of its body weight without dying of thirst or hunger. Camels drink very quickly and can compensate for all the weight lost in ten minutes.

As you can see, this animal was ideally suited to the Cypriot climate and therefore became widely used in the households of the islanders. Judging by old photographs, at the end of the 19th century, many residents rode camels through the streets of the capital. Today we can only see the dromedary camel at the island's only camel farm, Mazotos.

BEGINNING OF THE ROMAN PERIOD

The Ptolemies used Cyprus mainly as military base. Copper, ship timber, olives and wheat were also exported from the island. But from about 30 BC. Cyprus became dependent on the Roman Empire. For the next 300 years, Cyprus is associated with only one word - cuprum - copper.

The Roman Empire ... Several states considered themselves its heirs. Russian empire, the French empires of Napoleon I and Napoleon III, the Ottoman Empire - they all called themselves the heirs of Rome. In the Muscovite state during the reign of Ivan III, there was a theory "Moscow - the Third Rome". “The First Rome fell, followed by the Second (Constantinople), the Third (Moscow) stands and will stand.”
In a later period, at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the German empires of Bismarck and Hitler declared themselves the heirs of Rome. In this sense, Cyprus was more fortunate: from about 58 BC. he, having become part of the Roman Empire, becomes a direct participant in the events, undergoing various political and cultural changes. And because the island can rightfully call itself the direct heir to the great empire.

THE ERA OF ROMAN INFLUENCE

The Roman era in Cyprus lasted almost 400 years. Historians say that the population of the island under the rule of mighty Rome lived well. These were the heydays of Cyprus: new temples, roads, theaters, water pipes were built. Paphos became the main city of the island. Governing according to the Roman model - municipalities - the cities had considerable autonomy in solving internal issues, up to the right to issue their own copper coins. The Roman proconsul, whose residence was in Paphos, controlled only the collection of taxes and arbitration. Since Cyprus was located far from the borders of the empire and theaters of operations, Rome did not keep significant military forces on the island, limiting itself to a nominal military presence.
Throughout Roman rule, the name of Cyprus was associated with the Latin word cuprum, copper. Remaining an important center for the production of ceramics and copper, being engaged in intermediary grain trade between Egypt and the western provinces of the Roman Empire, Cyprus lived in peace and prosperity for a long time.

Trade flourished, especially in decorative Cypriot pottery. Jewelers and glassblowers of the island used a new Roman style for them in the manufacture of their goods. Among the archaeological finds of this period, jewelry and beautiful dishes are often found.

CYPRUS NATIONAL QUESTION
Already in those days the population of the island was multinational. Although the Romans themselves did not settle here, the arrival of immigrants from other provinces of the Roman Empire was quite impressive. For example, a significant number of Jews from Palestine moved to the island. The inhabitants of Palestine, who sought refuge from the wars between the generals of Alexander the Great, appeared on the island of Cyprus under the Ptolemies.
According to historical sources, the king of Judea, Herod the Great, rented the copper mines of the island, resettling thousands of Jews on the island for hard work in the mines. At first, this did not bother the Greek merchants. However, the flow of immigrants from Palestine increased, and, in the end, the Jews began to make up a significant part of the population of Salamis - at that time the main shopping center Cyprus. Fearing that the Jews could gradually take over most of the trading business, the Greeks began to provoke clashes between the Greek and Jewish populations of the island.
In 116-117, the Roman Senate was forced to send a military unit to Cyprus to restore calm. As a result of bloody inter-communal clashes in Cyprus, several thousand people died. After deliberation, the Senate decided to resettle the surviving Jewish inhabitants in Palestine. And although, according to the laws of that time, Jews were forbidden to appear on the island under pain of death, after a few years a small number of them returned to Cyprus. But the Jewish community on the island never reached its former size and significance.

THE FIRST STEPS OF CHRISTIANITY IN CYPRUS
One of the most important events in the history of Cyprus during Roman rule was the arrival of the first Christians on the island - the Apostle Paul and St. Barnabas in 45.
The first Christians brought knowledge to all the inhabitants of Cyprus. Having reached Paphos, the Apostle Paul and Barnabas converted the Roman proconsul Sergius Paul to Christianity, as a result of which Cyprus became the first country ruled by a Christian. Naturally, this contributed to the rapid spread of the new faith in Cyprus.

DECAY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

330 AD. The capital of the Roman Empire was moved from Rome to Constantinople. After 65 years, the great state finally collapsed. After the division of the empire, Cyprus became part of its eastern part, later called Byzantium. A new period in the history of the island began - the Byzantine one. It lasted for 800 years.

BEGINNING OF BYZANTINE RULE
This period was marked by the construction of new cities. The capital of the island was moved from Paphos to Salamina. At the same time, the city was renamed Constantia. Soon, a new city appeared near Constantia - Famagusta.
The city-state of Amathus (at that time Amaphunta) remained a major cultural and commercial center. Curium also flourished. And between them began to build a new city - Neapolis. Later it was called Nemesos, and during the rule of the island by the Franks, almost a thousand years later, it was renamed Lemesos.
It was then that the ancient city-state of Lidra was rebuilt. The renovated city received a new name - Lefkosia. A millennium later, this city became the capital of Cyprus.

SILK THREADS IN THE HISTORY OF CYPRUS
It was under the Byzantines that silk making became one of the main crafts on the island. Around the 6th century, several silkworm cocoons were smuggled to the island from China. The technology of silk production also became known. The climate of Cyprus was ideal for silkworm caterpillars. In addition, Cyprus provided these precious caterpillars in abundance with their favorite delicacy - mulberry leaves. Very quickly, the technique of making this exquisite fabric became popular.
Travelers who came to Cyprus in those distant times were surprised that common people wear clothes made from this expensive fabric. Moreover, the inhabitants of the Cypriot villages even used silk to make sheets! Such sheets were usually part of the dowry. Many traditions associated with the use of silk during important rituals of life are still alive: scarlet silk scarves are given to newlyweds and babies after baptism - according to popular belief, a red silk scarf brings good luck. Fifty years ago, the umbilical cord of newborn islanders was cut with a red silk thread - a symbol of the health and prosperity of the mother and her child. And in Cypriot churches, the most precious icons are still covered with silk cloth.
The Folk Art Museum in Geroskipou features ancient silk making tools and a hall with beautifully printed silk scarves made in Cyprus. In the village museum, you can also see a live silkworm.
If you are wondering what costumes were worn in Cyprus in past centuries, you should head to the Folk Art Museum in Nicosia, where you will see wonderful examples of silk clothes worn by Nicosia noble women.

SHIPBUILDING
Cypriot shipyards - places of construction and repair of ships, left as a legacy from the time when the island belonged to the Persians, were equipped in accordance with technologies brought from Byzantium. Located at the intersection of the most important trade routes, Cyprus has always attracted the attention of its neighbors. The presence of merchant ships expanded the economic opportunities of the island. In those days, a huge number of ships were built in Cyprus. Fortunately, building materials for this - the Cypriot forest - were in abundance in those days.
By order of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, an aqueduct was built in Salamis - as early as the 6th century, the capital's inhabitants could enjoy fresh spring water, and were relieved of the need to make long-distance country trips to sources or pay a water carrier every time.

CREATIVITY OF BYZANTINE JEWELERS
Cyprus has always been famous for the production of jewelry, because the raw materials for making jewelry on the island have always been in abundance: copper, silver, gold have been mined in Cyprus for thousands of years. The Byzantines brought with them a new style.
In Byzantine period jewelry, gold, silver, enamel, pearls, precious and semi-precious stones coexist. An extravagant combination of colors, richness and variety of precious materials - these are the main distinguishing features of the work of Byzantine jewelers. Masters from Byzantium boldly combined noble metals, cut semi-precious stones - jasper, sardonyx, lapis lazuli, agate and rock crystal - enamel, pearls, precious stones and ... colored glass! Their work is distinguished by a passion for luxury and lush colorful effects, good taste, wisdom and solutions fresh for that time.
Even in the jewelry of the Byzantines, one of the main places was occupied by the images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, angels and saints, and, of course, the Cross. The immortal peacock, the tree of life and many other Christian symbols were willingly used by the masters of that time. Inscriptions, appeals and blessings engraved on gold and silver jewelry emphasize the pious hopes of Christian owners.
Decorations of that time are exhibited in the archaeological museums of Cyprus. A particularly large collection of jewelry from the Byzantine period is displayed at the Cyprus State Museum in Nicosia.
A few years ago, a treasure was discovered in the area of ​​Lampouza (Lapithos, a district of the city of Kerinia). One of the most valuable acquired exhibits was a silver paten with scenes from the life of David. Unfortunately, many items from the contents of the treasure were taken away from Cyprus - they became the property of the expositions of the British Museum and the Metropolitan Museum in New York.

Perhaps one of the greatest material legacies of the Byzantine period in Cyprus are the dozens of Christian churches, basilicas and monasteries that were built on the island during the heyday of Byzantine ecclesiastical art.

From the 4th to the 7th centuries - early Christian Byzantine period- The Church of Cyprus, being autocephalous, retained its independence. At the end of the 5th century (488), Emperor Zeno granted the Archbishop of Cyprus the right to appear at official ceremonies in a purple robe, carry a scepter and sign in red ink. In gratitude, the Archbishop of Cyprus presented the emperor with a manuscript of the Gospel of Matthew, discovered in the tomb of St. Barnabas. Saint Barnabas in the year 45 after the Nativity of Christ, together with the Apostle Paul, brought the knowledge of Christ to Cyprus, and therefore he is considered the founder of the Cypriot Christian Church.
At the burial place of Barnabas, a monastery was founded in the 4th century, which still exists today. After the Turkish invasion in 1974, the monks left the monastery, but, nevertheless, this monastery was more fortunate than many other holy places left on Turkish territory. It wasn't destroyed. There is an archaeological museum in its building, and an exhibition of Christian icons was placed in the church of the monastery.
Mosaic from the Church of Angeloktisti. 5th century In the early stage of Byzantine ecclesiastical art, it combined Greco-Roman and Oriental traditions. And therefore the first Christian churches in Cyprus were built on the model of Roman basilicas.

ROMAN BASILIC
"Royal house" - this is how the word basilica is translated from Greek. Once the Romans, in turn, adopted this type of structure from the Greeks. The basilica was usually rectangular in shape, with an odd number (one, three or five) of naves. The word "nave" comes from the Latin word for "ship". It is an elongated room, bounded on one or both longitudinal sides by a row of columns separating it from neighboring naves. Each nave in the basilica has its own covering. The very first Christian basilicas were covered with a wooden flat roof - a vault.
The central nave, wider and taller, is illuminated by windows of the second tier and ends with an apse, that is, an arch. The apse is usually topped with a semi-dome. Sometimes two towers were added on the western façade, a tradition that has been preserved in Cyprus to this day. Now these towers usually contain bell towers. In Romanesque architecture, the type of basilica with two choirs, in the east and west, was common, and the entrance to the temple was located on the sides in the side aisles. In Cyprus, a type of basilicas with a choir in the western part has been preserved.
They entered the basilica through the porch - the narthex, which, according to Christian tradition, adjoins the western side of the church. In early Christian churches, the narthex was intended for parishioners who did not have permission to enter the main building. They were considered people who were just preparing to accept Christianity.

SAMPLES OF EARLY CHRISTIAN BASILICS IN CYPRUS

Among the most significant examples of architecture of that period are early Christian basilicas decorated with frescoes. The most striking and well-preserved examples of such buildings are, for example, the church of Chrysopolitissa in Kato Paphos, the monastery of Panagia Kanakaria on the Karpasia peninsula, the church in Kourion, the Basilica of St. George in the village of Peyia near Paphos, the church of Panagia Asinou in Nikitari, Panagia Araka in Lagoudera .
The apses of ancient basilicas were usually decorated with mosaics, a tradition that came to Cyprus from Constantinople. Many ancient basilicas were destroyed during countless Arab raids in the 7th-8th centuries, but fortunately the mosaics of some temples were preserved and later placed in newly rebuilt churches.
The oldest of the Christian mosaics is located in the apse of the Church of Panagia Kanakaria, located in the occupied territory. The best preserved mosaic in the church of Panagia Angeloktisti in Kiti (Larnaca region). The third, most valuable mosaic is located in the church of Panagia Kira in the village of Livadia (occupied territory in the Famagusta region).

The legacy of the great Byzantium

Talking about the multi-layered Byzantine heritage, one cannot confine oneself to a story about material things. Since the formation of Byzantium, Christianity has become its state religion. And therefore Byzantine philosophy and aesthetics, formed under the influence of Christian ideology, had an immeasurable impact on the way of thinking and lifestyle of all its inhabitants.

PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS OF BYZANTIA
Byzantine aesthetic views began to take shape in line with the new Christian ideology, based on Greco-Roman and Hebrew aesthetics. The ideal of Byzantine scientists, philosophers, artists, musicians was the incomprehensible and indescribable God in the unity of three hypostases. It was God who was the source of beauty, surpassing all that is beautiful. The whole world was a system of images, symbols and signs - signs pointing to it and leading to it.
Byzantine philosophy was so deeply influenced by victorious Christianity that in its official version it turned into a “servant of theology” for a long time. By adapting Christianity to its goals, Byzantine philosophy created a religious and philosophical system based on Plato's idealistic doctrine of the dualism of the world: the connection between the visible world of phenomena and the supersensible other world of eternal ideas.
Instead of opposing earth and heaven, the Christian religion, which became the state religion, set out to show their connection through the doctrine of the duality of the nature of Christ. Man and deity at the same time, God the son served as a link between man and heaven.

ASCETISM AS A LIFE CONCEPT
The aesthetics of asceticism that developed among Byzantine monasticism also influenced the development Byzantine culture and church art. Complete rejection of sensual pleasures in favor of spiritual ones; a non-possessive (beggarly) way of life, a system of special spiritual and psychophysical exercises, combined with prayer, leading to a state of higher spiritual pleasure, became very popular during that period.
At the same time, throughout the history of Byzantium, the traditions and basic concepts of Greco-Roman aesthetics with its special taste for luxury, artistic artistry, increased decorativeism, illusionism, and pronounced sensuality have retained their strength.

PHILOSOPHY AND LIFE ICONS
During the reign of the Byzantines, the style of writing icons changed. The most common trend in fine arts has become the style of naturalistic-illusory copying of an object. Made in the style of realism, the icons made a very strong impression on the viewer.
But the main event that eventually influenced the style of icon painting was the confrontation between iconoclasts and iconodules (726–843), which also began as a result of the development of philosophical thought in the Byzantine period.
Iconoclasm (the denial and even destruction of icons) was supported by the ruling secular elite, while the idea of ​​worshiping icons was continued by the orthodox clergy and ordinary people - for the most part they were illiterate, and the icon served as a source of knowledge for them, a kind of illustration of the events that once occurred.
Iconoclasts, in turn, tried to affirm the idea of ​​the indescribability and unknowability of the deity. They sought to preserve the sublime spirituality of Christianity. In the worship of icons with images of saints, they saw the exaltation of the carnal principle and the remnants of antiquity. They proposed to replace the decoration of the church with neutral paintings, abstract symbols. As a result, the walls of the temples turned, in the figurative expression of one of his contemporaries, into "gardens and poultry houses."
During the period of iconoclasm, an attempt was made to officially ban icons. The struggle between the supporters of these trends was extremely tough, and at a certain stage the iconoclasts prevailed: many monuments of early Byzantine culture perished in this confrontation.
Nevertheless, in the end, the supporters of icon veneration won, which further contributed to the final formation of the iconographic canon - strict rules for depicting all scenes of religious content.

CHARACTER TRAITS
The originality of Byzantine art consisted in the wide use of religious and aesthetic action in all the main types of creativity: architecture, painting, singing and poetic, decorative, oratory. The main features of Byzantine art were laconism of expressive means, symbolism, canonicity, deep penetration into spiritual spheres, and meditativeness.

CRADLE OF CULTURES
Byzantine art had a huge impact on the formation of the medieval aesthetics of the southern Slavs, the peoples of Transcaucasia, Ancient Rus', and Western Europe. Even in the 20th century, many Russian religious thinkers, symbolists, avant-gardists and modernists turned to the experience of Byzantine art. Imitation of Byzantine traditions can be observed even today: for example, most modern churches in Cyprus are built in accordance with Byzantine traditions. In addition, Byzantine traditions are widely used in church services today, and Byzantine music is played in the church during services.

DOUBLE HEADED EAGLE
We can see his image in every Cypriot church. The double-headed eagle is considered the most recognized emblem of the Byzantine Empire, which in turn inherited it from the Palaiologos dynasty.
The Palaiologoi (Greek: Παλαιολόγοι) were the last and most enduring dynasty of Byzantine emperors, who ruled for two centuries, from 1261 to 1453. With the reign of the Palaiologos is associated the last rise of Byzantine art, known as the Palaiologic revival. This period also went down in history as the time of the beginning of the decline, and then the final collapse of the Byzantine Empire.
But heraldists also found deeper roots of the "Byzantine eagle". Historians suggest that the Palaiologos dynasty originated from Asia Minor. It is curious that their emblem - a double-headed eagle - first appeared in this region as a symbol of the Hittite kingdom.
The Hittite empire existed in the second millennium BC. This Indo-European people, who owned the secret of iron production, controlled all of Asia Minor, the straits between the Black and Mediterranean Seas. The Hittite eagle was preserved not only on stone bas-reliefs, but also on the state seals of the Hittites. That is, the double-headed eagle passed to the Byzantine Empire, which arose 2000 years later, from the Hittites.
It turns out that the double-headed eagle was also known in ancient Pteria, a state on the border with Assyria (the territory of modern Iraq), so its origin was attributed to the 7th-6th centuries BC. In modern Turkey, there is the city of Konya, on its coat of arms - a double-headed eagle. You can see images of the double-headed eagle at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara. In Anatolia, archaeologists have also discovered more ancient settlements of the pre-Hittite period. For example, in the settlement of Aladzha-huyuk (Alacha-Uyuk) - approximately the 4th millennium BC. - many swastika patterns, solstice and reliefs with double-headed eagles were found. Thus, the double-headed eagle is about eight to nine millennia old.
The double-headed eagle, which became a symbol of power, came to Rus' from the Byzantine Empire as a “dowry” - in the 15th century, Grand Duke Ivan III married Princess Sophia Paleolog. She became the second wife of Ivan III, the mother of Vasily III, the grandmother of Ivan IV the Terrible.

MOSAICS OF BYZANTINE
The technology of mosaic art has been known since antiquity, but only in Byzantium began to use for the first time not natural, but glass alloys colored with mineral paints, the so-called smalts, covered with the thinnest layer of gilding. To decorate temples and other buildings, Byzantine craftsmen often used the golden color, which, on the one hand, symbolized luxury and wealth, and on the other, was the brightest and most radiant of all colors.
One of the features of the mosaic "masonry" was the arrangement of pieces of mosaics: the craftsmen placed them on a concave or spherical surface of the walls at different angles of inclination.
This significantly increased the golden brilliance of uneven smalt cubes. He turned the plane of the walls into a continuous shimmering space, which sparkled even more thanks to the light of the candles burning in the temple.
The range of colors used by the mosaicists of Byzantium was very wide: pale blue, green, bright blue, pale lilac, pink, red... Mosaic images mainly told about the main events of Christian history, the earthly life of Jesus Christ, glorified the power of the emperor.
In Cyprus, the tradition of decorating churches came from Constantinople. Usually the apses of ancient basilicas (temples) were decorated with mosaics. The oldest of the Christian mosaics is located in the apse of the Church of Panagia Kanakaria, located in the occupied territory. The best preserved mosaic in the church of Panagia Angeloktisti in Kiti (Larnaca region). The third, most valuable mosaic is located in the church of Panagia Kira in the village of Livadia (occupied territory in the Famagusta region).

"...BYZANTINE MUSIC DIES THE SOUL"
First of all, Byzantine music is exclusively vocal. According to John Chrysostom, the use of musical instruments was allowed in the Old Testament. “However, now,” says the saint, “we don’t need cithara, strings and an organ, but we need our language, our voice, which should pray and bring God closer to us with our prayer and piety.”
Another feature of Byzantine music is that it is monophonic. Whether one or many chanters sing, the line of the melody remains the same. When several chanters sing, one voice is heard. This symbolizes the unity of faith: "And give us with one mouth, with one heart to glorify and sing of Your most honorable name."
Since there is unanimity in Byzantine music, Special attention in it is given to the decoration of the melody. In parallel with the performance of a monophonic melody, an even musical line follows, which is performed by a part of the choristers. It seems to support the main melody, accentuate it, give it smoothness and beauty. At the same time, Byzantine music is performed antiphonally, that is, the melody is sung alternately by two choirs, right and left.
According to tradition, Byzantine music does not contain melodies of arbitrary composition: from century to century, musicians carefully transmit the consecrated musical canons preserved in their original form, which were accepted by the Church.
The style of performing Byzantine music is also different. All the possibilities of the voice become a single musical instrument for glorifying God: in Byzantine chant, not only the throat is used, but the entire cavity of the mouth and nose.

The church organization of Christianity began to take shape in the III-IV centuries. This time coincided with the beginning of the heyday of the Byzantine Empire. And because the Byzantine church is considered one of the oldest in the world. Undoubtedly, the church traditions that formed during that period largely determined what the Christian church is today.

BYZANTINE TRADITIONS IN CHURCH ARCHITECTURE
In the architecture of that time, the main attention was paid to the construction and organization of the internal space, and the space of the church has always been endowed with complex symbolic significance. The temple itself, where worship takes place, its architecture and decoration are an image of the world, a kind of imitation of the universe. “All the beauties of the universe” are concentrated in the temple - the Earth, sea, air, planets and stars are presented in the space of the temple, in its architecture, lining and paintings.
There is a sense in every piece of furniture. Here the otherworldly appears in the thisworldly. Here there is no contradiction between the spiritual and the material - here the sky descends to the earth, and God becomes a man. According to the teachings of Patriarch Herman, the church is the earthly sky, and the interior of the temple reveals the realities of a higher spiritual order.
The church is both the cave of Bethlehem and the burial place of Christ; His tomb and, at the same time, the heavenly altar. The vaults of the altar and the ceiling of the temple symbolize the images of the two levels of the sky; lamps and candles are images of the eternal Light. The surplice symbolizes the flesh of Christ, the bishop - the image of the Lord, the priests - spiritual ranks, the deacons - angels.
It is also worth paying attention to the increase in the degree of significance of the images and symbols of the temple from west to east and from bottom to top!

CANONS OF CHURCH PAINT
The main feature of the language of Byzantine painting is the flatness of images and the static nature of the main figures on a golden background. Here are the main distinguishing features of the Byzantine artistic style:
* special attention to the faces of the main characters, usually placed frontally in the centers of the images;
* the use of a limited set of iconographic elements - figures, postures, gestures, details of architecture and landscape;
* changing the real proportions of the human body, the conditional image of the architectural scenes, hills, trees;
* combination in one image of different-time and different-space events and phenomena;
* increased decorative effect;
* the use of gold and bright colors, endowed with deep symbolism.
Thanks to strict canons, all images of the temple are included in the liturgical action in an attempt to unite heaven and earth: the entire Church, earthly and heavenly, participates in the Liturgy. According to Simeon of Thessalonica, the "sacred images" of the Savior, the Mother of God, saints and apostles on the iconostasis mean "both the sojourn of Christ in heaven with his saints, and his presence here among us." At the same time, the participants in the Liturgy themselves - the parishioners - depict the heavenly powers in their "great and terrible" service.

CHURCH SERVICE TRADITIONS
The purpose of the cult church action was to create a sense of mystical integrity among the parishioners, a sense of unity of believers with God and with spiritual ranks in the process of worship. For this, attention began to be paid to the development and understanding of the symbolism of worship, including all the artistic elements of church arts. There was even a separate subject of theological discipline - liturgical theology.
Liturgy (Greek λειτουργία - "service", "common cause") is the most important Christian service. And although the main chants of the liturgy originate in ancient times, from about the 5th century other spiritual songs and prayers were introduced into the liturgy (“Holy God”, “Symbol of Faith”, “Only Begotten Son ...”, etc.).
An important point of liturgical symbolism is that in the Eucharistic action Christ Himself is both the Deity to whom the Sacrifice is offered, and the Sacrifice itself, offered for the sins of the world, and the Bishop (priest) offering the Sacrifice.
The liturgical rite is performed as a remembrance, "in His remembrance." But this memory does not obey the logic of being. It seems to be out of time. It remembers the past, the present, and the future, as already past and eternally lasting. This is a special, timeless memory that goes beyond the usual time frame.
So, for example, in the anamnesis - part of the Eucharistic prayer - they “remember” “His second and glorious and terrible coming, when He will come with glory to judge the living and the dead and reward everyone according to his deeds.” And in the Liturgy of John Chrysostom they “remember” “everything that was about us: the cross, the tomb, the three-day resurrection, ascension to heaven, sitting on the right hand, the second and glorious coming again.”

SYMBOLISM OF THE BYZANTINE LITURGY
Everything in liturgical symbolism, each of its elements has a general, broad meaning and, at the same time, its narrow, particular meaning. Thus, the diskos - a liturgical vessel, a dish on the foot with the image of the baby Jesus or scenes from the New Testament with particles of prosphora placed on it - acts as an image of the Church in heaven and on earth and at the same time depicts the Bethlehem nativity scene. Standing on the head of the deacon at the Great Entrance, it means the crucified Christ, and the removal of the body of Jesus from the cross is depicted by the removal of the paten from the head of the deacon.
According to later interpretations, the entire Eucharist expresses earthly life Christ: the first part of the Liturgy is the birth of Christ in Bethlehem, the incarnation of the Word, the Logos; Small Entrance - His exit to preach; Great Entrance - passions and death on the cross; the setting of the Gifts on the throne - the position of Jesus in the tomb, etc. The Church itself, in general terms being "the image and image of God", in a particular plan represents the image of man himself, with his mental and sensual world.
In conclusion, we can say that those liturgical forms and the very traditions of building a temple that exist today were created in ancient times. The works of many theologians, historians and psychologists are devoted to the symbolism of the Christian temple and worship. The religious experience that Christians have accumulated over centuries of service cannot be conveyed in ordinary mental categories. It is transmitted in parables, it is transmitted symbolically, that is, through the use and combination of words, music, and the dramatic presentation of events. Only in this way does meaning and meaning reach the conscious and unconscious levels of believers. And the traditions of Byzantine liturgical symbolism are the best example of this.

VII century. Cyprus played an important role in the war that Byzantium waged with Muslim countries. Perhaps the period from 649 to 965 was one of the most difficult in the life of the island. Geographically at the center of the conflict between the Arabs and the Byzantines, it was continuously subjected to devastating attacks.

THE HOLY WARS OF ISLAM
Islam originated in Western Arabia at the beginning of the 7th century. Muhammad, a resident of Mecca, is considered the founder of this religion, although according to Muslim theology, Muhammad was not the founder of Islam, but was the last prophet. The exact date of the founding of Islam is considered to be 622, the time when the Prophet Muhammad moved from his hometown of Mecca to Medina.
Soon after the formation of the Islamic faith, the concept of "jihad" appeared among Muslims, meaning zeal in the path of Allah. And although this concept includes many meanings, usually jihad (especially among non-Muslims) is associated with armed struggle, which is also called "holy war". Here it must be admitted that the leaders of many religions have misused the idea of ​​"holy war" for political, economic or religious gain, skillfully using this idea to inspire their soldiers. An example of this is the crusades in Christianity.
Islamic historian Daniel Pipes wrote in his writings that "the purpose of jihad is not so much to spread the Islamic faith, but to expand the sphere of influence of sovereign Muslim power ... its ultimate goal is to achieve Muslim domination over the whole world." Based on historical facts, the scientist argues that jihad has always manifested itself in the form of territorial expansion.
The expansion began in 634 when the Caliph Omar invaded Syria. On August 20, 636, a decisive battle took place between Byzantium and the Arab Caliphate for control over it. The Byzantine emperor Heraclius gathered a 200,000-strong army to reconquer Syria. The Byzantine army was multinational. In addition to the Greeks, Armenians and Christian Arabs stood under the banner of the emperor. The Muslims have won. Heraclius retreated to Constantinople. Over the next 40 years, Byzantium lost Egypt, North Africa, Palestine ... Soon the Arabs created a fleet and even besieged Constantinople.

CYPRUS IN THE CENTER OF EVENTS
From about the middle of the 7th century and over the next three centuries (649-965), the island was subjected to regular raids by the Arabs. The favorable geographical position of Cyprus, which at that time was under the rule of the Byzantine Empire, made it a tasty morsel for the then young Islamic world, which had just begun its formation. The island became the site of a confrontation between the two superpowers of the time. Lying on the border of these rival worlds, Cyprus became a stronghold for the Byzantine Empire. Three hundred years of Arab raids cost the inhabitants of the island dearly.
Coastal cities suffered the most - Arsinoe, Kition, Paphos. Murders, violence, robberies... Probably the most brutal invasion of the Arabs occurred in 649, when Caliph Muawiya sent 1700 ships to the city of Constantia (Salamis). The city was captured, plundered, and most of its inhabitants were killed. After that, Muawiya, without meeting further resistance, captured the entire island, and obliged the inhabitants to pay him 7200 gold coins annually.

Just five years later, having learned that the Cypriots offered their help to Byzantium, Muawiya again attacked the island. This time, an armada of five hundred ships attacked Constance and practically wiped the city off the face of the earth. It was a huge shock for the townspeople and for the whole island. The Cypriot archbishop, who had previously lived in ancient Constantia, was forced to move to the neighboring city of Arsinoe (now Famagusta).

THERE IS NO GOOD WITHOUT GOOD
Residents of coastal cities began to leave their homes and move inland, hoping to find shelter there. Tired of destructive raids, they began to settle in the most hidden corners of Cyprus. In the foothills, covered only with thorny bushes, the Cypriots began to establish settlements, hoping that in these remote places they would save the lives of their loved ones and finally find peace. So in the 7th-8th centuries, several mountain villages appeared on the island.
One of them became a bright page in the history of Cyprus. You will find a mention of it in any reference book, on any site dedicated to Cyprus. The stony, infertile soil on which mountainous Lefkara was built more than a thousand years ago became the main reason for the development of handicrafts in this village. Embroidered tablecloths, towels, napkins and wedding dresses made by needlewomen from Lefkara, as well as copper and silver utensils and jewelry were sold in the markets or exchanged for food and other necessary goods in the cities of the island.

The rule of Byzantium in Cyprus ends with the arrival of the English king Richard the First on the island. A new period began on the island, called the Frankish period by historians.
There are many legends associated with this name. In Limassol there is even a street "Richard and Berengaria"! Who really was Richard?
The young Plantagenet king, Richard, was well educated. They say he even wrote poetry! Blue-eyed, fair-haired, 1 meter 93 cm tall, he was very attractive. Richard's greatest hobby was war: from childhood, showing political and military abilities, he was also known for his courage and knew how to take precedence over his subjects - aristocrats. Apparently, then he got his famous nickname Lionheart. In their memoirs, Richard's contemporaries write that he attached great importance to church celebrations and even participated in the hymns accompanying the rites, leading the choir.
The relationship between Richard's mother and father was not easy: parents often clashed. Richard, like his brothers, loved his mother very much. He even quarreled with his father because of his neglect of her. And when in 1173 a rebellion was raised against his father, Henry II, Richard, along with his brothers, joined the rebels. When the rebellion was crushed, Richard was the first of the brothers to come to his father to beg for forgiveness. Soon, Richard was already fighting on the side of his father - in June 1175, he went on a campaign against the barons who did not want to obey the king. This was another of Richard's character traits - he was easily swayed in one direction or another, for which he received another nickname - Richard Yes-and-No (Oc et Non).
Richard became heir to the English crown in 1183. Upon learning of the fall of Jerusalem, he decided to leave the endless wars with the barons for a while and go on a campaign to the Holy Land. “I would go barefoot to Jerusalem in order to win her grace” - these are the words of Richard, recorded by the chroniclers who were present at the meeting of the two kings - England and France. Soon Richard accepted the cross from Bishop Bartholomew of Tours. From that moment on, the collection of a special “tithe” was announced in all the churches of France and England - funds were required to equip a new crusade. Richard also released prisoners from prisons who expressed a desire to go to the Holy Land.
But before leaving for the crusade, Richard once again betrayed his father. Endless wars between England and France alternated with truces. One day, Henry II was unpleasantly surprised that, along with Philip, the king of France, Richard also arrived at the truce negotiations. During this meeting, the King of France demanded several provinces from Henry of England for Richard. Henry II refused. And then Richard, taking off his sword, in front of everyone swore an oath to Philip! Indignant, Heinrich interrupted the meeting. Richard went with Philip to Paris and, breaking all customs, spent Christmas with the French king, and not at the court of his father.
Soon Henry II died, and Richard threw all his strength into preparing a crusade. In the words of Richard de Motto, Richard "with great zeal lightened the burden of all those who were somewhat weighed down by their silver, granting positions and possessions to everyone according to his taste." He was one of the first monarchs who increased revenues to the treasury by trading in public offices. The same officials who were unable to pay the ransom were imprisoned!
Before leaving for the Holy Land in July 1190, Richard and Philip met at Vézelay to negotiate a truce for the duration of the crusade. On September 23, a flotilla of 100 ships solemnly entered the port of Messina (Sicily). Richard left Sicily on March 30, 1191, and on the same day arrived in Messina, accompanied by Richard's mother, Berengaria of Navarre, the king's bride. Soon Berengaria, along with Joan of England, set off for Richard on a separate ship.

THE WAY TO THE HOLY LAND
This path was not easy. The strongest storms accompanied the fleet of the English king. On April 12, Richard with part of the ships was forced to stop in Crete, and on April 22 he landed on Rhodes. But when the king sailed from Rhodes on May 1, a new incident delayed him - four ships from the flotilla were thrown ashore by a storm on the coast of Cyprus. Three of them died, and the fourth, on which Richard's sister and fiancee were, survived. But the Byzantine governor of Cyprus, Isaac Komnenos, captured the survivors of the shipwrecks and imprisoned them, demanding a ransom.
Upon learning what happened to his sailors and bride, Richard demanded from Isaac the immediate release of the captives, the return of looted property, as well as money - 20 thousand marks, 500 soldiers to participate in the crusade and a promise to continue to provide the crusaders with the necessary provisions and clothing. For some reason, Komnenos decided that Richard was not strong enough to back up his demands, and simply suggested that he get off the island. From that moment a new page began in the history of Cyprus...

THE ENGLISH KING IN THE LAND OF CYPRUS
Isaac paid dearly for his unkindness. Richard landed a cavalry of 110 knights and 600 armed soldiers on the island, and within a day the camp of Komnenos (on the site where the castle of Kolossi was later built) was defeated. Komnenos, saving his life, fled to Nicosia.
On May 12, 1191, Richard entered Limassol victorious. On the same day, in the church of St. George, in the castle of Limassol, he was married to Princess Berengaria of Navarre. You can immediately add, dispelling popular myths, that the marriage of Richard and Berengaria was not a happy one. Richard was more interested in military victories, and the couple spent little time together. In addition, according to one version, Richard was a homosexual. Berengaria was in poor health, did not live long and died without leaving a single heir.

RICHARD DOES NOT FORGIVE!
Immediately after the wedding, Richard began the pursuit of Isaac Komnenos, who at that time was hastily pulling up infantry and cavalry detachments to the Mesaoria valley. Richard reached Kiti (now the region of Larnaca), then Famagusta, which, without meeting resistance, he took without a fight, and finally went to Nicosia. On the way, he met the army of Komnenos, which he defeated due to numerical superiority. And after the victory of Richard in the battle near the village of Trimifus, the lot of Cyprus was decided. Nicosia was taken virtually without a fight, after which Richard went to the castle of St. Hilarion.
Soon, Richard's troops captured the castle in Kerinia, where the wife and daughter of Isaac Komnenos were taken prisoner - they were sent there by order of the Byzantine governor, since he was sure that his family would be in this castle. complete security. Richard pursued Isaac himself to the castle of Kantara, where he finally took him prisoner. By the end of May 1191, all the main castles of the island, which played a major role in the defense of Cyprus from foreign invasions, were taken by Richard's troops; The island came under the control of the King of England.
Thus ended the power of the Byzantine Empire in Cyprus. At the end of June 1191, on his way to Syria, Richard took with him the chained Comnenus. He was taken to a castle near Tripoli, where he died of exhaustion in 1195. Isaac Comnenus was costly by his unkindness. And Cyprus became a transshipment base for the crusaders, which was not threatened by raids.

Beginning of the Frankish period

The capture of Cyprus in 1191 by the English king Richard the Lionheart changed the political, social and cultural life of the island in many ways. But soon Richard sold Cyprus to the spiritual and knightly order of the Templars.

KNIGHTS OF THE TEMPLE OF THE LORD
Knights of Christ, or templars - that's what they called themselves. This French order was a group of knights in the service of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. The main purpose of the establishment of the order was the military protection of the states created by the crusaders in the East. The order had broad ecclesiastical and legal privileges bestowed personally by the Pope. He had a special status - not only a secular organization, but also a spiritual one, and therefore attempts to seize the property of the order were considered sacrilegious.
The Templars also received significant rights to dispose of their land from the monarchs, in whose territories the knights of this order lived. In addition, the Templars received from the Pope the right to engage in financial transactions, and thanks to this they conducted their commercial activities absolutely openly. Historians say that no medieval organization did more to advance capitalism. As a result, the Templars possessed huge tracts of land, the income from which allowed the order to well equip their knights.
Looking ahead, it should be noted that the order of the Templars cost dearly his wealth. The successful financial activities of the order caused envy among many, and powers of the world they longed to seize his possessions. At the end of the thirteenth century french king Philip IV, being a major debtor of the order and experiencing an acute shortage of money, started an intrigue.
As a pretext, he used a fake denunciation of the activities of the order. Insisting on an investigation into the state of affairs in the order, Philip began secret negotiations with the Pope. The pope, in turn, not wanting to spoil relations with the king of France, agreed to an investigation, especially since the alarmed Templars did not dare to object to the investigation.
In the autumn of 1307, by order of the Royal Council, all the knights templars who were in France were arrested. The operation was carried out in the strictest secrecy: royal officials, commanders of military detachments and even local inquisitors did not know until the very last moment what they had to do, since the orders came in sealed packages.
Philip behaved as if he was acting with the full consent of the Pope. And the Pope allegedly found out about this action only after it had been completed. It is hard to imagine that the fact of the arrest of such a powerful order could be hidden from the Pope himself. Although it is quite possible to assume that this was part of a conspiracy, and with the help of such non-intervention, the Pope simply “washed his hands”.
Using the power of the Holy Inquisition, under whose accusations any person could fall in those days, regardless of the position, authority and influence held, the arrested knights were charged with numerous crimes against religion and morality: blasphemy, renunciation of Christ, the cult of the devil, dissolute life, various perversions. During interrogations, the Templars were brutally tortured, thanks to which the inquisitors invariably obtained the necessary testimony.
In May 1308, Philip IV urgently convened the Estates General, the highest representative institution of the estates, in order, with their support, to neutralize any objections of the Pope. Formally, at the meeting, a decision was made about who would judge the Templars, but in essence it was only about one thing - who would inherit their wealth.
The Templars were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment and imprisonment in monasteries. The leaders of the order protested, denying all accusations, and claimed that their holy order was still pure before God and people. If they had admitted their “guilt”, then most likely they would have got off with church repentance and deprivation of dignity, but, having declared their complete innocence, they doomed themselves to a painful execution as malicious and unrepentant heretics.
Witnesses of the terrible times when the Holy Inquisition ruled in Europe tell that high clerics were drugged or even suffocated before being burned to drown out the pain from cruel torment when they were burned alive. But for the leaders of the order, none of this was done, they experienced all the torment in full. In their notes, witnesses of the events say that de Molay, the last Grand Master of the Knights Templar, until the last minute of his life, furiously shouted about his innocence, cursed the King and the Pope and called them to the Last Judgment.

SALE OF THE ISLAND
So, in 1191, shortly after the capture of the island, Richard sells Cyprus to the Knights Templar. This capture was accidental - it happened only because of the reckless impoliteness of the Byzantine governor of the island, Isaac Komnenos. That is why Richard decided to sell - he understood that it would be difficult for him to manage the island without being on it. In addition, he needed funds for a crusade. Raising money to equip his army and navy, he sold government positions and lands. He even sold the sovereignty of Scotland. He never liked London for its stiffness, and especially for rainy weather, he never lived in the capital of his possessions. Richard, by the way, did not even know English! His native and favorite language was French. Without hiding his negative attitude towards London, he often said: "I will sell this city if I find a buyer!"
In 1191, without a moment's hesitation, he offered Cyprus to the templars. Quickly agreeing on a price - 100 thousand bazants - Richard took a deposit in the amount of 40 thousand and went to Palestine.

THE ORDER OF THE TEMPLAR IN CYPRUS
Having paid the deposit to Richard, the Templars hoped that they would be able to collect the remaining amount to pay off the debt from the inhabitants of the island. To do this, they had to significantly increase taxes. Tired of years of oppression by Isaac Komnenos, who had just survived another war, the Cypriots were outraged. And therefore, in April 1192, a rebellion broke out on the island. Historians claim that this was practically the first rebellion that the Cypriots, accustomed to a change of power, raised in the entire history of the island. Apparently the tax was really exorbitant, and the cup of patience was overflowing.
The rebellion was brutally suppressed: the crusaders staged such a massacre on the island that those who managed to stay alive quickly realized the futility of the struggle. For the knights, it became obvious that in this way the debt could not be repaid. Therefore, the Templars decided to demand that Richard cancel the contract. Richard agreed, the island was returned to him again, but the English king was in no hurry to return the money - he probably didn’t have them anymore.

NEW RULER OF THE ISLAND
And then, quite unexpectedly, a buyer was found. They became Guy de Lusignan, a native of the French county of Poitou, who married the heiress of the throne of Jerusalem Sibylla and in 1186 was proclaimed king of Jerusalem. However, after the death of his wife Sibylla (in October 1190), due to palace intrigues, Lusignan was left king without a kingdom. The deposed king bought the island from Richard for twice the sum of the Templars. So in a short time the English king managed to sell Cyprus twice. The beginning of the Frankish period in Cyprus turned out to be so stormy.

Frankish period: Catholicism and the Hospitallers

DISCHANGEMENT OF THE CHURCH OF CYPRUS
Changes in the Cypriot Church began even before the Crusaders arrived on the island: in 1054, the Cypriot Church was divided into the western, Roman Catholic, and the eastern, Orthodox. In fact, the differences between the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople began long before that. In 1053, by order of Patriarch Michael Cirularius of Constantinople, the Latin churches in Constantinople were closed, and his saccelarius (one of the church positions in the district of the Patriarch of Constantinople) threw the Holy Gifts prepared from unleavened bread from the tabernacles and trampled them underfoot.
In 1054, Pope Leo IX sent personal representatives - legates - to Constantinople to resolve the conflict. The path to reconciliation could not be found, and the representatives of the Pope announced the deposition of Michael Cirularius and his excommunication from the Church. He, in turn, anathematized—cursed—the legates. By the way, this split has not been overcome to this day, but mutual curses were lifted, although after several centuries - in 1965.
The reasons for the split were ritual, dogmatic, ethical and aesthetic differences between Western, Latin Catholic, and Eastern, Greek Orthodox, traditions. The Eastern Church was mainly accused of violating Christian dogmas and rituals. In turn, for the Eastern Church, the main problem was the interpretation of the primacy of the Roman Apostolic Church, which was assigned the primacy "by honor": approximately from the 8th century, the popes began to pursue the idea of ​​their primacy "by divine right" - that is, the idea of ​​their highest sole authority over the entire Church. In fact, the cause of the church schism was the struggle for power.
When the Frankish Catholics came to Cyprus, Catholicism was adopted as the official religion of the Cypriot kingdom and began to be actively planted among the locals. Many Greek priests were expelled from the cities, and churches and monasteries were occupied by Catholics. It was one of the most difficult periods for the Orthodox Christians of the island. Even when Cyprus was captured by the Turks and became part of the Ottoman Empire (1571), the Cypriot Orthodox Church did not experience such oppression.
Despite the hardships experienced, most Cypriots retained their faith. For several centuries, the ruling Catholic elite of the island - knights and nobility - made considerable efforts to convert the people to Catholicism, but despite this, the Orthodox locals continued to speak Greek and remained true to their old traditions. Having survived a long period of persecution, the Cypriots only strengthened their identity.
This period left a paradoxical trace in the history of Cyprus. For several centuries, two religious cultures existed in parallel on the island. Using their power, Catholics took away a huge number of churches from Christians and rebuilt them in accordance with Catholic canons. And today, visiting the ancient churches of the island, we can see the traces that the Catholics left in them many years ago: signs of the Lusignan dynasty over the entrances of some churches; Latin chapels added to Christian churches; frescoes left by Catholic masters.

ORDER OF HOSPITALERS IN CYPRUS
With the advent of Lusignan, other monastic orders settled on the island, in addition to the Templars. Perhaps the largest of them was the Order of the Knights of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem, or as it was also called the "Order of the Knights of the White Cross." Initially, the knights of this order - the Hospitallers - looked after the sick and wounded in the Crusades, and later took part in wars with the Muslim states of the Middle East. In 1210 the order was presented with vast lands In Cyprus. The residence of the order was in Limassol, which also became part of their possessions. Here, according to the tradition of the order, a hotel for the poor was founded. The Hospitallers also defended pilgrims in the courts, who, even after the fall of Jerusalem, did not stop visiting the Holy Land. The Hospitallers took an active part in the battles with the pirates, who in those days were atrocious throughout the Mediterranean. In these battles, the knights managed to capture rich booty, multiplying the state of the order. Gradually, the Order of the White Cross strengthened its position at sea, spreading its influence far beyond the borders of Cyprus.
According to the feudal order that prevailed on the island, the hospitallers had to pay tribute and carry out military service. This dependence began to irritate the top leadership of the order, disagreements began between the knights and the Lusignans, whom the growing power of the order began to inspire fear. And in 1307 the headquarters of the Hospitallers was moved from Cyprus to Rhodes, which they captured. But the vast possessions in Cyprus, which increased significantly after the fall of the Knights Templar, continued to belong to the Knights of the White Cross.

Since 1308, the Kolossi castle, confiscated from the Templars, was also in the possession of the order, which received its name in honor of the man who ruled the castle in 1205-1218. His name was Garinus de Colos. The lands surrounding this castle have always been very fertile. Sugarcane, grapes, wheat, cotton, olives were grown here, a full-flowing river flowed here. The Hospitallers also received the right to grind flour in the mills of the Kolossi region, and use the waters of the local river for irrigation. In those days, the Kolossi region was considered prosperous and consisted of about 60 villages!
And although by that time the order had already moved its headquarters from Cyprus, the knights continued to manage their armed units, the Commandery, located in the Kolossi castle area. It must be admitted that the order played a significant role in the development of the Kolossi region. By the way, it was he who first began to export Cypriot wines outside the island. And the sweet red wine produced in the area is called "Commandaria" - in honor of the military detachments living there. This amazing wine was shipped to England in large quantities. Very soon Commandaria fell in love with the English kings, and since then, references to Cypriot wines have often been found in historical sources.
In the territories adjacent to the castle of Kolossi, there were sugar cane plantations. Water for irrigation was taken from the nearby Kuris River. The right to water became a bone of contention between the Venetians who came to the island and the knights of the Order of the Hospitallers. This strife reached its climax in 1468. The new queen of Cyprus, Catherine Cornaro, with a stroke of the pen, deprived the order of all privileges and possessions on the island. The Hospitallers were forced to finally move to Rhodes.

The sad end of the Frankish period

Back in 1190, having captured Cyprus along the way, Richard went to the East. He was greeted with enthusiasm by the crusaders, whose path was blocked by the troops of Saladin. Richard drove them off, after which he led the siege of Acre with such vigor that the Muslim garrison capitulated without Saladin's permission. Almost the entire Muslim population of the city was slaughtered, and Acre became Christian. But a hundred years later, in 1291, Acre was again captured by the Egyptian Mamluks. As a result, Cyprus remained the only outpost of Christianity in the East.

Middle of the 14th century. Gradually, the crusaders lose all the lands that they managed to conquer in the East. Cyprus becomes the last stronghold and main military base in the struggle of Catholics against Muslims. Pope Nicholas V is well aware of the importance of the island in this confrontation, by order even a special indulgence is issued for the soldiers taking part in the battles for Cyprus! According to the catechism of the Catholic Church, an indulgence is "the remission before God of a temporary punishment for sins for which the guilt has already been blotted out."

PETER I OF CYPRUS
The talented, cruel, prone to political adventures, the Cypriot king Peter or Pierre I de Lusignan, (1328 - 1369), tried to lead the struggle of Catholic Europe with the increasingly powerful Muslim world. He put a lot of effort into trying to raise the rulers of Europe for another crusade. Without waiting for significant help, in 1365 Peter, relying only on his own strength and little help from Venice, took Alexandria. His talent was enough to capture and plunder the city, but he failed to keep it. During the looting in the captured Alexandria, the Venetian merchants suffered first of all, so Peter was soon abandoned by the allies.
But the failure did not cool the passions of Peter, and for several more years he tried to persuade Europe to rise to the crusade. Being a greedy and cruel man, leading a dissolute life, the Cypriot king Peter I had more enemies than friends. He was eventually killed in a conspiracy. Peter met death in his own bed at La Cava Palace in Nicosia on January 17, 1369.
Despite the bad reputation, European poets sang the courage and courage of this Cypriot king. Mentions of him are found in the works of the French poet Villon and the "father of English poetry" Chaucer. The name of the Cypriot king Peter I is mentioned even in the Russian chronicles of that time.

FAMAGUSTA - COMMERCE AND CULTURAL CENTER
Despite the difficulties associated with almost continuous hostilities, trade in Cyprus during this period reaches its highest point in its development. Since the lands in the Middle East were lost to the Europeans, Cyprus becomes the last resort for them. eastern point and serves as a trade center between East and West. During this period, wine, sugar, silk and brocade fabrics are exported from Cyprus. Merchants from Pisa, Genoa, Venice and Barcelona send their ships to the shores of the island.
Due to its geographical position and the presence of a port, Famagusta becomes the main city of Cyprus. At that time, Famagusta was not inferior in luxury and standard of living even to Constantinople and Alexandria, and the wealth of its merchants was estimated, in comparable prices, in millions of dollars.
Wealth and success have often become the subject of envy and the cause of dramatic events in history. The prosperity of Cyprus aroused the jealousy of Venice and Genoa, the European trading powers. In order to somehow justify their invasion of the island, the Venetians started an intrigue: in fact, from scratch, they kindled a passionate dispute about who would take first place at the coronation ceremony of the Cypriot king Peter II. The stupid dispute turned into bloody clashes between the Venetian and Genoese communities. In this conflict, the Cypriot king imprudently took the side of the instigators of the conflict - the Venetians.
Literally a year later, the "offended" Genoese captured Famagusta. Representatives of the Cypriot authorities - the Lusignans - were forced to make concessions to the Genoese. A peace treaty was signed, according to which the Cypriot kingdom was obliged to pay the Genoese several million gold coins, while the invaders received trade monopolies on extortionate terms for the island.
But even this was not enough for the Genoese! Under the pretext of controlling the timely payment of the "debt", the Genoese seized judicial, administrative, and at the same time military power in Famagusta. Their rule in the city lasted almost a century (1373-1464). The rule of the Genoese and the political failure of the heirs of the Lusignan dynasty (Kings Peter I and Peter II) weakened trade and led to the weakening of the kingdom as a whole.
This weakness was soon exploited by the Egyptians. Having entered into a secret agreement with the Genoese, they made three predatory campaigns against Cyprus. As a result, the Cypriot army was defeated, the Cypriot king was captured, and the island was heavily taxed. This was the last straw of patience for the inhabitants of Cyprus - in 1427, an uprising broke out on the island. And although it was brutally suppressed by the royal troops, the rulers of the island were forced to rethink what happened to the Cypriot kingdom as a result of their strategic and political mistakes, and tried to correct them.

THE LAST OF THE LUSIGNAN DYNASTY
In 1464, as a result of tough and decisive actions, the Cypriot king, the last ruler of the island from the Lusignan dynasty, James II, expelled the Genoese from the island. But the power of the kingdom is undermined and Jacob needs allies. Therefore, he proposes to the then very young daughter of a noble Venetian - fourteen-year-old Caterina Cornaro. One of the main conditions of the marriage contract was the following clause: if the spouses do not have heirs, power over the island will pass to Venice.
Less than a year after the wedding of Katerina and Jacob, the Cypriot king suddenly dies. Pregnant Katerina becomes a widow. A year later, under strange circumstances, her newborn son dies. Many historians believe that all these events were planned and organized by the Venetians.
However, according to the terms of the marriage contract, from that moment the Venetians begin to rule the island. When Katerina was constantly there were several henchmen from Venice, who gave her "advice" regarding her every action and actually ruled the state. The Venetian fleet was ready to defend the interests of Cyprus at any moment, and in 1489, as a result of pressure and “persuasion”, Katerina signed the official abdication of the Cypriot throne in favor of the Venetian Republic. For this, she was given Aloso Castle, where she spent the rest of her sad life.
Caterina Cornaro is still considered one of the most prominent daughters of Venice. Although in reality she was just a pawn in the political intrigues of the rulers of that time. And her payment for this was very high - the death of her husband, the death of her only child and dreary loneliness until the end of her days.

End of the Venetian period

1489. Catherine Cornaro abdicates the throne in favor of the Republic of Venice. Cyprus is entering a new, perhaps one of the most difficult periods in its history - under the Venetian rule, almost all resources were pumped out of the island. Venetian rule ended in 1571 when the island was captured by the Turks and became part of the Ottoman Empire.

The main task of the Venetians in Cyprus was to ensure the unhindered movement of Venetian ships in the eastern Mediterranean. For this, the most severe control was established over the island. The Venetians exported wheat, barley, sugar, cotton, wine and olive oil from Cyprus. They mainly used the port of Famagusta, and later Larnaca. Due to the proximity of the Aliki salt lake, the Venetians exported salt in large quantities from the port of Larnaca.
Without caring at all about the development and prosperity of the island, the Venetian governors took everything they could from Cyprus. The dissatisfaction of the local residents increased, and the Cypriots began to leave the island. According to some sources, only 150-170 thousand people remained in Cyprus by the middle of the 16th century!

RELATIONS WITH THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

In the 15th century, the situation in the Mediterranean became more and more tense: the Ottoman Empire was growing stronger, having already absorbed two European empires and several kingdoms. In 1514, Sultan Selim I occupied Persia, in 1516 Syria, and Egypt the following year. Between 1520 and 1566 The power of the Ottoman Empire is growing rapidly and reaches its zenith under the rule of Suleiman the Magnificent, who is considered the greatest sultan of the Ottoman dynasty.
After the capture of Egypt, the Venetians in Cyprus sounded the alarm. They pledged to pay tribute to the Mamluks, a military caste in medieval Islamic Egypt, hoping to pay off the Ottomans. But the result turned out to be completely opposite: from the moment the tribute was paid, the Ottomans began to look at Cyprus as their property.
At the same time, Sicilian pirates raged in the Mediterranean. Several times they attacked the Ottoman ships in the area of ​​Cyprus. At the same time, the Venetian rulers made no attempt to help the ships in trouble. Relations between Cyprus and the Ottomans were also complicated by the rulers of Venice: in 1563, on their orders, several Ottoman ships were captured.
As a result of all these events, it became obvious that one day the Turks would come to Cyprus. And then the Venetian rulers began to strengthen the cities of the island.

BASTIONS OF NICOSIA
Around 1560, the engineer Giulio Savorgnano was sent to the island from Venice. Having studied the fort of Nicosia, built back in the Middle Ages by King Pier II, Savorgnano in his report to Venice writes that the walls of the fort do not meet the requirements of modern fortifications and are not able to withstand artillery shells.
Soon Savorgnano was appointed chief engineer for the renovation of the old fort of Nicosia in accordance with the latest military achievements of that time. Grandiose construction was launched around the old city, the result of which was a five-kilometer stone wall with eleven bastions. These bastions were named after the main families of the Italian aristocracy who lived in the city at that time and donated funds for the construction of walls and three gates: Porta San Domenico (Paphos Gate), Porta Guiliana (Famagusta Gate), and Porta del Proveditore (Kyrenia Gate) .
The Venetians had to demolish several churches and palaces inside the city, as well as buildings outside the new walls. So they received additional building materials and made it possible to prevent a possible enemy attack. The moat and rampart built back in the Middle Ages were also changed: even the river flowing near Nicosia was diverted to fill the moat that surrounded the new walls with its water.
Another engineer from Venice, Nicholas Dandolo, completed the construction of a fort in Nicosia: Savorgnano was urgently called to his homeland to build other military facilities. Experts of that time recognized the walls of Fort Nicosia as an example of military architecture of the 16th century. The design combined various cutting-edge technologies at the time, marking the beginning of a renaissance era in fortification design. It was recognized that placing the gates close to the bastions made it possible to better defend the gates themselves in times of siege. The upper half of the wall remained unlined with stone - this increased its ability to withstand the blows of cannon shots.
But all the efforts of architects and builders were in vain. Under the onslaught of countless Ottoman hordes in 1570, the city fell. The Turks, led by Lal Mustafa Pasha, took Nicosia before the Venetians had time to complete the construction.

FORT FAMAGUSTA

ATTACK OF THE TURKS ON CYPRUS
1570. The Turkish Sultan Selim II sent the first expeditionary force of Lal Mustafa Pasha to the island. Selim did not wait for the official response of the Venetians to the written demand of the Turkish rulers to transfer the island to the Ottoman Empire. As soon as he sent the letter, he took decisive action almost immediately.
The troops of Mustafa Pasha did not meet resistance from the inhabitants - the Cypriots refused to fight for the Venetian rulers, who made life on the island unbearable. Almost all Cypriot cities and settlements were surrendered to the Turks, and the Venetians were expelled from the island.

The beginning of the Ottoman period in Cyprus

In January 1570, the representative of Venice in Istanbul was summoned to the Grand Vizier Mehmet Pasha. During the audience, the Turkish Sultan announced that he considered Cyprus to be a historically integral part of the Ottoman Empire. Soon an ultimatum was sent to Venice: either Venice would surrender Cyprus voluntarily, or the Ottoman Empire would take the island from her by force. This was followed by mass arrests of Venetian merchants and the seizure of their ships in the harbour. The Venetians were at a loss: quite recently, Venice and the Ottoman Empire concluded a peace treaty, and suddenly the Turkish sultan wants to break it. Venice announced that it was she who was the mistress of Cyprus, and her inhabitants had enough courage to defend the island.
Immediately after this, requests for help were sent to all Christian states, but the appeals of Venice did not arouse enthusiasm. The emperor Maximilian had a truce signed with the Turks, and he did not want to break it; Catherine de' Medici also referred to her treaty with the Sultan; Sebastian I - King of Portugal - referred to urgent matters in the East; four of the five ships offered by the Knights of Malta were captured by the Turks almost immediately after leaving the port of Malta; Queen Elizabeth I of England was not asked for help because she was excommunicated. Only Pope Pius V equipped a dozen ships to help the Venetians in Cyprus, and King Philip II of Spain offered to send a fleet of 50 ships.
But the Christian expedition did not work out. For two months, the Venetian Captain-General Girolamo Zane was waiting for the Spanish and Papal squadron near Zara. During this time, many of his sailors died from the epidemic. The Spanish admiral, under various pretexts, was postponing the release of his squadron to the sea. Only in August 1570 did Spanish ships approach the island.

THE ISLAND CONQUERATION BY THE TURKS
When Mustafa Pasha's ground troops entered Cyprus in 1570, the Cypriots did not defend the Venetian rulers - the locals endured too much and lost much in almost a hundred years of their rule. All villages and cities were surrendered with little or no resistance. The Turks attacked Limassol. Having plundered the city, they went to Larnaca, where they landed unhindered on the shore. Only two cities - Nicosia and Famagusta - around which the Venetians managed to build fortifications, did not want to leave their positions.
The siege of Nicosia lasted a month and a half. After fifteen powerful attacks during a 45-day siege, the city fell. When the Turks broke into the capital of the island, they brutally cracked down on the defenders - the Venetian soldiers and those who supported them. The commandants of the fortress of Kerinia, having learned about the massacre in Nicosia, decided to surrender without a fight.
Lala Mustafa Pasha sent a messenger with a call to surrender to the commanders of the last Venetian fortress that did not surrender - Famagusta. For greater persuasiveness, the severed head of the commandant of Nicosia, Nicolo Dandolo, was attached to the letter. The commandant of the fortress, Marcantonio Bragadino, refused to surrender the city. For almost nine months, despite the complete surrender of the island, Famagusta resisted the Turks.

THE HEROIC RESISTANCE OF FAMAGUSTA
This story has left an indelible mark on the hearts of the inhabitants of the island. The powerful walls of the fort, erected by Venetian craftsmen, and the decisive attitude of the defenders of the city played a decisive role in protecting Famagusta from the Ottoman conquerors. The Turks attacked the city both from land and from the sea. Provisions and ammunition were running out in the city, famine and epidemics began. There was nothing to hope for - the Turks ruled the whole island. But Famagusta kept the siege, and the soldiers did not leave their posts.
Tired of fruitless attacks, the Turks summoned the commandant of the Bragadino fortress for negotiations. They offered him a deal: since the defenders of the fortress would not be able to keep the siege indefinitely, the Turks promised life to the defenders and the inhabitants of Famagusta in exchange for the surrender of the city without a fight. Returning to the fortress and conferring with the soldiers, Bragadino ordered the gates of the city to be opened.
On the same evening, the Turks gathered the inhabitants and defenders of Famagusta in the main square, killed the soldiers of Bragadino in front of everyone, and skinned the commander himself alive. Local residents were ordered to leave the city immediately. Having collected their belongings, the townspeople left the beautiful Famagusta and right outside its walls founded a new village, giving it the name Varosha. And the Turks settled in the walls of the ancient city from the end of the 16th century.

CONSOLIDATION OF CHRISTIAN WORLD
The most brutal massacre perpetrated by the Turks in Famagusta, and terrible death the courageous commandant of the fortress Marcantonio Bragadino shocked not only the Cypriots, but the entire Christian world. The failure of the naval expedition of 1570 was a great blow and humiliation to both Venice and the papacy. Pius V called an assembly to issue a charter for a new Holy League. The states that signed the treaty undertook to equip 200 galleys, 100 transport ships, prepare 50,000 infantry and 4,500 cavalry, as well as artillery and equipment in the required quantity. Meanwhile, the Turks sent their troops into the Adriatic and had already begun to land their soldiers on Corfu and the coast of Dalmatia.
On October 7, 1571, the United Fleet of the Holy League utterly defeated the Turkish fleet at Lepanto. The victory of the Holy League over the Turks off the coast of Greece shocked Europe. The Turkish fleet, far outnumbering the Christian fleet, was utterly defeated. This victory was perceived only as a miracle that happened with the support of divine forces.
However, this brilliant victory could not fundamentally change the situation: the strength of the Ottoman Empire was too great. And soon Venice was forced to sign an agreement according to which Cyprus became part of the Ottoman Empire. Moreover, Venice pledged to pay the Turks 300,000 gold ducats.

THE DEFEAT OF CHRISTIAN EUROPE
Cyprus remained the last stronghold of Europe in the Eastern Mediterranean. After the island was surrendered to the Turks, the fate of Rhodes, Crete and the Ionian Islands was sealed. And Turkish troops, after five hundred years of rivalry with Christendom, have already begun to invade Central Europe. The war of Christians for the shrines of Jerusalem and the riches of the Eastern Mediterranean was lost.

The Cypriot clergy resolutely supported the coming of the Ottoman Empire to Cyprus and in every possible way fueled such sentiments among the parishioners of the Cypriot Christian Church. There was only one reason for this: under the rule of Cyprus by the Lusignan Catholics, the Cypriot Orthodox clergy lost their influence - the Christian Catholic Church had the reins of government. With the arrival of Muslims on the island, the Cypriot Orthodox Church, according to the calculation of the priests, was to take a leading place among the Christians of the island.

HOW THE CYPRUS clergy miscalculated
The Roman Catholic Latin Church was a longtime enemy of the Ottomans, who believed that the territories of the Eastern Mediterranean did not historically belong to it. At the same time, it was Roman Catholics who became a real obstacle to the expansion of the Ottoman Empire in these areas. Therefore, the Turks chose the following strategy: they decided to raise the status of the Orthodox Christian Church in the territories they captured and force the Catholics to either accept the Orthodox or Islamic faith, or expel them from the territories of the Eastern Mediterranean once and for all.
The rulers of the Ottoman Empire shared their plans with the leaders of the Cypriot Orthodox clergy. And, having enlisted their support, with virtually no resistance from the local residents, with whom the local priests had carried out preliminary propaganda work, they were able to capture most of Cyprus (

The history of Cyprus is the oldest recorded in the world. Since ancient times, the historical significance of Cyprus has exceeded the small size of the island. Its favorable geographical position at the crossroads of Europe, Asia and Africa, as well as significant reserves of copper and timber from ancient times made the island a very tasty morsel for conquerors.

Around 9000 B.C. e. only pygmy elephants and hippos lived in Cyprus (archaeologists have found the corresponding bone remains).

The first signs of human civilization appeared in the 3rd millennium BC. Copper was discovered, bringing wealth to the island and making trade possible. Starting around 3500 B.C. a process began that gave Cyprus the individuality that it still keeps - the arrival on the island of the Mycenaean-Achaean Greeks for a permanent settlement, who brought their language and culture with them. Subsequently, Cyprus was conquered by various nations, but, despite this, managed to maintain its individuality, language and culture. Turkish Cypriots came to the island much later. They are the descendants of the Ottomans who conquered the island for more than three hundred years between the 16th and 19th centuries and certainly contributed to the culture of Cyprus.

Brief historical overview

Neolithic period (8200 - 3900 BC)

The first settlements of ancient people discovered in Cyprus date back to the Neolithic era. The settlement of the early Neolithic era in the village of Khirokitia in the vicinity of Larnaca has been well preserved to this day.

Chalcolithic period (3900 - 2500 BC)

The transitional period between the Stone and Bronze Ages. Most of the Chalcolithic settlements have been found in the western part of Cyprus. A cult of fertility was developed. Copper was discovered and used on a small scale.

Bronze Age (2500 - 1050 BC)

Copper is used more intensively, bringing wealth to Cyprus. Trade develops with the Middle East, Egyptians and Aegeans, where Cyprus was known as Alasia.

Inhabitants mainland Greece(Mycenaeans) and the Cretans bring their writing to Cyprus, from which the Cypriot-Minoan syllabic script arises, which remains undeciphered to this day. Around 1200 BC the mass arrival of the Achaean Greeks led to the spread of the Greek language, religion and customs on the island - the Hellenization of the island. The first city-states were founded - Paphos, Salamis, Kition and Kourion.

Geometric period (1050 - 750 BC)

Cyprus is a Greek island with ten city-states - Salamis, Kition, Amaphunta, Kourion, Idalion, Palea Paphos, Marion, Soli and Tamassos. The island has a thriving cult of the goddess Aphrodite, born here according to legend. The technology of making iron was discovered (transition to the Iron Age). The geometric period (ceramics at that time was mainly decorated with drawings of geometric figures) of the Iron Age coincided in time with the arrival of the Phoenicians in Cyprus and their capture of Kition.

Archaic and classical periods (750 - 310 BC)

At the beginning of the archaic period (750-480 BC), the Assyrians captured Cyprus. During the entire period of their reign, the Cypriot city-states retained their independence as long as they could pay tribute to the Assyrian governor. After many years of Assyrian rule, Cyprus was captured by the Egyptian pharaoh Amasis. Then formally Cyprus became part of the Persian Empire, but largely retained its independence. During the period when Evagoras ruled in Salomina (411-374 BC), Cyprus became a major political and cultural center of Hellas. The Persians lost control of Cyprus when Alexander the Great began his campaign to the east.

Hellenistic period (310 - 30 BC)

After the death of Alexander the Great, Ptolemy, one of his commanders, became the ruler of Cyprus. The Ptolemies used Cyprus mainly as a military base, and also exported copper, ship timber, olives and wheat from the island. Paphos becomes the capital instead of Salamis.

Roman period (30 BC - 330 AD)

The beginning of Roman rule in Cyprus is formally dated to 58 BC, but in reality Cyprus became dependent on the Roman Empire only in 30 BC. The Romans ruled the island for 300 years. The economy of Cyprus during this period developed dynamically due to active trade. The most important event in the history of Cyprus during Roman rule was the baptism of the inhabitants of the island by the apostles Paul and Barnabas in 45 AD.

Throughout the 1st century BC. and 1st century AD strong earthquakes happened in Cyprus, destroyed cities were built anew.

Byzantine period (330 - 1191)

In 330, the capital of the Roman Empire was moved from Rome to Constantinople, and Christianity became the official state religion. In 395 the Roman Empire collapsed. Cyprus became part of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium), which existed from the 4th to the 15th centuries. New cities were built in Cyprus, many old settlements were destroyed by earthquakes. The capital of Cyprus was moved from Paphos to Salamis (Constantia), next to which in the 7th century. the new city of Famagusta (Ammochostos) appeared. Amathunta remained a major center, a new city was built nearby - Neapolis (Nemesos), which during the reign of the Franks was renamed Lemesos. On the site of the ancient city of Lidra, a new city of Lefkosia (Nicosia) arose. It became the capital of Cyprus in the 11th-12th centuries.

The Byzantine period was marked by the flourishing of church art, which combined Greco-Roman and Eastern traditions. The first churches on the island were built on the model of Roman basilicas (elongated buildings with arched vaults and aisles, separated by a row of columns). The most significant examples of architecture are the early Christian wooden basilicas decorated with frescoes (the Basilica of Chrysopolitissa in Kato Paphos, the church of Campanopetra in Constantia, the temple of the Holy Trinity in Yalus, the monastery of Panagia Kanakaria on the Karpasia peninsula, the church in Kourion, the basilica of St. George in the village of Peyia).

Arab attacks on Cyprus began in 648-649. and continued until 965, when the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros Phocas defeated them in a decisive battle. Forts and forts were built along the Pentadaktylos mountain range (Saint Hilarion Castle, Bufavento Castle and Kantara Castle), the monasteries of Kykkos, Machairas and Saint Neophytos.

Richard the Lionheart and the Templars (1191 - 1192)

In 1191, the English king Richard the Lionheart captured Cyprus. The island was a strategically important facility for supplying troops participating in the Third Crusade (theThird Crusade). In Cyprus, the wedding of Richard and his bride Berengaria, Princess of Navarre (Berengaria of Navarre), who accompanied him on a military campaign, took place. Realizing how difficult it will be to control the island, Richard sells it for one hundred thousand dinars to the Knights Templar, who abandoned Cyprus after the uprising that took place on the island. Richard later sold Cyprus to the Frenchman Guy de Lusignan, former King of Jerusalem. Lusignan became the founder of the royal dynasty in Cyprus.

Frankish (Lusignan) period (1192 - 1489)

A feudal system was established on the island, Catholicism became the official religion. Cyprus produced and exported sugar, wines, agricultural products. Weaving crafts and the art of embroidery flourished, and a lot of ceramics was produced. The most famous examples of Gothic architecture dating back to the reign of the Franks are the Church of Hagia Sophia in Nicosia, the Cathedral of St. Nicholas in Famagusta, Bellapais Abbey.

Venetian period (1489 - 1571)

The last queen of Cyprus, Caterina Cornaro, widow of King James II (Jacques II of Lusignan) and sister of the Venetian nobleman Andreas Cornaro, abdicated in 1489. Cyprus became part of the Venetian Republic.

The main exports during this period were wheat, barley, sugar, cotton, wine, and olive oil. For the export of products from the island, the port of Famagusta was mainly used. Toward the end of the Venetian rule, Larnaca became the main port of Cyprus. From there, the salt mined on the island was exported. The port of Limassol gradually developed.
The Venetians sensed a threat to their dominance over Cyprus in 1522 when the Ottoman Empire captured the island of Rhodes. Fortification walls were built around Nicosia and the fortress of Famagusta was fortified. To this day, Othello's Tower stands on the seashore.

Ottoman period (1571 - 1878)

The Ottoman period in the history of Cyprus began in 1571 after the capture of Famagusta by the Turks. The Venetians were expelled and Muslim settlements first appeared in Cyprus. The 30,000th garrison of the Ottoman Empire was stationed in Cyprus, almost the same number of Turks were resettled to the island from Turkey. (The island was a place of exile, as it was considered the most unhealthy place in the empire.) Thus, a significant Muslim, mainly Turkic-speaking, community appeared on the island. Institutes of Muslim spiritual culture began to function - mosques, madrasahs, zawiyas. Over time, the Muslim community began to increase due to the conversion of Christian Cypriots. The Greeks and Turks of the island lived separately and had their own administrative bodies, headed, respectively, by the Orthodox and Muslim clergy. From the end of the 18th century, national self-consciousness began to awaken among the non-Muslim population, and the idea of ​​liberation from the “Turkocracy” became widespread. However, the Turkish authorities drowned in blood any manifestations of the liberation movement.
In the XVIII century. the processes of weakening the Ottoman Empire and improving the socio-economic situation of Cyprus began. The trade of the coastal cities of Cyprus with European countries expanded, consulates of various states were opened in Larnaca. The rapid growth of the urban population began, ties with continental Greece were strengthened, where in 1821 an independent Greek state appeared.

Period of British rule (1878-1960)

In 1878, Cyprus was leased by the Ottoman Empire to Great Britain. Formally, the island remained part of the Ottoman Empire and paid tribute to the Sultan's treasury. In fact, it became the possession of Great Britain.
British troops landed in Larnaca in May 1878. In 1888 a constitution was drafted. In Cyprus, limited self-government of the Greek and Turkish communities was established. The Greek Cypriots persistently sought to join Greece, enosis (Greek Ένωσις - union, unification), but Great Britain wanted to retain this strategically important area.

In November 1914, Turkey announced its entry into the First World War on the side of Germany, in turn, London announced the denunciation of the 1878 treaty and the annexation of Cyprus. Thus, the Cypriots became subjects of the British crown. The Lausanne Peace Treaty of 1923 formalized the annexation of Cyprus by England and Turkey's renunciation of all rights to the island.

Under the conditions of the Second World War, the colonial authorities went to soften the regime, and in 1943 municipal elections were held in Cyprus, in which the communists from the AKEL party (Progressive Party of the Working People of Cyprus (Greek: Ανορθωτικό Κόμμα Εργαζόμενου Λαού) - the communist party in Cyprus) achieved significant success established in 1941). The hopes of the Cypriots for independence in the post-war period did not materialize, as Britain still viewed Cyprus as an important strategic foothold in the Eastern Mediterranean. After attempts at a peaceful settlement of the Cyprus issue failed, the War of Independence began, which lasted until 1959.

On January 15, 1950, the leadership of the community and the Cypriot Orthodox Church organized a referendum on the issue of unification with Greece: the absolute majority of the island's population voted for the accession of Cyprus to Greece (95.7%), but the UK did not recognize the results of the referendum. Since 1954, the question of Cyprus, at the initiative of Greece, was raised in the UN, but its discussion was frustrated. Not having received a peaceful resolution of the conflict, the extreme wing of the Greek nationalists created the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (EOKA) (Greek Εθνική Οργάνωσις Κυπρίων Αγωνιστών, the Union of Fighters for the Liberation of the Nation of Cyprus) and in April 1955 began an armed partisan struggle for reunification with Greece.

Negotiations between the foreign ministers of Great Britain, Greece and Turkey on Cyprus ended inconclusively. The Turkish government demanded that the island be handed over to Turkey or divided between Greece and Turkey. In March 1956, negotiations between the British authorities and the leadership of the Greek community of Cyprus, headed by the archbishop of the Cypriot Orthodox Church, ended in vain, the bishops were arrested and sent to Seychelles. The colonial authorities launched an operation to suppress the national movement in Cyprus: the number of British troops on the island reached 30 thousand people, mass arrests were made.

The Foreign Ministers of Great Britain, Greece and Turkey met in February 1959 for a conference in Zurich, at which a preliminary Greek-Turkish agreement was signed. This was followed by a conference in London with the Prime Ministers of Great Britain, Greece and Turkey, as well as representatives of both communities of the island. As a result, an agreement was reached on granting political independence to Cyprus, subject to the self-government of the communities and guarantees from all three interested states. According to this agreement, England, Greece and Turkey are the guarantors of the "independence, territorial integrity and security" of Cyprus, which gives these countries the opportunity to interfere in its internal affairs ("Treaty of Guarantees"). In addition, Greece and Turkey received the right to maintain their military contingents on the island - 950 and 650 people, respectively. ("Treaty of Union"). England also retained under its full sovereignty the territory of the island with an area of ​​99 square meters. miles (158.4 sq. km), on which two large military bases are located - Dhekelia (east of Larnaca) and Akrotiri Episkopi (near Limassol), and also secured the right to use other "small plots" of the island and its infrastructure in connection with the activities of bases and facilities.
On December 13, 1959, Archbishop Makarios III, who returned from exile, was elected the first president of Cyprus. Parliamentary elections in July 1960 brought victory to his supporters, who formed the Patriotic Front. Turkish Cypriot Fazil Kuchuk became the vice-president of the island.

Republic of Cyprus, Turkish invasion, accession to the European Union (1960–present)

On August 16, 1960, the establishment of the Republic of Cyprus was proclaimed. Cyprus became a member of the UN, the British Commonwealth, the Council of Europe and the Non-Aligned Movement.

In 1963, the President of Cyprus proposed a series of amendments to the Cypriot constitution, which were rejected by both the leaders of the Turkish Cypriot community and Turkey. The Turkish Cypriots withdrew from the government of Cyprus and created an illegal Provisional Turkish Cypriot Government. As a result, in 1964, a conflict arose between the Turkish and Greek communities of the island, which led to the adoption by the UN Security Council of a decision to introduce its own peacekeeping forces to the island.

In 1974, the military junta that came to power in Greece staged a military coup in Cyprus to overthrow President Makarios. Türkiye, in turn, sent troops to the territory of Cyprus. On July 20, 1974, Turkish forces landed in Cyprus and occupied 36.2% of the island's territory. About 200 thousand Greek Cypriots became refugees. In 1974-75. almost all Turkish Cypriots moved to the part of Cyprus occupied by Turkish troops, and Greek Cypriots to the south of the island. The European Court of Human Rights found Turkey responsible for the violations of the rights of Greek Cypriots forced to leave their homes and lands in northern Cyprus.

The Turks occupy 36.2% of the island's territory, in its northern part, separated from the south by the Attila line (“Operation Attila” - this is the code name Turkey gave to the invasion of Cyprus). " Green Line» 180 km long ran from the city of Kokkina in the northwest to Famagusta in the east. The line dividing the island into two sectors is guarded by a contingent armed forces United Nations peacekeeping force in Cyprus (UNFICYP, ENG. UNICYP). Numerous Turkish settlers were brought to the north of Cyprus. These territories are part of the so-called "Turkish Federal State of Cyprus" (since 1983 - the "Turkish Republic northern Cyprus", from May 23, 2012 - "Turkish Republic of Cyprus"), not recognized by any country in the world, with the exception of Turkey. Despite the condemnation of Turkey's actions and the recognition of the rights of the indigenous people of Cyprus in the resolutions of the UN, the UN Security Council, the British Commonwealth, the Non-Aligned Movement and others international organizations, Turkish troops still occupy the northern part of the island.

In the course of negotiations on a settlement between the communities, it has not been possible to reach a compromise so far due to the different vision of the Cypriot federation by the parties.

On May 1, 2004 Cyprus became a full member of the European Union. A protocol is attached to the EU accession agreement for Cyprus, which provides that EU law will not apply in territories not controlled by the Cypriot government. This protocol will lose its force after the solution of the Cyprus problem. Since January 1, 2008, the Euro has been introduced in Cyprus to replace the Cypriot pound.

P The first traces of human civilization found by archaeologists in Cyprus date back to the beginning of the 7th millennium BC. The cities of Hirokitia and Tenta, founded by the ancient inhabitants of Cyprus, are among the oldest in Europe. Scientists know little about their inhabitants, but we can say for sure that they knew neither metal nor the potter's wheel and used mainly primitive tools made of wood, stone and bones.
At the end of the 5th millennium BC. artisans of the island began to actively produce clay products, building and agricultural technologies improved.
At the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC. copper products began to be produced in Cyprus. It is to this metal that the island owes its modern name (copper in Latin - kuprum). Very rich copper deposits were discovered on the island, from about 2000 BC. it began to be actively exported from the island, primarily by the Phoenicians, Egyptians and Greeks, in connection with which this region for a long time remained one of the largest centers of trade in the Mediterranean.
Thanks to its key location in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, at the crossroads of trade routes linking Europe, Asia and Africa, ancient Cyprus has always been in the sphere of interests of the leading world powers. IN different time the island was owned by the Greeks, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Persians, Romans, Byzantines, Crusaders, Venetians, Turks, British. However, culturally, Cyprus remained faithful to the Greeks, who were the first to bring civilization to the island.

Key moments in the history of Cyprus:
. 9000 - 7000 BC. The first traces of human presence on the island.
. 7000 - 3800 BC. Primitive agriculture originates and develops on the island. The first two city-states appear - on the northern and southern coasts.
. 5000 BC Around this time, the first pottery appeared in Cyprus.
. 3800 - 2500 BC. This period is marked by the transition from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. The first primitive products and ornaments made of bronze appear, and copper products are produced on a small scale.
. 2500 - 1050 BC. Cyprus is colonized by Greek tribes. The Hellenic culture is gradually being established on the island - the Greek language and religion are spreading, copper mining is growing, and there is an active trade with the Egyptians, Aegeans and other peoples.
. 1050 - 750 BC. The unprecedented prosperity of the island leads to the fact that neighboring powers begin to claim it. Cypriots are forced to pay tribute first to Assyria, then to Egypt and finally to Persia.
. 750 - 500 years. BC. The emergence and flourishing of city-states, the flowering of Hellenic culture. Persia, Assyria and Egypt continue their attempts to assert their dominance in the region.
. 500 - 333 BC. This period is marked by the dominion of Persia. The king of the city of Salamis, Evagor I, unites the cities of Cyprus to fight the Persian conquerors, but the union is defeated.
. 333 - 325 BC Cyprus becomes part of the empire of Alexander the Great. The kings of Cyprus join his army and take part in conquest campaigns.
. End of the 4th century BC. - 58 BC After the death of Alexander the Great, the Empire falls apart. Cyprus goes to the power of the Ptolemies of Egypt, who abolish the cities of the state and unite Egypt.
. 58 BC - 330 AD period of Roman rule. In 45 AD Apostle Paul baptized the ruler of Egypt, the Roman proconsul Sergius Paul.
. 332-395 Egypt is hit by a series of devastating earthquakes that have caused massive destruction and famine throughout the country. The Roman Empire splits into Western and Eastern empires. Cyprus is part of Byzantium. Christianity becomes the official religion of the island.
. 488 Byzantine Emperor Zeno grants autonomy to the Cypriot Orthodox Church.
. 649 - 964 This period is marked by constant raids by sea pirates and Arabs.
. 1191 Cyprus was conquered by the crusaders during the third crusade. English King Richard the Lionheart sells the island to the Knights Templar for 10,000 dinars. Soon they resell Cyprus to the King of Jerusalem, Guy de Lusignan.
. 1192 - 1489 The island belongs to the Frankish kings from the Lusignan dynasty. Catholicism becomes the state religion on the island, but the Orthodox Church remains.
. 1489 Queen of Cyprus Caterina Cornaro abdicates the Cypriot throne in favor of Venice, thus ending the period of the Lusignan dynasty.
. 1571 - 1878 period of Ottoman rule. The Catholic Church is being eradicated, while the Orthodox Church, on the contrary, is strengthening its positions. Despite the fact that the island was captured by the Ottomans, they were quickly assimilated by the Greek majority.
. 1878 An English protectorate is established in Cyprus, while the island officially remains part of the Ottoman Empire. After the outbreak of the First World War, the Allies annexed Cyprus.
. 1923 - 1925 Cyprus is declared a British colony.
. 1950 Under pressure from the Orthodox Church, the authorities are forced to hold a referendum, in which more than 96% of the island's population voted for the annexation of Cyprus to Greece.
. 1955 - 1959 The growth of the liberation movement, the emergence of EOKA - an underground organization that organized a series of armed uprisings against the British Raj.
. 1960 August 16, Cyprus was recognized as an independent state, which received membership in the UN, the Council of Europe and the British Commonwealth. At the same time, according to the Zurich-London Treaty, two British military bases remained on the island - in Dekeli and Akrotiri-Episkopi.
. 1974 A military coup takes place in Athens. Literally a few days later, the Turkish army invades the territory of Cyprus and occupies its northern part (37% of the total area). Turkish occupation of the island continues to this day.
. 1983 The Turkish Republic of Cyprus was proclaimed in the occupied territory. Until today, this state has not been recognized by any other state except Turkey.
. 2004 Cyprus joins the European Union. In fact, only the Greek part of the island is a member of the EU.