Medieval cities of the East: Arab, Indian, Chinese. Their differences from European cities. Economic prerequisites for the territorial organization of the population. The feudal city, its origin and economic role

Unlike most of Europe, the countries of the East in the Middle Ages experienced several invasions of nomadic peoples who, over time, perceive urban culture, but this happens almost anew every time. Therefore, in the end, the development of urban settlement in the East is much slower, and the connection with the ancient cities turns out to be closer. To the greatest extent, this is manifested in the formation of a network and principle I of the organization of Arab cities.

Arab conquests in the 7th-8th centuries. covered a huge territory from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. At the same time, most of the ancient cities in this territory I were destroyed, and nomad camps arose in their place, which later became cities (Cairo in Egypt, Rabat in Morocco, etc.). capital Arab state originally there was Medina - a small city in the desert part Arabian Peninsula. Then the capital was moved closer to the main trade routes of that time, first to Damascus, and then to the city of Baghdad, specially built in 702 as the capital. Baghdad arose at the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, that is, approximately in the same place where Babylon and other capitals of antiquity existed. Baghdad during its heyday had up to 2 million inhabitants and was the most major city in the world, but after the Mongol conquests of the XIII century. it has lost its meaning.

The principles of development in Baghdad were repeated in other Arab cities. The hill in the center of the city was occupied by a fortress (shahristan or kasbah), in which the ruler of the given area (in Baghdad - the caliph) settled with his entourage, military squad and servants. The ruler's palace included a system of courtyards occupied by gardens, pools and fountains. Around the fortress there was a trade and craft part of the city (rabad), surrounded by an external defensive wall. In its center1 there was a market square, and artisans lived in quarters on a professional basis, each of which was surrounded by its own wall. In shahristan and every quarter there was a mosque, which was the larger and more richly decorated, the richer it was.

This quarter. The mosque, as a rule, ended with a dome, and next to it there was a tower - a minaret (a p. and several minarets). The houses of ordinary residents were flat-roofed, one-story, built of clay, facing the streets with a blank wall, with a courtyard. important public buildings The city had caravanserais (hotels), madrasahs (schools), baths located in the center of the city.

Muslim conquests reached India in the 13th century. In the XVI century. passed new wave conquests, as a result of which the Mughal empire was created, which included almost the entire Hindustan peninsula. At the same time, large capital cities, numbering hundreds of thousands of inhabitants, developed in the north of the country, from where the conquests came. In different periods they were the cities of Delhi and Agra. The urban planning principles of Indian cities of that time included both ancient Indian and Arabic elements. So, in Delhi, the Red Fort was built (composed of red sandstone), which was a fortress and a palace of emperors. Near Agra, the Taj Mahal mausoleum has been preserved - one of the most outstanding buildings of medieval India, built according to the classical plan of a mosque and surrounded by specially created reservoirs.

China was first subjected to the Mongol and then the Manchurian invasion. At the same time, the capital of the country was also moved to the north - to Beijing. The center of Beijing was a complex of imperial palaces surrounded by gardens - the Purple (Forbidden) City. Around it was the Imperial City, in which the emperor's associates, his guards and servants lived. The Imperial city was surrounded by the Outer Tatar (barbarian) city, where the Mongols lived, and then the Manchus. It adjoined the Outer Chinese City, in which the bulk of the population lived. Each part of the Flame is surrounded by its own walls. Separate streets in the Outer City were also locked at night, built up with wooden houses, forming regular square blocks. Apparently, the authorities were afraid that the huge masses of people concentrated in the city could get out of obedience. Beijing since the 18th century. had more than 1 million inhabitants, being at that time the largest city in the world. The most outstanding buildings of Chinese cities were the palaces of rulers and temples (pagodas), which stood out sharply against the background of ordinary buildings in their size and design.

In general, we can say that in the cities of the East, the main functions in the Middle Ages remained administrative and military, although the majority of the population in them, as in Europe, were artisans and merchants. The eastern cities never received any autonomy, which hampered social progress and preserved the vestiges of feudal relations until the beginning of the 20th century. Constant external conquests by more backward peoples hindered cultural and technological progress. Outwardly, the eastern cities still looked like a combination of magnificent palaces and temples - on the one hand, and the wretched shacks of the majority of the inhabitants - on the other, from which the cities of Europe began to leave in the early Middle Ages. It is not surprising that in modern times, the cities of the East began to develop under European influence and currently retain their originality only in the old parts.

Unlike most of Europe, the countries of the East in the Middle Ages experienced several invasions of nomadic peoples who, over time, perceive urban culture, but this happens almost anew every time. Therefore, in the end, the development of urban settlement in the East is much slower, and the connection with the ancient cities is closer. To the greatest extent, this is manifested in the formation of the network and principles of organization of Arab cities.

Arab conquests in the 7th-8th centuries covered a vast territory from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. At the same time, most of the ancient cities in this territory were destroyed, and nomad camps arose in their place, which later became cities (Cairo in Egypt, Rabat in Morocco, etc.). The capital of the Arab state was originally Medina - a small city in the desert part of the Arabian Peninsula. Then the capital was moved closer to the main trade routes of that time - first to Damascus, and then to the city of Baghdad, specially built in 762 as the capital, Simagin Yu. A. Territorial organization of the population: A textbook for universities. -- 2nd ed., corrected. and additional / Under the total. ed. V. G. Glushkova. - M .: Publishing and Trade Corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2005, - 244 p. Page 95

Baghdad arose at the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, that is, approximately in the same place where Babylon and other capitals of antiquity existed. Baghdad in its heyday had up to 2 million inhabitants and was the largest city in the world, but after the Mongol conquests of the XIII century. it has lost its meaning.

The building principles of Baghdad were repeated in other Arab cities. A hill in the center of the city was occupied by a fortress (shahristan or kasbah), in which the ruler of the given area (in Baghdad - the caliph) settled with his entourage, military squad and servants. The ruler's palace included a system of courtyards occupied by gardens, pools and fountains. Around the fortress there was a trade and craft part of the city (rabad), surrounded by an external defensive wall. In its center was the market square, and artisans lived in quarters on a professional basis, each of which was surrounded by its own wall. In shakhristan and each quarter there was a mosque, which was the larger and more richly decorated, the richer the given quarter was. The mosque, as a rule, ended with a dome, and next to it there was a tower - a minaret (or several minarets). The houses of ordinary residents were flat-roofed, one-story, built of clay, overlooking the streets with a blank wall, with a courtyard. Important public buildings of the city were caravanserai (hotels), med-rese (schools), baths, located in the center of the city.

Muslim conquests reached India in the 13th century. In the XVI century. a new wave of conquests took place, as a result of which the Mughal empire was created, which included almost the entire Hindustan peninsula. At the same time, large capital cities, numbering hundreds of thousands of inhabitants, developed in the north of the country, from where the conquests came. In different periods, they were the cities of Delhi and Agra. The principles of urban planning of Indian cities of that time included both ancient Indian and Arab elements. So, in Delhi, the Red Fort was built (made of red sandstone), which was a fortress and a palace of the emperors Simagin Yu.A., the same, p.96. Near Agra, the Taj Mahal mausoleum has been preserved - one of the most outstanding buildings of medieval India, built according to the classical plan of a mosque and surrounded by specially created reservoirs.

China was first subjected to the Mongol and then the Manchurian invasion. At the same time, the capital of the country was also moved to the north - to Beijing. The complex of imperial palaces surrounded by gardens became the center of Beijing - the Purple (Forbidden) City. Around it was the Imperial city, in which the close associates of the emperor, his guards and servants lived. The Imperial city was surrounded by the Outer Tatar (barbarian) city, in which the Mongols lived, and then the Manchus. Adjacent to it was the Outer Chinese City, in which the bulk of the population lived. Each of the parts was surrounded by its own walls. Separate streets in the Outer City, built up with wooden houses, were also locked at night, forming regular square quarters. Apparently, the authorities were afraid that the huge masses of people concentrated in the city could get out of obedience. Beijing since the 18th century. had more than 1 million inhabitants, being at that time the largest city in the world. The most outstanding buildings of Chinese cities were the palaces of rulers and temples (pagodas), which stood out sharply against the background of ordinary buildings in their size and design.

In general, we can say that in the cities of the East, the main functions in the Middle Ages remained administrative and military, although the majority of the population in them, as in Europe, were artisans and merchants. The eastern cities did not receive any autonomy, which hindered social progress and preserved the remnants of feudal relations until the beginning of the 20th century. Constant external conquests by more backward peoples hampered cultural and technical progress. Outwardly, the eastern cities still looked like a combination of magnificent palaces and temples - on the one hand, and the wretched shacks of the majority of the inhabitants - on the other, from which the cities of Europe began to leave in the early Middle Ages. It is not surprising that in modern times, the cities of the East began to develop under European influence and currently retain their originality only in the old parts Simagin Yu. A., the same, pp. 97-98.

The first cities in the history of mankind were compact (100-120 people each) settlements of farmers. Houses in the first cities were built in a circle. Cities did not have external protective ditches, or even gates, since there were no external captures in the Late Neolithic.

In the 3rd millennium BC. e. began to emerge big cities, which was caused by the flourishing of trade and slavery. The largest ancient cities were Babylon and Memphis, they numbered more than 80,000 thousand inhabitants.

Over time, in the 5th century BC. Athens and Carthage became the largest cities, the number of their inhabitants was equal to 500,000 thousand. Rome became the first millionaire city in the history of mankind, during the reign of Octivian Augustus, more than a million people lived in the capital of the Empire.

The cities of antiquity were distinguished by a low standard of living and improvement. The population density was extremely high.

Eastern city

The ancient eastern cities were radically different from other cities. The city was a regular rectangle, which was surrounded by defensive fortresses. For example, in Babylon, there were more than seven protective walls.

The space between the defensive walls served as a refuge for the townspeople, in case of an attack on the city. Directly outside the main gate, in the eastern cities were located royal palaces. They were followed by urban and commercial quarters.

In the center of the eastern cities were places of worship and sacred places to offer sacrifices to the gods. The dominant position in the eastern cities was occupied by the aristocratic nobility, which in frequent cases represented wealthy landowners, or their descendants. Representatives of the most influential clans were included in the council of elders.

Roman forum

The Roman Forum was a square in the center ancient rome. Before the formation of the city, this area served as a cemetery, where locals buried the most honored countrymen. After the formation of Rome, a market was located on this square.

Merchants from all over the state came here to bring unique goods. Later, such a lively place began to be used as a place of comitia (people's meetings). The forum discussed current issues related to the life of the city and citizens.

Over time, the curia building was built at the Roman Forum, where the Roman Senate held its meetings. The Roman Forum served as the center of social life: entertainment events were often held here. Ordinary Romans exchanged news on the forum, shared their opinions about various events.

Medieval city

Medieval cities were built in the form of a circle, in the center of which there was always a Catholic church or cathedral. Near the church were the houses of the nobility and wealthy citizens. The quarters where artisans and poor merchants lived, as a rule, were located on the outskirts of the city.

The main building adjoined the church. Town Square, where mass spectacles were often held. With the beginning of the Inquisition in the squares medieval cities there was a gallows on which heretics found their death.

The dominant position in the medieval city was occupied by the aristocracy. The lowest class were the urban homeless.

Infectious diseases flourished in medieval cities because they did not have a sewer system. Residents of the city threw garbage directly onto the streets.

Modern city

Depending on the population, modern cities are divided into 6 categories:

Up to 50 thousand inhabitants - small towns;

Up to 100 thousand inhabitants - medium-sized cities;

Up to 250 thousand inhabitants - large cities;

Up to 500 thousand inhabitants - large cities;

Up to 1 million inhabitants - the largest cities;

Over 1 million inhabitants - cities - millionaires.

Modern cities - millionaires have satellite cities. Every modern city has its own line (administrative boundary). On this moment, the main proportion of the population living in the city is the middle class.

World history: in 6 volumes. Volume 2: Medieval Civilizations of the West and the East Team of Authors

CITY PLANNING

CITY PLANNING

Topographically, cities have pronounced features, namely, dense buildings, which most of all distinguishes them from other types of settlements. Nevertheless, in their form they are very different from each other, even if they are in the neighborhood. Important factors are the features of the terrain, the history of the city, its functions. It is believed that the European Middle Ages did not know a clear urban planning scheme characteristic of Roman times, although where cities were created purposefully, a regular plan was applied (for example, under Edward I in England - the city of New Winchelsea (Sussex); "bastides" in Aquitaine ; seaport Egmort, built under Saint Louis, etc.). Regular layout could have and small town, for example, the English Battle, founded by the monastery of the same name and consisting of one street. However, in Europe, conscious urban planning and theoretical constructions on this issue (geometric plans or concentric circles) belong only to the Renaissance, when the projects of the “ideal city” were developed.

European city layout

The administrative and political center of many European cities was a fortress - Vyshgorod ( upper city), sieve or kremlin, usually located on a hill, island or river bend. It housed the courts of the sovereign or the seigneur of the city and the highest officials of the state, the residence of the bishop and some nobles, Cathedral, as well as the houses of the most eminent citizens and auxiliary services. The vast majority of the townspeople lived in the city suburb - the suburb, the Lower City, the settlement, the hem, where the most prominent place was occupied by artisans, merchants and various fishers, and people of the same or related professions usually settled in the neighborhood. On the outskirts of the city there were mills necessary for grinding grain, enriching metal ores, and cloth making. The cities also tried to resettle those artisans who worked with foul-smelling materials there: slaughterers and skinners, skinners, washers and wool carders. For fear of fires, the townspeople also tried to set up forges and foundries on the outskirts.

In the city or in the suburbs, solid, fortified buildings and estates of monasteries and gentlemen rose on convenient sites. In the center of city life was the square - the main one in big cities, the only one in small ones. It was the place of the main city marketplace and, at the same time, its imperious and religious center: the square was surrounded by the richest buildings and shops, as well as the town hall, where the city government and courts were located, the city cathedral and the houses of the most prominent residents of the city. Streets scattered from the square with shops, workshops, churches, residential and profitable buildings, taverns, inns, etc. In a big city there could be several squares with specialized markets: hay, wood, bread and others.

At the same time, in China, they adhered to the norms of urban planning developed in antiquity; in cosmogonic theories Ancient China was in the center of the Universe and occupied a territory in the form of a square, therefore the cities had a shape close to it, although the features of the relief often turned it into a rectangle. It should be noted that Chinese urban planning had a significant impact on the cities of Japan and Korea that appeared later. The Arabs, as the researchers suggest, adopted the Roman experience in the planning of streets (regulated building, the width of the streets is 40 cubits). However, often they simply used the conquered city without changing its layout. The new cities founded by the Arabs differed in their type: for example, Basra with a chaotic building and Kufa with a regulated by special order of the caliph. For the rest of the regions, which knew the phenomenon of urbanization even before the Middle Ages, the influence of the previous period was rather in the use of existing structures and layouts, but not in adopting their urban planning experience.

Topographic analysis shows that most of medieval cities has a complex layout that evolved as the city grew, combining an artificial layout (linear with regular or rather uniform angles) with spontaneously formed (often crooked) streets. In addition, many cities were distinguished by polycentricity, since they were formed from settlements or even former cities located nearby, different in origin and functions (often complementing each other). With the purposeful founding of cities in a new place, quarterly planning (grid) was preferred.

The border of the city territory could be designated in different ways, but the most expressive option was the walls. True, it should be noted that many cities were limited to ramparts, palisades or moats. There are known (and not uncommon) cases when the boundaries of the city were marked with crosses, pillars or barriers on the roads passing through the city. The absence of walls could be associated with a sufficient degree of security in the region (joining a strong centralized state, for example, in England, China, Khorezm, etc.) under the rule of the Mongols who conquered them). In addition, some rulers reserved the right to issue permission for the construction of any fortifications, including walls, around both cities and, for example, monasteries. It should also be emphasized that the maintenance of city walls in good condition, and often their construction, was a heavy burden on the townspeople, and not all cities were so wealthy as to afford to build a fortress wall.

The presence of the wall was associated with one of the important functions of the city as a refuge, a fortress. Walls also signify the presence of gates (control of entry and exit from the city, collection of tolls, etc.); in addition, the importance of clearly delineating the boundaries of the city was associated with the need to separate it from the district as a territory with a different jurisdiction. It is curious that contemporaries associated the city precisely with the presence of a wall, as evidenced by the images of cities on medieval maps (for example, mappa mundi) and city emblems, although ideas about the main city of the Christian world, Jerusalem, played a certain role here. In Europe, the city wall served as a special pride of the townspeople, a symbol of their place of residence, although it could be expressed by the town hall or fountains (for example, in Italy).

In addition to walls, public buildings are also important elements of urban topography - religious buildings (cathedrals, temples, mosques, churches, etc.), a market (in the form of a square, simply open space or a special building with an arcade), a fortress as a seat of power and / or a town hall, characteristic of cities with self-government or at least an organized urban community.

It is noteworthy that the cities of both the East and the West are characterized by the attraction of markets to religious buildings, the location not only in the immediate vicinity of them, but often right on the territory of the latter (church yard, within the monastery, etc.). Moreover, this trend was reflected in the fact that markets and fairs were held on the days of important religious holidays, as well as on Sundays in Christian lands and on Fridays in Muslim lands. True, some Christian leaders opposed this state of affairs (it was not for nothing that Christ drove the merchants out of the temple) and tried to give them a legislative character: in the 13th century. it was forbidden to arrange Sunday markets, it was ordered to remove markets from churchyards and cemeteries.

City of Nuremberg. Engraving of the end of the 15th century.

On the contrary, Muslim cities did not know such difficulties. Islam originated in a merchant environment, and Muslim laws and morality stimulated the development of markets (bazaars), allowing not only their close proximity to places of worship, but even combining them into one infrastructure. One of the common forms of charitable donations to the Muslim community was the construction of bazaars. Buddhist temples were also actively involved in trade, moreover, they owned cities and created them. 18% of medieval Japanese cities were temple towns (monzenmachi). Moreover, these included the earliest cities in the region, including Nara (Heijokyo) and Ujiyamada.

An important difference between western and eastern cities was that in the former, even if there was a special market place, which, however, could represent the central street of the city (which was very typical for small towns), trade was often conducted directly from the windows of workshops, on the adjacent streets. With the development of city administration and tightening control over trade in the city, prohibitions on such trade appear (it is more difficult to control), but still it will not disappear. The situation was different in the eastern cities. There, trade is not typical for residential areas and was strictly limited to the territory allotted to it (in China). True, the Arab cities are an exception, where the bazaar often occupied the entire city center and at the same time there were still local markets in the quarters.

Early medieval cities are characterized by the presence of a fortress and / or residence of the ruler ( palace complex). The palace was either located in the citadel itself, or, as in Central Asia, in close proximity to it. An unstable situation could lead to the presence of not only a fortified citadel with a ruler’s palace, but also to the fortified estates of the nobility living in the city, as, for example, in early Mongolian cities ( a prime example- Khirkhirinsky city). Something similar was observed in Italian cities XI-XIII centuries, where the houses and towers of individual clans were essentially fortresses.

The streets of cities could be either wide (for example, the influence of Roman and Byzantine layouts in Arab cities determined a fixed width of 40 cubits) or narrow (sometimes reaching a width of just a yard), which made it very difficult for not only carts, but also people to move along such a street. . City houses differed from village houses in their compactness, which was especially intensified as the city grew and the impossibility of expanding its base territory. If in early cities there were significant undeveloped plots, vast urban estates with gardens, orchards, and even (although much less often) pastures, then there was a constant fragmentation of plots. The buildings are often closely adjacent to each other, and their pediments almost always go out onto the street. True, it should be noted that the legislative regulation of how a city house should look (general view of the street) appears rather late, in the early modern times, and is more typical for such large cities as London.

Not being able to grow in breadth, cities actively grew up. Exceptions here are Arab cities, although not always. In Fustat (part of modern Cairo) in the 7th-8th centuries. there were eight-story houses. Building on floors above an already erected building could occur later, and in order to increase the area, the upper floors protruded above the lower ones, thus narrowing the space and illumination of the street. In Arab cities it was not considered a crime to seize the part of the street located directly in front of the house, while, for example, in England, where important roads were considered the property of the king, this was regarded as a violation of the rights of the Crown.

An important topographic component of a medieval city (mainly a large one) was a quarter. This is not only a structural unit of internal planning, but also the principle of the territorial and social organization of the population. In the eastern cities there is a system of closed streets and quarters. Each quarter formed its own community and also served as part of administrative division cities. Due to the lack of an agora, a square, and a place for a city-wide concentration of social activity of the population, the quarter in the East became the center of social activity. True, researchers note that such quarters were under the control of the ruler's henchmen and cannot be considered centers of municipal self-government. The quarters were also known in the West, mainly in fairly large cities. Sometimes they coincided with the parish organization of urban residents, but quite often they had independent political significance: for example, quarters of Tuscan cities contained their own militias - Gonfalons, and five Novgorod “ends” gathered their own councils and had very important rights.

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Question 1. Medieval cities of the East: Arab, Indian, Chinese.

Their differences from European cities 3

Question 2. Economic prerequisites for the territorial organization of the population. 6

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Abstract on the subject "Territorial organization of the population".

1. Medieval cities of the East: Arab, Indian, Chinese.

Their difference from European cities.

Unlike most of Europe, the countries of the East in the Middle Ages experienced several invasions of nomadic peoples who, over time, perceive urban culture, but this happens almost anew every time. Therefore, in the end, the development of urban settlement in the East is much slower, and the connection with the ancient cities is closer. This is manifested to the greatest extent in the formation of the network and principles of organization of Arab cities.

Arab conquests in the 7th-8th centuries. covered a vast territory from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. At the same time, most of the ancient cities in this territory were destroyed, and nomad camps arose in their place, which later became cities (Cairo in Egypt, Rabat in Morocco, etc.). The capital of the Arab state was originally Medina - a small city in the desert part of the Arabian Peninsula. Then the capital was moved closer to the main trade routes of that time - first to Damascus, and then to the city of Baghdad, specially built in 762 as the capital. Baghdad arose at the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, that is, approximately in the same place where Babylon and other capitals of antiquity existed. Baghdad in its heyday had up to 2 million inhabitants and was the largest city in the world, but after the Mongol conquests of the XIII century. it has lost its meaning.

The building principles of Baghdad were repeated in other Arab cities. The hill in the center of the city was occupied by a fortress (shahristan or kasbah), in which the ruler of the given area (in Baghdad - the caliph) settled with his entourage, military squad and servants. The ruler's palace included a system of courtyards occupied by gardens, pools and fountains. Around the fortress there was a trade and craft part of the city (rabad), surrounded by an external defensive wall. In its center was a market square, and artisans lived in quarters on a professional basis, each of which was surrounded by a wall. In shakhristan and each quarter there was a mosque, which was the larger and more richly decorated, the richer the given quarter was. The mosque, as a rule, ended with a dome, and next to it there was a tower - a minaret (or several minarets). The houses of ordinary residents were flat-roofed, one-story, built of clay, facing the streets with a blank wall, with a courtyard. Important public buildings of the city were caravanserais (hotels), madrasahs (schools), baths located in the city center.

Muslim conquests reached India in the 13th century. In the XVI century. a new wave of conquests took place, as a result of which the Mughal empire was created, which included almost the entire Hindustan peninsula. At the same time, large capital cities, numbering hundreds of thousands of inhabitants, developed in the north of the country, from where the conquests came. At different periods they were the cities of Delhi and Agra. The urban planning principles of Indian cities of that time included both ancient Indian and Arabic elements. So, in Delhi, the Red Fort was built (composed of red sandstone), which was a fortress and a palace of emperors. Near Agra, the Taj Mahal mausoleum has been preserved - one of the most outstanding buildings of medieval India, built according to the classical plan of a mosque and surrounded by specially created reservoirs.

China was first subjected to the Mongol and then the Manchurian invasion. At the same time, the capital of the country was also moved to the north - to Beijing. The center of Beijing was a complex of imperial palaces surrounded by gardens - the Purple (Forbidden) City. Around it was the Imperial City, in which the emperor's close associates, his guards and servants lived. The Imperial city was surrounded by the Outer Tatar (barbarian) city, in which the Mongols and then the Manchus lived. It adjoined the Outer Chinese City, in which the bulk of the population lived. Each of the parts was surrounded by its own walls. Separate streets in the Outer City were also locked at night, built up with wooden houses, forming regular square blocks. Apparently, the authorities were afraid that the huge masses of people concentrated in the city could get out of obedience. Beijing since the 18th century. had more than 1 million inhabitants, being at that time the largest city in the world. The most outstanding buildings of Chinese cities were the palaces of rulers and temples (pagodas), which stood out sharply against the background of ordinary buildings in their size and design.

In general, we can say that in the cities of the East, the main functions in the Middle Ages remained administrative and military, although the majority of the population in them, as in Europe, were artisans and merchants. The eastern cities never received any autonomy, which hampered social progress and preserved the vestiges of feudal relations until the beginning of the 20th century. Constant external conquests by more backward peoples hindered cultural and technological progress. Outwardly, the eastern cities still looked like a combination of magnificent palaces and temples - on the one hand, and the wretched shacks of the majority of the inhabitants - on the other, from which the cities of Europe began to leave in the early Middle Ages. It is not surprising that in modern times the cities of the East began to develop under European influence and at present retain their originality only in the old parts.

2. Economic prerequisites for the territorial organization of the population.

The main task of the economy (economy) is to provide the material basis for the functioning of society. Economic relations and processes permeate the entire social life. Naturally, in this case, the economy affects almost all aspects of society, including the territorial organization of the population. The most general dependencies can be identified on the type of farm, determined by its economic structure. The main types distinguished in this case are:

1) appropriating economy;

2) agricultural holding;

3) industrial economy;

4) post-industrial economy.

In the earliest stages of human development, the economy as such was absent. The so-called appropriating economy dominated - people lived off what nature gave them. At the same time, they were engaged in hunting, fishing, gathering, not standing out economically from many species of animals (but already standing out socially). Tribes of people slowly moved along the shores of the seas and rivers, following the herds of large hunting animals, gradually populating almost the entire surface of the land, except for the most severe natural areas in the regions of the poles and high mountains. There were no permanent settlements, and the population density was extremely low - even in the most densely populated areas, no more than 1 person. per 1 km 2. Currently on Earth large territories with the predominance of the appropriating economy has not been preserved.

In the VIII-X millennium BC. e, at about the same time in several areas of the earth, an agrarian (Neolithic) revolution began - the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing (agricultural) one. The resulting type of economy is agrarian (pre-industrial), which by the II millennium AD. e. spread to almost all territories inhabited by people (except Australia and a large part of America). The main sign of the dominance of the agrarian type of economy is the predominance of agriculture (the primary sector of the economy) in the structure of employment and / or the structure of production (GDP). At present, the agrarian type of economy still prevails in the least developed states of the Earth (Burundi and others in Africa, Bhutan and others in Asia).

The main branches of agriculture are plant growing and animal husbandry. Accordingly, already at the beginning of the agrarian revolution, two different types of territorial organization of the population were formed - permanent agricultural and nomadic livestock. Their common features are the dispersion of the population, the strong dependence of density and settlement on natural conditions, extremely rare (as a rule, one in several generations) permanent migrations for the agricultural development of new territories.

Under the influence of nomadic animal husbandry, a network of permanent settlements did not develop. People are constantly moving through certain areas following herds of animals that need food and water. The population density remains low, rarely exceeding the value of 1 person. per 1 km 2. Initially, the areas of distribution of nomadism significantly exceeded the areas of agricultural settlement, but at present, nomadic settlement has survived only in certain areas of the Northern and East Africa, Southwestern and Central Asia. In some cases, permanent migrations were transformed into seasonal ones (between high-mountain and low-mountain territories, between tundra and forest-tundra, etc.), which led to the emergence of temporarily inhabited settlements and some increase in population density, but not more than 10 people. per 1 km 2.

Under the influence of plant growing, a network of permanent settlements has developed, the size and density of which strongly depend on the favorable natural conditions for plant growing. As a result, the population density can vary widely, but, as a rule, it ranges from 10 to 100 people. per 1 km 2. At the same time, residents are distinguished by a strong attachment to the land, extremely low migration mobility. Most of them never leave their settlement in their lives. The most common trips are to the nearest market several times a year. Initially, permanent agricultural settlement occupied relatively small territories, but today it prevails in the countryside of the vast majority of the states of the Earth.

The Industrial Revolution began in the 17th and 18th centuries. in foreign Europe, and by now has spread to the vast majority of the territories of the Earth inhabited by people. As a result, an industrial type of economy was formed - the predominance of industry and construction or the secondary sector in the structure of employment and production. The industrial type of economy prevails in most modern states.

The development of industry causes a rapid concentration of the population in cities and their agglomerations. As a result, mass flows of permanent migrants are formed - mainly from rural areas to cities, and then to suburban areas. There are mass labor commuting migrations - mainly within the framework of urban agglomerations, which gradually begin to surpass permanent resettlements in terms of their scale (the number of people involved). The importance of natural conditions for the concentration of the population is markedly reduced. The main ones are socio-economic conditions, especially the convenience of transport links. The population density increases sharply - up to 1000 people. per 1 km 2 in the most urbanized areas. At the same time, population density in non-urbanized rural areas is starting to decline.

The transition to a post-industrial type of economy (the predominance of the service sector or the tertiary sector in the structure of employment and GDP) began in the most developed countries of the Earth (USA, Japan, Western Europe) in the second half of the 20th century. Intensive development of the service sector is possible only with a sufficiently high concentration of the population - as a rule, at least 50 people. per 1 km 2. But then the multiplier effect kicks in. The greater the concentration of the population, the more people needed to work in the service sector, so the concentration of the population increases even more, i.e., the population itself becomes the main resource for the development of the economy. As a result, the population density in areas with a developed service sector can reach several thousand people per 1 km2. But at the same time, not only the share of those employed in the secondary and primary sectors of the economy is decreasing, but also the absolute scale of production in these sectors - industrial enterprises are being closed, the area of agricultural land is shrinking. Thus, the scale of human impact on natural environment, including the area of intensively used territories. In the future, with such a trend, it is even possible to reduce the population

people of the territories of the Earth.

As a result, return migrations surpass permanent resettlements in their scope and significance. At the same time, commuting for services and irregular recreational trips are becoming especially large. Although the importance of labor migrations (pendulum and longer irregular) remains. Specific migration flows turn out to be strongly related to the level of development of the service sector and the characteristics of its organization.

The conducted retrospective analysis of the relationship between the development of the economy and the territorial organization of the population allows us to identify a general pattern due to the degree of development of the territory. In the early stages of development of the territory (and the initial stages of development of the economy), the population "follows" the economy. So, gradually people settled almost the entire surface of the earth's land, following the biological natural resources, and then mastered almost all the territories suitable for this for agriculture. The latest manifestation of this trend is the modern "areas of new development", where people appeared to extract industrial natural resources. But with the development of the territory and the development of the economy, the economy begins to "follow" the population. A turning point occurs with the industrial type of economy, when for many branches of industry the main factor in the location of enterprises is labor (the availability of labor resources, especially skilled ones). With the post-industrial type of economy, even the reduction of territories already developed by man begins - the economy is "pulled" into the most populated and developed areas. Thus, at all stages there is a regular correlation between economy and settlement. But at first, the leading link in this connection is the economy, and subsequently - resettlement.

In a market economy, the interaction between the economy and the population is carried out through the mechanisms of the labor market. The supply in this market is the number of people willing to work, and the demand is the number of jobs provided by employers. The ratio of supply and demand is regulated by the price of labor - the level of wages. At the same time, at any particular moment in time, supply and demand, as a rule, do not coincide, as a result of which either unemployment is formed - an excess of supply over demand, or a shortage of personnel - an excess of demand over supply.

In the general case, unemployment in a limited area (local, regional or national labor market) contributes to the outflow of the population to other territories, and the shortage of personnel - to the influx of people from other territories. But in certain situations this may not be the case.

First, it's important unemployment rate- the share of the unemployed in the economically active population. An unemployment rate above 10% is considered high - only then can we talk about the outflow of the population caused by it, and the impact of unemployment will be relatively noticeable at a level of at least 5%.

Secondly, it is necessary to take into account types of unemployment. She may be:

1) dynamic (frictional) - when an unemployed person already knows where he will work, but has not yet started work for various reasons, for example, the workplace has not yet been created, although it should appear in the near future;

2) structural - when the unemployed and the available vacancies do not correspond to each other according to some characteristics (occupation, age, etc.), although there may be more vacancies than the unemployed;

3) cyclic - when, in the conditions of an economic crisis (reduction in employment), the number of unemployed is, in principle, greater than the number of available vacancies, and it is impossible to provide all the unemployed with work;

4) associated with agrarian overpopulation - when in areas dominated by the agrarian type of economy, in conditions of constant natural growth and limited resources (land and water), an "excess" population is constantly formed, unable to find jobs.

At dynamic unemployment, which can reach significant levels in areas with a large seasonal unevenness of labor (agricultural, resort, etc.), there are no large population movements. The unemployed are waiting for the appearance of work (the onset of the season), existing on benefits or savings accumulated over the past season. But seasonal labor migration to other areas is also possible.

At structural unemployment, the outflow of the population will occur if there are vacancies in other areas in the same specialty that the unemployed have, and if the resettlement will have less significant costs than retraining for those specialties that are required locally. Naturally, the level of wages after resettlement or retraining will also matter.

At cyclical unemployment, there will be a massive outflow of the unemployed. At the same time, most of them will initially be resettled for a limited period, hoping to return back after the situation improves. And only in the case of a successful settlement in a new place, while maintaining a difficult economic situation in the old one, the final resettlement with the relocation of the family can occur. In addition, the cyclical unemployed will massively participate in migration to areas with seasonal rises in employment.

At agrarian overpopulation there will be a constant outflow of the "surplus" population - either to areas of new agricultural development (if any), or to the cities of their country and other states where there is a chance of finding work. In this case, resettlement to permanent place residence, but many of them will have a step-by-step character, as in the previous case: first for a certain period (from several months to several years), then for permanent residence. Another significant difference is that with agrarian overpopulation in migrations, the proportion of young people is the highest, since it is they who constantly turn out to be "superfluous" in agricultural areas, where all jobs are already occupied.

In addition to the ratio of supply and demand in the labor market (the presence of unemployment or a shortage of personnel), the level of wages is also important, or rather, its relationship with the cost of living. Thus, there will be no influx of unemployed into areas with a shortage of personnel (or even an outflow of the local population) if the ratio of wages and the cost of living in these areas is worse than in others.

The influence of the labor market on population migration can be well seen in the example modern migrations between developing and developed countries. These migrations are predominantly labor. At the same time, in accordance with the general laws of development of the economy and resettlement, the importance of permanent resettlements gradually decreases, and the value of temporary resettlements (seasonal, for several years, etc.) increases.

In developing countries, there is a constant agrarian overpopulation, which provides a significant amount of unskilled labor. Economic crises with cyclical unemployment are also not uncommon. IN developed countries On the contrary, there is an almost constant shortage of unskilled labor (except during the most acute economic crises). As a result, flows of unskilled migrants ("muscle drain") from developing countries to developed ones are formed, in which all parties involved are interested:

Countries of emigration (outflow of migrants), as this eases the demographic pressure in them, making it possible to ease the problem of unemployment and the lack of various resources for a growing population;

countries of immigration (influx of migrants), because without their labor the functioning of many sectors of the economy would be impossible. Especially great importance immigrant labor in the sparsely populated oil-exporting states of the Persian Gulf (Kuwait and others) - up to 90% of all employed. But also in many European states immigrants make up to 30% of all employed;

Migrants themselves, since as a result of migration they significantly improve their economic situation, receive a relatively high (relative to the country of emigration) paid job, which allows them not only to live in the country of immigration, but also in many cases financially support relatives in the country of emigration. In many developing countries (even such large ones as Egypt), remittances from emigrants are one of the main sources of foreign exchange in the country.

But due to a more favorable ratio of wages and the cost of living from developing countries to developed countries, there is also an outflow of highly qualified personnel ("brain drain"), despite their shortage in the developing countries themselves. The scale of such migrations is hundreds of times smaller than the flows of unskilled workers. But there is a clear problem, because in this case there is an "injured" party. These are developing states that have spent significant funds on training the necessary specialists, and are losing them without any compensation.

These general patterns of the relationship between the economy and the territorial organization of the population operate in modern Russia. So, for centuries, Russia pursued a policy of developing the outskirts of the state, primarily the sparsely populated northern and eastern ones. This policy manifested itself especially clearly in the 1930s-1970s, when large-scale projects for the development of natural resources in the northern and eastern regions of Russia were created under the conditions of a planned economy - a hydropower cascade on the Angara, Baikal-Amur railway line, the Norilsk Metallurgical Complex, etc., and the population was involved in the implementation of these projects, as a result of which the settlement systems of many previously practically uninhabited territories were practically re-created. The population of some regions ( Murmansk region, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, Kamchatka Oblast, etc.) for the period of 1930-1980s. increased by 20-40 times, while the proportion of the population living in the old developed parts of the country (Central and North-Western Russia) was constantly decreasing.

Unfortunately, in many cases, resettlement was not voluntary (due to high wages, various benefits, and other similar reasons), but forced (widespread use of the labor of the repressed and prisoners, mass deportations, including entire peoples). Nevertheless, the main trend was very clear: the population followed the production, although by the 1980s. the pace of this process has clearly slowed down.

In the 1990s there was a turning point, accelerated by an acute socio-economic crisis. The economy in the most developed and populated areas of the country was affected to a lesser extent than in areas of new development. Some sectors of the service sector - trade, finance, etc. - increased the scale of production, and this also happened in the most populated parts of the country, i.e., a tendency was manifested to concentrate the economy in the most populated areas.

The dynamics of the employment structure by industry is shown in the table. It is clear that at the beginning of the XX century. Russia was a typical country with an agrarian type of economy (and the predominance of the corresponding territorial organization of the population). By the middle of the century, the industrial type of economy became predominant. And in the 1990s. there has been a transition to a post-industrial type of economy. At the same time, in fact, the post-industrial type of economy (and the corresponding territorial organization of the population) is typical only for the two most developed regions of the country - Moscow and St. Petersburg. Whereas in many regions (the republics of Dagestan, Kalmykia, Ingushetia, Altai, Tyva, Chechen, autonomous regions Evenki, Koryak, Aginsky and Ust-Ordynsky Buryat) still retain the agrarian structure of the economy with a predominance of rural settlement, formed under the influence of primarily natural conditions. Most regions of the country are characterized by a territorial organization of the population associated with an industrial type of economy (concentration in cities and urban agglomerations, development of commuting labor migrations, etc.).

Changing the structure of employmentby sectors of the Russian economy,%

Industry	Employment share
	1913	1940	1960	1990	2000
Agriculture Industry and construction Transport and communications Trade and catering Non-manufacturing sphere
Total	100	100	100	100	100

There are also several special local cases of the territorial organization of the population associated with the development of the mining industry and transport in the absence (or insignificant influence) of other industries. When resettling in areas of a non-labor-intensive extractive industry (oil, gas), for the resettlement of workers and their families, sites are selected that are most favorable in terms of nature, and rather large cities are built (examples - New Urengoy, Nefteyugansk). At the same time, the distance to places of work (deposits) can reach tens or even hundreds of kilometers, and a relatively small number of workers make rotational trips by various modes of transport, up to aviation.

When resettling in areas of labor-intensive mining industry (coal mining, ores underground), in order to avoid long-term mass transportation of workers, settlements as close as possible to the place of work. But at the same time, the size of the point directly depends on the capacity of the field. Therefore, these are mainly small settlements, the existence of which after the depletion of the deposit is problematic, gravitating towards a larger point, in which the organizing enterprises are located - a processing plant, a construction department, etc. And the planning structure of the settlements turns out to be dependent on the occurrence of the layers of the extracted mineral - buildings should be located above underground mine workings.

Settlement along transport routes (railways) turns out to be linear and strictly hierarchical. The most numerous (after 1-3 km) are the smallest settlements, often consisting of only one house (houses of linemen, crossings). The next level is sidings and small stations, where only 2-3 families live, located 5-10 km away. Then there are large stations where cargo handling is already carried out - usually these are rather large rural settlements or small urban settlements. Even larger settlements (large urban settlements or small towns) are formed near the junction stations, where trains are formed, repair work is carried out, and depots are located. Finally, the largest settlements (large cities) develop at the intersections of the main routes of different types of transport.

When analyzing the structure of employment in Russia, it should also be noted that during the crisis of the 1990s. the total number of people employed in the country's economy decreased by more than 10 million people. - from 75.5 million at the end of the 1980s. up to 65 million at the beginning of the XXI century. For the first time after a long break (since the 1930s), the existence of the unemployed was again recognized. The maximum unemployment rate (almost 14%) was observed at the beginning of 1999, and by 2003 it had dropped to 8.5% of the country's economically active population.

In Russia, one can distinguish two types of regions with increased unemployment rate:

1. Regions with high natural population growth, where more young people are constantly entering the labor market, and a corresponding number of new jobs are not created. These are the republics of Dagestan, Chechen, Ingush, Kalmykia, Tuva, Altai and some other regions. In some years, the unemployment rate reached 50%. In fact, here we are dealing with a typical agrarian overpopulation. The way to solve the problem in the long term is the development of labor-intensive sectors of the economy, in the near future - the migration of the population to other regions of the country.

2. Regions with the maximum reduction in production during the crisis of the 1990s. These are regions with a predominance of light, military, woodworking industries (Ivanovo, Pskov, Vladimir and others), where the unemployment rate reached 25%. The unemployed in this case are mostly of pre-retirement age. And in the future, the problem will be solved here without special measures - most of the unemployed will become pensioners, and the revival of production has already begun.

There are also two types of regions with low levels him unemployment:

1. Regions with a high rate of job creation. First of all, these are the Moscow and St. Petersburg regions, where new sectors of the economy were actively developing in the 1990s, as a result of which there are more vacancies than unemployed. The way to solve the problem of shortage of personnel is the migration of the population from other regions of the country (including from regions with agrarian overpopulation) and from abroad (primarily from the CIS countries). At the same time, the majority of visitors, apparently, will come temporarily, and not for permanent residence.

2. Regions with an export-oriented economy (production of oil, natural gas, metals), where production in the 1990s. decreased slightly - the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug, the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), etc. In these predominantly sparsely populated northern and eastern regions The country experienced a shortage of personnel in the past, which in many cases intensified in the 1990s. The fact is that in market conditions after the abolition of state subsidies for food production, housing construction and many others, it turned out that the ratio of wages and the cost of living in regions with harsh natural conditions is worse than in many other regions of the country. Therefore, an outflow of residents from the northern and eastern regions of Russia began, and not only to the labor-deficient capitals and "average" regions of the country in terms of unemployment, but even to the regions of Central Russia with a high level of unemployment (Ivanovo region, etc.). The effect of the wage level factor in this case turned out to be stronger than the effect of unemployment. In the near future, the outflow of the population from the northern and eastern regions of Russia will continue, since attracting workers here in most cases is economically efficient only on a temporary basis (on a rotational basis), and not for permanent residence.

Russia as a whole, subject to economic growth in the coming decades, will be a country of immigration, since its own natural increase will not be able to provide the economy with personnel. At the same time, in the first place, it is necessary to attract to the country the inhabitants of the former Soviet republics - Ukraine, Moldova, Kazakhstan, etc., who are closest in culture to Russians. In the longer term, it is possible to attract residents of far-abroad countries to Russia. Apparently, migration should be encouraged, both temporary - for the development of natural resources in the northern and eastern regions of the country, and permanent - to increase the concentration of the population in areas of the European part of Russia, where in many regions the population density is too low for the intensive development of the modern service sector.

References:

1. Russia in numbers. - M.: Goskomstat of Russia, 2002.

2. Simagin Yu. A. Territorial organization of the population: Textbook for universities. - 2nd ed., corrected. and additional / Under the total. ed. V. G. Glushkova. - M.: Publishing and Trade Corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2005, - 244 p.

3. Territorial organization of the population: Textbook. allowance / Ed. prof. E.G. Chistyakov. - M.: Vuzovsky textbook., 2005.- 188 p.