The medieval city of Europe: how it was and how we imagine it. Architectural features of medieval cities of the eastern type on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula

Unlike most of Europe, the countries of the East in the Middle Ages experienced several invasions of nomadic peoples who, over time, perceive urban culture, but this happens almost anew every time. Therefore, in the end, the development of urban settlement in the East is much slower, and the connection with the ancient cities turns out to be closer. To the greatest extent, this is manifested in the formation of a network and the principle of organization I Arab cities.

Arab conquests in the 7th-8th centuries. covered a huge territory from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. At the same time, most of the ancient cities in this territory I were destroyed, and nomad camps arose in their place, which later became cities (Cairo in Egypt, Rabat in Morocco, etc.). capital Arab state Medina was originally small town m of the desert part Arabian Peninsula. Then the capital was moved closer to the main trade routes of that time, first to Damascus, and then to the city of Baghdad, specially built in 702 as the capital. Baghdad arose at the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, that is, approximately in the same place where Babylon and other capitals of antiquity existed. Baghdad during its heyday had up to 2 million inhabitants and was the largest city in the world, but after Mongol conquests of the 13th century it lost its significance.

The principles of development in Baghdad were repeated in other Arab cities. The hill in the center of the city was occupied by a fortress (shahristan or kasbah), in which the ruler of the given area (in Baghdad - the caliph) settled with his entourage, military squad and servants. The ruler's palace included a system of courtyards occupied by gardens, pools and fountains. Around the fortress there was a trade and craft part of the city (rabad), surrounded by an external defensive wall. In its center1 there was a market square, and artisans lived in quarters on a professional basis, each of which was surrounded by its own wall. In shahristan and every quarter there was a mosque, which was the larger and more richly decorated, the richer it was.

This quarter. The mosque, as a rule, ended with a dome, and next to it there was a tower - a minaret (a p. and several minarets). The houses of ordinary residents were flat-roofed, one-story, built of clay, facing the streets with a blank wall, with a courtyard. Important public buildings The city had caravanserais (hotels), madrasahs (schools), baths located in the center of the city.

Muslim conquests reached India in the 13th century. In the XVI century. passed new wave conquests, as a result of which the Mughal empire was created, which included almost the entire Hindustan peninsula. At the same time, large capital cities, numbering hundreds of thousands of inhabitants, developed in the north of the country, from where the conquests came. In different periods they were the cities of Delhi and Agra. The urban planning principles of Indian cities of that time included both ancient Indian and Arabic elements. So, in Delhi, the Red Fort was built (composed of red sandstone), which was a fortress and a palace of emperors. Near Agra, the mausoleum of the Taj Mahal has been preserved - one of the most outstanding buildings medieval India, built according to the classical plan of the mosque and surrounded by specially created reservoirs.

China was first subjected to the Mongol and then the Manchurian invasion. At the same time, the capital of the country was also moved to the north - to Beijing. The center of Beijing was a complex of imperial palaces surrounded by gardens - the Purple (Forbidden) City. Around him was imperial city, in which the emperor's close associates, his guards and servants lived. The Imperial city was surrounded by the Outer Tatar (barbarian) city, where the Mongols lived, and then the Manchus. Adjacent to it was the Outer Chinese city where the bulk of the population lived. Each part of the Flame is surrounded by its own walls. Some streets of Vaud were also locked at night. outer city built up with wooden houses forming regular square blocks. Apparently, the authorities were afraid that the huge masses of people concentrated in the city could get out of obedience. Beijing since the 18th century. had more than 1 million inhabitants, being at that time largest city peace. The most outstanding buildings of Chinese cities were the palaces of rulers and temples (pagodas), which stood out sharply against the background of ordinary buildings in their size and design.

In general, we can say that in the cities of the East, the main functions in the Middle Ages remained administrative and military, although the majority of the population in them, as in Europe, were artisans and merchants. The eastern cities never received any autonomy, which hampered social progress and preserved the vestiges of feudal relations until the beginning of the 20th century. Constant external conquests by more backward peoples hampered the cultural and technical progress. Externally eastern cities still looked like a combination of magnificent palaces and temples - on the one hand, and the wretched shacks of the majority of the inhabitants - on the other, from which they began to leave the cities of Europe in the early Middle Ages. It is not surprising that in modern times, the cities of the East began to develop under European influence and currently retain their originality only in the old parts.

Question 1. Medieval cities of the East: Arab, Indian, Chinese.

Their differences from European cities 3

Question 2. Economic background territorial organization of the population. 6

Used literature 20

Abstract on the subject "Territorial organization of the population".

1. Medieval cities of the east:Arabic, Indian, Chinese.

Their difference from European cities.

In contrast to most of Europe, the countries of the East in the Middle Ages experienced several invasions of nomadic peoples who, over time, perceive urban culture, but this happens almost anew every time. In this regard, in the end, the development of urban settlement in the East is much slower, and the connection with the ancient cities is closer. To the greatest extent, this is manifested in the formation of the network and principles of organization of Arab cities.

Arab conquests in the 7th-8th centuries covered a vast territory from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. At the same time, most of the ancient cities in this territory were destroyed, and nomad camps arose in their place, which later became cities (Cairo in Egypt, Rabat in Morocco, etc.). The capital of the Arab state was originally Medina - a small city in the desert part of the Arabian Peninsula. Then the capital was moved closer to the main trade routes of that time - first to Damascus, and then to the city of Baghdad, which was socially built in 762 as the capital, Simagin Yu. A. Territorial organization of the population: A textbook for universities. -- 2nd ed., corrected. and additional / Under the total. ed. V. G. Glushkova. - M .: Publishing and Trade Corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2005, - 244 p. Page 95

Baghdad arose at the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, that is, approximately in the same place where Babylon and other capitals of antiquity existed. Baghdad in its heyday had up to 2 million inhabitants and was the largest city in the world, but after the Mongol conquests of the 13th century. it has lost its meaning.

The building principles of Baghdad were repeated in other Arab cities. A hill in the center of the city was occupied by a fortress (shahristan or kasbah), in which the ruler of the given area (in Baghdad - the caliph) settled with his entourage, military squad and servants. The ruler's palace included a system of courtyards occupied by gardens, pools and fountains. Around the fortress there was a trade and craft part of the city (rabad), surrounded by an external defensive wall. In its center was the market square, and artisans lived in quarters on a professional basis, each of which was surrounded by its own wall. In shakhristan and each quarter there was a mosque, which was the larger and more richly decorated, the richer the given quarter was. The mosque, as a rule, ended with a dome, and next to it there was a tower - a minaret (or several minarets). The houses of ordinary residents were flat-roofed, one-story, built of clay, overlooking the streets with a blank wall, with a courtyard. Important public buildings of the city were caravanserai (hotels), med-rese (schools), baths, located in the center of the city.

Muslim conquests reached India in the 13th century. In the XVI century. a new wave of conquests took place, as a result of which the Mughal Empire was created, which included almost the entire Hindustan peninsula. At the same time, large capital cities, numbering hundreds of thousands of inhabitants, developed in the north of the country, from where the conquests came. In different ᴨȇrios they were the cities of Delhi and Agra. The principles of urban planning of Indian cities of that time included both ancient Indian and Arab elements. So, in Delhi, the Red Fort was built (composed of a red ᴨȇschanik), which was a fortress and a palace of the emperors Simagin Yu.A., the same, p.96. Near Agra, the Taj Mahal mausoleum has been preserved - one of the most outstanding buildings of medieval India, built according to the classical plan of a mosque and surrounded by socially created reservoirs.

China was first subjected to the Mongol and then the Manchurian invasion. At the same time, the capital of the country was also transferred to the north - to Beijing. The center of Beijing was a complex of imperial palaces surrounded by gardens - the Purple (Forbidden) City. Around him was the Imperial city, in which the approximate emperor, his guards and servants lived. It surrounded the Imᴨȇatorsky city of the Outer Tatar (barbarian) city, in which the Mongols lived, and then the Manchus. Adjacent to it was the Outer Chinese City, in which the bulk of the population lived. Each of the parts was surrounded by its own walls. Separate streets in the Outer City, built up with wooden houses, were also locked at night, forming regular square quarters. Apparently, the authorities were afraid that the huge masses of people concentrated in the city could get out of obedience. Beijing since the 18th century. had more than 1 million inhabitants, being at that time the largest city in the world. The most outstanding buildings of Chinese cities were the palaces of rulers and temples (pagodas), which stood out sharply against the background of ordinary buildings in their size and design.

In general, we can say that in the cities of the East, the main functions in the Middle Ages remained administrative and military, although the majority of the population in them, as in Europe, were artisans and merchants. The eastern cities never received any autonomy, which hindered social progress and preserved the regimes of feudal relations until the beginning of the 20th century. Constant external conquests by more backward peoples hampered cultural and technical progress. Outwardly, the eastern cities still looked like a combination of magnificent palaces and temples - on the one hand, and the wretched shacks of the majority of the inhabitants - on the other, from which the cities of Europe began to leave in the early Middle Ages. It is not surprising that in modern times, the cities of the East began to develop under European influence and today they retain their originality only in the old parts Simagin Yu. A., the same, pp. 97-98.

2. Economic prerequisites for the territorial organization of the population.

The main task of the economy (economy) is to provide the material basis for the functioning of society. Economic relations and processes permeate the entire public life. Naturally, in this case, the economy affects almost all aspects of society, including the territorial organization of the population. The most common dependencies can be identified on the type of economy, determined by its economic structure. The main types distinguished in this case are:

appropriating economy;

agricultural economy;

industrial economy;

postindustrial economy.

In the earliest stages of human development, the economy as such was absent. The so-called appropriating economy dominated - people lived at the expense of what nature gave them. At the same time, they were engaged in hunting, fishing, gathering, not standing out economically from many animal species (but already standing out socially) Simagin Yu. A., the same, p. 180. Tribes of people slowly moved along the coasts of seas and rivers, following the herds of large hunting animals, gradually populating almost the entire surface of the land, except for the most severe natural areas in the regions of the poles and high mountains. There were no permanent settlements, and the population density was extremely low - even in the most densely populated areas no more than 1 person.
per 1 km 2. Currently on Earth large territories with the predominance of the appropriating economy was not preserved.

In the VIII-X millennium BC. e, at about the same time in several regions of the earth, an agrarian (Neolithic) revolution began - a transition from an appropriating economy to a producing (rural) one. The resulting type of economy is agrarian (pre-industrial), which by the II millennium AD. e. spread to almost all territories inhabited by people (except Australia and a large part of America). The main sign of the dominance of the agrarian type of economy is the predominance of agriculture (ᴨȇprimary sector of the economy) in the employment structure and / or the structure of production (GDP). At present, the agrarian type of economy still prevails in the least developed states of the Earth (Burundi and others in Africa, Bhutan and others in Asia).

The main branches of agriculture are plant growing and animal husbandry. Accordingly, already at the beginning of the agrarian revolution, two different types of territorial organization of the population were formed - permanent agricultural and nomadic livestock. Their common features are the dispersion of the population, the strong dependence of density and settlement on natural conditions, extremely rare (as a rule, one in several generations) permanent ᴨȇ-settlements for the agricultural development of new territories.

Under the influence of nomadic animal husbandry, a network of permanent settlements did not develop. People are constantly moving around certain territories following herds of animals that need food and water. The population density remains low, rarely exceeding the value of 1 person.
per 1 km 2. Initially, the areas of distribution of nomadism significantly exceeded the areas of agricultural settlement, but today nomadic settlement has survived only in certain areas of the North and East Africa, Southwestern and Central Asia. In some cases, permanent migrations were transformed into seasonal ones (between high-mountain and low-mountain territories, between tundra and forest-tundra, etc.), which led to the emergence of temporarily inhabited settlements and a slight increase in population density, but not more than up to 10 people.
per 1 km 2.

Under the influence of crop production, a network of permanent settlements has developed, the size and density of which strongly depend on the favorable natural conditions for crop production. As a result, the population density can vary widely, but, as a rule, it ranges from 10 to 100 people.
per 1 km 2. At the same time, residents are distinguished by a strong attachment to the land, extremely low migration mobility. Most of them never leave their settlement in their lives. The most common trips are to the nearest market several times a year. Initially, permanent agricultural settlement occupied relatively small territories, but today it prevails in the countryside of the vast majority of the states of the Earth.

The Industrial Revolution began in the 17th and 18th centuries. in foreign Europe, and by now has spread to the vast majority of the territories of the Earth inhabited by people. As a result, an industrial type of economy was formed - the predominance of industry and construction or the secondary sector in the structure of employment and production. The industrial type of economy prevails in most modern states.

The development of industry causes a rapid concentration of the population in cities and their agglomerations. As a result, mass flows of permanent ᴨȇsettlers are formed - mainly from rural areas to cities, and then to suburban areas Simagin Yu. A., the same, p.182. Massive labor pendulum migrations appear - mainly within the framework of urban agglomerations, which gradually begin to exceed permanent settlements in terms of their scale (the number of people involved). The value of natural conditions for the concentration of the population is noticeably reduced. The main ones are socio-economic conditions, especially the convenience of transport links. The population density increases sharply - up to 1000 people.
per 1 km 2 in the most urbanized areas. At the same time, the population density in non-urbanized rural areas begins to decline.

The transition to a post-industrial type of economy (the predominance of the service sector or the tertiary sector in the structure of employment and GDP) began in the most developed countries of the Earth (USA, Japan, Western Europe) in the second half of the 20th century. Intensive development of the service sector is possible only with a sufficiently high concentration of the population - as a rule, at least 50 people.
per 1 km 2. But then the multiplier effect kicks in. The greater the concentration of the population, the more people necessary for work in the service sector, in connection with this, the concentration of the population increases even more, i.e., the population itself becomes the main resource for the development of the economy. As a result, the population density in areas with a developed service sector can reach several thousand people per 1 km 2. But at the same time, not only the shares of those employed in the secondary and primary sectors of the economy are decreasing, but also the absolute scale of production in these sectors - industrial enterprises are being closed, the area of ​​agricultural land is shrinking. So, the scale of human impact on natural environment, including the area of ​​intensively used territories. In ᴨȇrsᴨȇktiv, with such a trend, it is even possible to reduce the population

people of the territories of the Earth.

As a result, return migrations surpass permanent settlements in scale and significance. At the same time, commuting migration for services and irregular recreational trips are becoming especially large. Although the importance of labor migrations (pendulum and longer irregular) remains. Specific migration flows turn out to be strongly related to the level of development of the service sector and the characteristics of its organization.

The conducted retrospective analysis of the relationship between the development of the economy and the territorial organization of the population allows us to identify a general pattern due to the degree of development of the territory. In the early stages of development of the territory (and the initial stages of development of the economy), the population "follows" the economy. So, gradually, people settled almost the entire surface of the earth's land, following the biological natural resources, and then mastered almost all suitable territories for agriculture. The latest manifestation of this trend is the modern "areas of new development", where people appeared to extract industrial natural resources. But as the territory is developed and the economy develops, the economy begins to "follow" the population. A turning point occurs during the industrial tyᴨȇ of the economy, when for many industries the main factor in the location of enterprises is labor (availability of labor resources, especially qualified ones). With the post-industrial type of economy, even the reduction of territories already developed by man begins - the economy is "pulled" into the most populated and developed areas. So, at all stages, there is a regular correlation between the economy and settlement. But at first, the leading link in this connection is the economy, and subsequently - resettlement.

In a market economy, the interaction between the economy and the population is carried out through the mechanisms of the labor market. The supply in this market is the number of people willing to work, and the demand is the number of jobs provided by employers. The ratio of supply and demand is regulated by the price of labor - the level of wages Yu. A. Simagin, the same, p.184. At the same time, at any particular moment in time, supply and demand, as a rule, do not coincide, as a result of which either unemployment is formed - an excess of supply over demand, or a shortage of personnel - an excess of demand over supply.

In the general case, unemployment in a limited area (local, regional or national labor market) contributes to the outflow of the population to other territories, and the shortage of personnel - to the influx of people from other territories. But in certain situations this may not be the case.

First, it is important unemployment rate-- the share of the unemployed in the economically active population. Unemployment above 10% is considered high - only then can we talk about the outflow of the population caused by it, and the impact of unemployment will be relatively noticeable at a level of at least 5%.

Secondly, it is necessary to take into account types of unemployment. She may be:

dynamic (frictional) - when an unemployed person already knows where he will work, but has not yet started work for various reasons, for example, workplace not yet created, although it should appear in the near future;

structural - when the unemployed and the available vacancies do not correspond to each other according to any characteristics (occupation, age, etc.), although there may be more vacancies than the unemployed;

cyclic - when, in conditions of an economic crisis (reduction in employment), the number of unemployed is in principle greater than the number of available vacancies, and it is impossible to provide all the unemployed with work;

associated with agrarian ᴨȇrepopulation - when in areas dominated by the agrarian type of economy, in conditions of constant natural growth and limited resources (land and water), an "excess" population is constantly formed, unable to find jobs.

At dynamic unemployment, which can reach significant levels in areas with a large seasonal unevenness of labor (agricultural, resort, etc.), there are no large displacements of the population. The unemployed are waiting for the appearance of work (the onset of the season), existing on benefits or savings accumulated over the past season. But seasonal labor migration to other areas is also possible.

At structural unemployment, the outflow of the population will occur if there are vacant jobs in other areas in the same sociality that the unemployed have, and if resettlement will have less significant costs than ᴨȇretraining for those socialities that are required for place. Naturally, the level of salary after ᴨȇsettlement or ᴨȇretraining will also matter.

At cyclical unemployment, there will be a massive outflow of the unemployed. At the same time, most of them ᴨȇp-initially will settle for a limited period, hoping to return back after the situation improves. And only in the case of a successful settlement in a new place, while maintaining a difficult economic situation in the old one, can the final resettlement with the family move in. In addition, the cyclical unemployed will massively participate in migration to areas with seasonal rises in employment.

At agricultural ᴨȇrepopulation there will be a constant outflow of the "surplus" population - either to areas of new agricultural development (if any), or to the cities of their country and other states where there is a chance of finding work. In this case, ᴨȇsettlements on permanent place residence, but many of them will be more like in the previous case, have a gradual character: first for a certain period (from several months to several years), then for permanent residence Simagin Yu. A., the same, p.186. Another significant difference- with agrarian repopulation in migrations, the proportion of young people is the highest, since it is she who constantly turns out to be "superfluous" in agricultural areas, where all jobs are already occupied.

In addition to the ratio of supply and demand in the labor market (the presence of unemployment or a shortage of personnel), the level of wages is also important, or rather, its relationship with the cost of living. So, there will be no influx of unemployed to areas with a shortage of personnel (or even an outflow local population) if the ratio of wages and the cost of living in these areas is worse than in others.

The influence of the labor market on population migration can be well seen in the example modern migrations between developing and developed countries. These migrations are predominantly labor. At the same time, in accordance with the general patterns of development of the economy and settlement, the value of permanent settlements is gradually decreasing, and the value of temporary settlements (seasonal, for several years, etc.) is increasing.

In developing countries, there is a permanent agrarian population, which provides a significant amount of unskilled labor. Economic crises with cyclical unemployment are also not uncommon. IN developed countries, on the contrary, there is an almost constant shortage of unskilled labor (except during the most acute periods economic crises). As a result, flows of unskilled migrants (“muscle drain”) are formed from developing countries to developed ones, in which all parties involved are interested:

countries of emigration (outgoing migrants), as this eases the demographic pressure in them, making it possible to ease the problem of unemployment and the lack of various resources for a growing population;

countries of immigration (influx of migrants), because without their labor the functioning of many sectors of the economy would be impossible. Especially great importance immigrant labor in the sparsely populated oil-exporting states of the Persian Gulf (Kuwait and others) - up to 90% of all employed. But even in many European states, immigrants make up to 30% of all employed;

The migrants themselves, since as a result of migration they significantly improve their economic situation, receive a relatively high (relative to the country of emigration) paid work, which allows not only to live in the country of immigration, but in many cases financially support relatives in the country of emigration. In many developing countries (even such large ones as Egypt) money transfers of emigrants are one of the main sources of foreign exchange in the country.

But due to a more favorable ratio of wages and the cost of living from developing countries to developed ones, there is also an outflow of highly qualified personnel ("brain drain"), despite their shortage in the developing countries themselves. The scale of such migrations is hundreds of times smaller than the flows of unskilled workers. But there is a clear problem, because in this case there is a "post-gratifying" side. These are developing states that have spent significant funds on the training of the necessary socialists, and are deprived of them without any compensation.

These general patterns of the relationship between the economy and the territorial organization of the population operate in modern Russia. Thus, for centuries Russia pursued a policy of developing the outskirts of the state, primarily the sparsely populated northern and eastern Simagin Yu. A., the same, p.188. This policy manifested itself especially clearly in the 1930s-1970s, when, under the conditions of a planned economy, large-scale projects were created for the development of natural resources in the northern and eastern regions of Russia - a hydropower cascade on the Angara, Baikal-Amur railway line, the Norilsk Metallurgical Complex, etc., and the population was involved in the implementation of these projects, as a result of which the settlement systems of many previously practically uninhabited territories were practically re-created. Population of some regions ( Murmansk region, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, Kamchatka Oblast, etc.) for the period of 1930-1980s. increased by 20-40 times, while the proportion of the population living in the old developed parts of the country (Central and North-Western Russia) was constantly decreasing.

Unfortunately, in many cases, resettlement was not voluntary (due to high salaries, various benefits, and other similar reasons), but forced (widespread use of the labor of the repressed and prisoners, mass deportations, including entire peoples) . Nevertheless, the main trend was very clear: the population followed the production, although by the 1980s. the pace of this process has clearly slowed down.

In the 1990s occurred ᴨȇrel, accelerated by an acute socio-economic crisis. The economy in the most developed and populated areas of the country suffered to a lesser degree than in the areas of new development. Some branches of the service sector - trade, finance, etc. - increased the scale of production, and this also happened in the most populated parts of the country, i.e., there was a tendency to concentrate the economy in the most populated areas.

The dynamics of the employment structure by industry is shown in the table. It is clear that at the beginning of the XX century. Russia was a typical country with an agrarian type of economy (and the predominance of the corresponding territorial organization of the population). By the middle of the century, the industrial type of economy became predominant. And in the 1990s. there has been a transition to a post-industrial type of economy. At the same time, in fact, the post-industrial type of economy (and the corresponding territorial organization of the population) is typical only for the two most developed regions of the country - Moscow and St. Petersburg. Whereas in many regions (the republics of Dagestan, Kalmykia, Ingushetia, Altai, Tyva, Chechen, autonomous regions Evenki, Koryak, Aginsky and Ust-Ordynsky Buryat) still retain the agrarian structure of the economy with a predominance of rural settlement, formed under the influence of primarily natural conditions. Most regions of the country are characterized by a territorial organization of the population associated with an industrial type of economy (concentration in cities and urban agglomerations, the development of pendulum labor migrations, etc.).

Changing the structure of employmentby sectors of the Russian economy,%

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Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-2.jpg" alt=">Peculiarities in the Middle Ages, the countries of the East experienced several invasions of nomadic peoples who"> Особенности в Средние века страны Востока переживают несколько нашествий кочевых народов, которые с течением времени воспринимают городскую культуру, но происходит это каждый раз практически заново. развитие городов на Востоке идет значительно медленнее, а связь с древними городами оказывается более тесной. В наибольшей степени это проявляется при формировании сети и принципов организации арабских городов.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-3.jpg" alt=">The Arab conquests in the 7th-8th centuries covered a vast territory from the Iberian Peninsula before"> Арабские завоевания в VII-VIII вв охватили огромную территорию от Пиренейского полуострова до долина Инда. При этом большинство древних городов на этой территории было разрушено, а на их месте возникли лагеря кочевников, впоследствии ставшие городами (Каир в Египте, Рабат в Марокко) Столицей арабского государства первоначально была Медина - небольшой город в пустынной части Аравийского полуострова!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-4.jpg" alt="> Medina"> Медина В древности город назывался Ясриб (Ятриб), В 622 в Медину из Мекки переселился основатель ислама Мухаммед и создал первую в мире мусульманскую общину. После этого город получил название Медина (от арабского «мадина» - город, сокращение от «Мадина-эн-Наби» - «Город Пророка»!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-5.jpg" alt="> Medina. Prophet's Mosque In the Prophet's Mosque, one of the greatest shrines of the Muslim world,"> Medina. The Mosque of the Prophet In the Mosque of the Prophet, one of the greatest shrines of the Muslim world, are the tombs of the Prophet Muhammad, his daughter Fatima and Omar - the second Caliph of the Arab Caliphate.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-6.jpg" alt=">Arab cities Later, the capital was moved closer to the main trade routes of that"> Арабские города Позже столица была перенесена ближе к главным торговым путям того времени - сначала в Дамаск, а затем в специально построенный в 762 г. в качестве столицы город Багдад возник в месте схождения рек Тигра и Евфрата, т. е. примерно в том же месте, где существовали Вавилон и другие столицы древности. Багдад в период своего расцвета насчитывал до 2 млн. жителей и являлся самым крупным городом в мире, но после монгольских завоеваний XIII в. он потерял свое значение.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-7.jpg" alt=">Building principles of Arab cities. A hill in the city center was occupied by a fortress (shahristan or"> Принципы застройки арабских городов. Возвышенность в центре города занимала крепость (шахристан или касба), в которой поселялся правитель данной местности (в Багдаде - халиф) со своими приближенными, военной дружиной и слугами. Дворец правителя включал в себя систему внутренних дворов, занятых садами, бассейнами и фонтанами. Вокруг крепости располагалась торгово-ремесленная часть города (рабад), окруженная внешней оборонительной стеной. В ее центре находилась базарная площадь, а ремесленники жили в кварталах по профессиональному признаку, каждый из которых бал окружен своей стеной.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-8.jpg" alt=">Mosque and rich"> Мечеть В шахристане и каждом квартале находилась мечеть, которая была тем больше и богато украшенной, чем богаче был данный квартал!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-9.jpg" alt=">Arab city The mosque, as a rule, ended with a dome, and next to she was"> Арабский город Мечеть, как правило, завершалась куполом, а рядом с ней находился башня - минарет (или несколько минаретов). Дома простых жителей были с плоскими крышами, одноэтажными, сооруженными из глины, выходящими на улицы глухой стеной, с внутренним двором. Важными общественными зданиями города были караван-сараи (гостиницы), медресе (школы), бани, располагавшиеся в центре города.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-10.jpg" alt=">India ."> Индия До Индии мусульманские завоевания докатились в XIII в. В XVI в. прошла новая волна завоеваний, в результате которых была создана империя Великих Моголов, включившая почти весь полуостров Индостан. !} Major capital cities, numbering hundreds of thousands of inhabitants, developed in the north of the country, from where the conquests came. In different periods they were the cities of Delhi and Agra. The urban planning principles of Indian cities of that time included both ancient Indian and Arabic elements.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-11.jpg" alt=">The Red Fort was built in Delhi (made of red sandstone ), which was"> Города Индии в Дели был построен Красный форт (сложен из красного песчаника), являвшийся крепостью и дворцом императоров.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-12.jpg" alt=">Cities of India outstanding buildings of the medieval"> Города Индии Вблизи Агры сохранился мавзолей Тадж-Махал - одна из самых выдающихся построек средневековой Индии, построенная по классическому плану мечети и окруженная специально созданными водоемами.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-13.jpg" alt=">China was first subjected to the Mongol and then the Manchu invasion. At the same time, the capital country was also"> Китай подвергся сначала монгольскому, а затем манчжурскому нашествию. При этом столица страны также была перенесена на север - в Пекин.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-14.jpg" alt=">Planning The complex of imperial palaces surrounded by gardens became the center of Beijing - Purple"> Планировка Центром Пекина стал комплекс императорских дворцов, окруженных садами - Пурпурный (Запретный) город. Вокруг него находился Императорский город, в котором проживали приближенные императора, его гвардия и слуги. Окружал Императорский город Внешний Татарский (варварский) город, в котором проживали монголы, а затем манчжуры. К нему примыкал Внешний Китайский город, в котором проживала основная масса населения!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-15.jpg" alt=">Cities of China">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-16.jpg" alt=">Layout Each of the parts was surrounded by its own walls. At night they locked and"> Планировка Каждая из частей была окружена своими стенами. На ночь запирались и отдельные улицы во Внешнем городе, застроенные деревянными домами, образующими правильные квадратные кварталы. Видимо, власти опасались, что огромные массы людей, сосредоточенные в городе, могут выйти из повиновения. Пекин уже с XVIII в. насчитывал более 1 млн. жителей, являясь в то время крупнейшим городом мира. Наиболее выдающимися постройками китайских городов являлись дворцы правителей и храмы (пагоды), которые резко выделялись на фоне рядовой застройки своими размерами и оформлением.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-17.jpg" alt=">Differences from the medieval cities of Europe"> Отлтчия от средневековых городов Европы В городах Востока главными функциями остались административная и военная, хотя большинство населения в них, как и в Европе, составляли ремесленники и торговцы. Восточные города так и не получили никакой автономии, что тормозило социальный прогресс и сохранило пережитки феодальных отношений вплоть до начала XX в. Постоянные внешние завоевания более отсталыми народами тормозили культурный и технический прогресс. Внешне восточные города по-прежнему выглядели как сочетание великолепных дворцов и храмов - с одной стороны, и убогих лачуг большинства жителей - с другой, от чего в городах Европы начали уходить еще в раннем Средневековье.!}

Architecture of Eastern Europe. Middle Ages

In the medieval architecture of the EastEurope, Asia Minor and Transcaucasia for more thanthan a thousand years of its existencea number of national architecturalschools, which had a great variety,and features related to thembetween themselves. The first was duethe peculiarity of the tasks that set beforearchitecture of each country, its naturalconditions and influence of the nationalcultures of the past. Secondstemmed from the similarity between social andstate system and everyday lifedifferent countries on the samelevel of their development, and from closecultural and sometimes political tiesbetween them. Such features arethe entire architecture of these territories,distinguish it from Western architecture Europe.

Medieval cities as in the West,so in the East or developed from the old ones,retaining much of the legacyfrom antiquity a rectangular grid of streets,or arose at the site of former genericsettlements, usually acquiring radialcircular layout with a center in the formcastle. But in a number of cities in Eastern Europe,more susceptible to attack by enemies,than the western, fortified urbanthe center received the appearance of the Kremlin, which contained notonly the dwelling of the feudal lord and his servants, but alsothe dwellings of a number of his vassals, and sometimes the bishop,cathedral church, several otherschurches and monasteries and served as a refugefor citizens during the siege of the city. differedin the West and East and layoutsuch typical for the Middle Ages architecturalcomplexes, like monasteries, oftenwho had more freedom in the Eastplacement of buildings with standing insulatedin the middle main church and locatedaround, closer to the fence, residentialand commercial buildings. More closelysometimes touching each otherbuildings of some monasteries were locatedArmenia and Georgia, but not here eitherwas typical of Western monasteriescourtyard adjoining the church with arcades,dormitory and chapter hall.

The most obvious differences between the architectureChristian East and architectureWest affected the main publicbuildings of the Middle Ages - temples.The centric type dominated in the Easttemple, mostly cross-domed,with a number of different optionsthe number of naves, piers and domes,the presence or absence of chorus and locationthe latter, the composition of the altarparts and vestibules; was widespread there.and an earlier type of domed basilica.In such centric temples, of particular importancegot a vertical axis that coincidedwith the top of the dome, often standingon a high drum; she subjugated herselfclustered around part of the building.Therefore, here the volume of the building had morevalue than individual facades, oftenmore or less equivalent. Such"multi-façade" is anotherhallmark of Christiantemples of the medieval East.

In the interiors of these temples, the mainwas the middle part, the highestand brightly illuminated by the light pouring fromdrum windows. Another distinctivea feature of most Eastern Christiantemples had little use in their externaland interior decoration of sculpturalimages and the special meaning thathad painting in it. This is where the medievalart has developed characteristicfor him, the methods of synthesis of architectureand monumental painting, based onsubordination of the placement and composition of lifeinscribed images to the axes of the internalbuilding space and relativeflatness of these images, which did not havelinear and aerial perspective,visually "destroying" the surface of the walls and vaults.

The centric type of the temple is associated withsuch advances in construction technologymedieval East, like a dome on girtharches and sails, overlappingsquare in terms of the room, and the dome onlight drum. Wide application andthe development of vaulted ceilings usednot only in cult, but often inresidential buildings, was also characteristicfeature of medieval architecturethese places, based on experience not onlyancient Rome, but also Syria, Mesopotamia,Sassanid Iran - countries where vaultsused for a long time, in various formsand large scale.

Inherited from ancient architecturethe order has changed due to the fact that the columnscarried no longer straight architraves,but the arches, which changed the proportions of the columns,and the shape of their capitals. The proportions of the columnsused as decorationwalls, often emphasized their decorativeappointment, and the wall was no longer interpretedlike padding between columns, buthad a form that corresponded to its meaningbearing part of the building. The most masonry - mixedfrom alternating rows of stone andbrick, brick and stone - usedas a means of enhancing artisticexpressiveness of buildings. Outdoorthe decoration of such walls was made of thosethe same materials; in brick and mixedbuildings, it was a patternedmasonry that worked together with the arraywalls. Often in decorative wall treatmentthe motif of the arch was used in the form of large deafarches on the facades, or smaller arches,formed belts, or eyebrows above the windows,or semicircles surrounding the basedomes and crowned drums.Such decorative details were repeatedoutlines of structural elements of buildings -arok and zakomar, just asniches on the facades repeated the outlineswindow openings. All this, plus matchingshapes and sizes of decorative elementsproperties and dimensions of buildingmaterials is observed in both stone andin brick and mixed buildings.

On Balkan Peninsula, in Transcaucasiaand, especially, in Rus' as the mainbuilding material foundwide application and wood. Whereinwalls and ceilings were built from horizontallystacked logs that in the medievalWestern and Central Europepracticed only in residential and commercialbuildings of Scandinavian and West Slavic countries.

In Transcaucasia, such a constructivereception led to the emergence of peculiartypes of floors used in stonebuildings, and in Rus' it also influencedplanning of residential buildings, which builders,being connected by the length of the log, made upfrom a number of log cabins, adjoiningdirectly or relatedtransitions, and such a reception of themcompositions later moved to stone the buildings.

Such compositional, constructiveAnd artistic features were in thator otherwise inherent in the architecturevarious countries of Eastern Europe, MalayaAsia and Transcaucasia. Distinctive featureseach national architecturehave been described above, in the respectivechapters, and they were noted inthose countries where architecture developed inlargely based on localtraditions dating back to late antiquity,and in younger countries wherearchitecture came first from the Byzantinesamples, and then, in accordance withlocal tasks and opportunities, developedits national character.It should also be noted here that there are commonfeatures in the architecture of geographically closecountries, which was also due to culturalconnections between them, and the similarity of socialand natural conditions, and generalityexternal influences.

In the architecture of Armenia and Georgia, wherestone construction was knownbefore the addition of feudalism, the first stonebuildings of the feudal era, and in particularChristian temples, reveal similaritieswith buildings not of Byzantium, but of Centraland southern Syria, with which Transcaucasiawas connected not only with the Syrianthe origin of the first preachersChristianity, but also by the similarity of local naturalbuilding materials. In progressfurther development in architectureArmenia and Georgia soon had their ownfeatures that distinguish it from architectureother countries of the Christian East. These aretemple plans based on non-equilateral"Greek" and not "Latin"with an elongated western branch, a cross, but a crosswith short transverse and long,equal longitudinal branches.Such is the peculiar method of inscribingcomplex in composition internalspace, sometimes with an abundance of curvilinearplanes, in a simple and concisevolume where even apses andjust crashing into a smooth surfacewalls dihedral niches mark the boundarybetween them. Characteristic for both Armenian,and for Georgian temples straight slopesroofs over vaults and conicaldome covers. At the same time, the presencethese common for the Armenian and Georgianthe architecture of the devil does not deprive everyoneof them of great national identity.

In architecture Slavic countries and closelyculturally associatedMoldova and Wallachia, along with the nationalthe uniqueness of each of them,it is possible to find some unifyingtheir features to each other. Yes, Bulgariantemples of the era of the Second Bulgariankingdoms, single-nave, with a square plantower over the narthex, find an analogy insome Serbian churches in Moravianschools, and patterned stone-brick decorativethe decoration of the facades is similar in churches14th century in Serbia, Macedonia and Bulgaria.Three-conch plans of four-pillarsor single-nave churches of Serbia and MacedoniaXIV - the first half of the XV century. spreadfrom the end of the 14th century. in Moldavia and Wallachia,where they were applied and lateralong with some decorative motifs,related to Bulgarian. Finally,stepped composition of the transition from the mainthe volume of temples to the drums of their domescharacteristic of some Russian buildings,and Serbian churches of Kosovo-Metohijaand Moravian schools, and Moldovanchurches of the XV-XVII centuries, although in each countrysuch a transition had its constructivebase and appearance.

The similarity of the overall composition of the Slavicand Byzantine churches is easily explainedsuccession of the former with the latter,served at an early stage in the development of architectureSlavic peoples samplesfor their architects. A number of constructive techniquesand forms also passed from Byzantium toSlavic countries, where the stone monumentalarchitecture was born at the timewhen Byzantine had already reached its peak.But late Byzantine architectureexperienced some influencearchitecture of the Slavs: the influence of Russian architectureappearance can be explainedin some Greek churches of the XIII-XV centuries.completion of the walls with zakomars and pozakomarscoatings, and in rare cases, the likestepped arrangement of zakomar.Patterned masonry adorning the facades of Bulgarian,Macedonian and Serbian buildings,gave rise to similar decorationson the facades not only of Greek churches, butand the palaces of Constantinople. Even earlieron Byzantine architecture startedaffect the connection with the architecture of Transcaucasia,in which, for example, beforeanywhere else, high drums appeared domes.

Architecture individual countries EasternEurope, Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, not onlydeveloped in close connection with architectureneighboring lands, but also had pointscontact with Western architectureEurope, Iran, Arab and Turkic peoples.On connections with Romanesque architectureWest says a number of details of the facade decorationSerbian buildings of the Raska school,where these ties were carried out through a single-tribeSerbia Dalmatia; about the samesays the presence of towers at the western facadessome of these buildings as well asat some temples ancient Rus'. About relationship withRomanesque architecture testifies andapplication in some Russian churchesXI - early XIII century. semi-cylindricalvaults and single apses, as well as decorativeprocessing of facades of brick templesDnieper region XII - early XIII century. Andstone temples of Galicia and Vladimir lands.

In the architecture of Moldova, ledge buttresses and lancet arches and platbandswindows and doors are related to Gothic, withwhich Moldovan architecture touchedthrough Tran, adjacent to Moldovasylvania. Some Romanesque and Gothicforms appeared in separate buildingsGreek school of Byzantine architectureXIII-XV centuries, in the era of dominationover part of her "Latins". Conical Coatingsdomes of Armenian and Georgian churchessimilar to conical and polyhedralcoverings of some structures of Azerbaijan,Iran and Central Asia, and in laterbuildings of Christian Transcaucasiasometimes there are four-centeredlancet arches and niches covered stalactites.

The same should be said about the new typetemple, which became widespread in Italyin the Renaissance, also centricand with a dome on a light drum,girth arches and sails supportedon four pylons or on the corners of the pillarlesspremises. This type of temple, which passedthen to baroque and classicism architectureand spread throughout Europefurther development of Eastern Europeancross-domed church. in templesItalian Renaissance composition createdin medieval Eastern Europe,acquired a new character, imbued with non-medievalspiritualism, but humanisticthe spirit of the new age. Something similarnew types of buildings characteristic of its timeand corresponding to the development of constructiontechniques constructive techniques, butand new artistic images, revealingopportunities in newtypes and designs of buildings and reflectingworldview and ideology of the feudalera. At the same time, she made a significantcontribution to the architecture of the subsequenttime, endowing it with a number of constructiveAnd compositional techniques, suitable andto solve new problems.