Western Oceania. Oceania

Its total area is 1.3 million km2. Moreover, 90% of the territory is occupied by two islands - Novaya (829 thousand km2) and (269 thousand km2).

Oceania became known to Europeans in the 16th century, from the time of F.'s first round-the-world trip. special chapter in the history of its discovery and research are the campaigns of Russian navigators. Only in the 19th century, more than 40 Russian expeditions visited there, which collected valuable scientific information. A great contribution to the study of Oceania was made by N.N. , who described the life and way of life of the peoples inhabiting the islands, as well as the islands and shores of the tropical sea. The contribution of compatriots to the study of Oceania is evidenced by Russian names on its map. The origin of the islands is various:

The modern political map of Oceania was formed as a result of the stubborn struggle of the colonial powers for the division of the islands and archipelagos among themselves. Until the early 60s of the XX century, there was one independent state in Oceania - created by colonists from England.

In the states of Oceania, the production of coconuts, coffee, and spices is of great importance. A promising industry in a number of states is timber harvesting ( Solomon islands, Fiji, Zap. Samoa). In recent years, manufacturing enterprises have been built in Oceania with help. They are focused mainly on the domestic market.

Oceania is an extremely peculiar region of the world with amazing beautiful nature, original culture, therefore, its uniqueness begins to be actively used, and it becomes a place of pilgrimage for tourists and vacationers (Fiji, Papua New Guinea).

In terms of the level of socio-economic development, the states of Oceania differ significantly from each other. Most developed New Zealand, least - Solomon Islands, Tuvalu. A serious brake on the development of countries is their remoteness from economic developed centers peace.

Australia and Oceania on a hemisphere map

Australia and Oceania on the world map

Oceania- the collective name for a vast cluster of islands and atolls in the central and western parts Pacific Ocean. The boundaries of Oceania are conditional. The western border is considered to be the island, the eastern -. As a rule, Oceania does not include Australia, as well as the islands and archipelagos of Southeast Asia, the Far East and North America. In the section of geography, regional studies, Oceania is studied by an independent discipline - ocean studies.

Geographical position

Physical map of Australia and Oceania (English)

Regions of Australia and Oceania

Political map of Australia and Oceania

Oceania is the world's largest cluster of islands located in the southwestern and central parts of the Pacific Ocean, between the subtropical latitudes of the northern and temperate southern hemispheres. When all the land is divided into parts of the world, Oceania is usually combined with Australia into a single part of the world Australia and Oceania, although sometimes it is separated into an independent part of the world.

Geographically, Oceania is divided into several regions: (in the northwest), (in the west), and (in the east); sometimes isolated.

The total area of ​​the islands of Oceania, the largest of which is, is 1.26 million km² (together with Australia 8.52 million km²), the population is about 10.7 million people. (together with Australia 32.6 million people). Excluding Australia, Oceania is comparable to an African state in terms of total area and total population.

The islands of Oceania are washed by numerous seas of the Pacific (Coral Sea, Tasman Sea, Fiji Sea, Koro Sea, Solomon Sea, New Guinea Sea, Philippine Sea) and Indian Oceans (Arafur Sea).

The Equator and the International Date Line pass through Oceania. It is a broken line, most of which runs along the 180° meridian.

sea ​​currents

Through the whole of Oceania, along the equator, there are warm North trade winds and South trade winds and the Inter-trade countercurrent. The warm East Australian Current passes through the southwestern part of Oceania. Characteristic of Oceania is the absence of cold sea ​​currents(with the exception of the Pacific Ocean southeast of New Zealand), which largely determines the climate of this region.

Independent States

Dependencies and Trust Territories

Geology

Mount Jaya in Western New Guinea (Indonesia) - the highest point in Oceania

From the point of view of geology, Oceania is not a continent: only Australia, and are of continental origin, having formed on the site of the hypothetical continent Gondwana. In the past, these islands were a single land, but as a result of the rise in the level of the World Ocean, a significant part of the surface was under water. The relief of these islands is mountainous and strongly dissected. For example, highest mountains Oceania, including Mount Jaya (5029 m), are located on the island.

Most of the islands of Oceania are of volcanic origin: some of them are the tops of large underwater volcanoes, some of which still show high volcanic activity (for example, the Hawaiian Islands).

Other islands have their origin, being atolls, which were formed as a result of the formation of coral structures around submerged volcanoes (for example, the Gilbert Islands, Tuamotu). Distinctive feature such islands are large lagoons, which are surrounded by numerous islets, or motu, the average height of which does not exceed three meters. In Oceania, there is an atoll with the largest lagoon in the world - Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands archipelago. Despite the fact that its land area is only 16.32 km² (or 6.3 sq. miles), the area of ​​​​the lagoon is 2174 km² (or 839.3 sq. miles). The largest atoll in terms of land area is Christmas Island (or Kiritimati) in the Line Archipelago (or Central Polynesian Sporades) - 322 km². However, among the atolls there is also a special type - an elevated (or elevated) atoll, which is a limestone plateau up to 50-60 m above sea level. This type of island has no lagoon or traces of its past existence. Examples of such atolls are Banaba.

The relief and geological structure of the bottom of the Pacific Ocean in the Oceania region has a complex structure. From the peninsula (it is part of) to New Zealand, there are a large number of basins of marginal seas, deep ocean trenches (Tonga, Kermadec, Bougainville), which form a geosynclinal belt characterized by active volcanism, seismicity and contrasting relief.

There are no minerals on most of the islands of Oceania, only the largest of them are being developed: nickel (), oil and gas (island,), copper (Bougainville island in), gold (New Guinea,), phosphates (on most islands, deposits are almost or already developed, for example, in, on the islands of Banaba, Makatea). In the past, decomposed seabird droppings were actively mined on many islands in the region, which was used as nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer. On the ocean floor of the exclusive economic zone of a number of countries there are large accumulations of iron-manganese nodules, as well as cobalt, but at the moment no development is being carried out due to economic inexpediency.

Climate

Space image of Kwajalein Atoll

Coast of Caroline Atoll (Line Islands, Kiribati)

Oceania is located within several climatic zones: equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate. Most of the islands have a tropical climate. The subequatorial climate dominates on islands near Australia and Asia, as well as east of the 180th meridian in the equator zone, equatorial - west of the 180th meridian, subtropical - north and south of the tropics, temperate - in most of the South Island in New Zealand.

The climate of the islands of Oceania is determined mainly by the trade winds, so most of them experience heavy rainfall. The average annual rainfall varies from 1500 to 4000 mm, although on some islands (due to topographical features and on the lee side in particular) the climate can be drier or wetter. One of the wettest places on the planet is located in Oceania: on the eastern slope of Mount Waialeale on the island of Kauai, up to 11,430 mm of precipitation falls annually (the absolute maximum was reached in 1982: then 16,916 mm fell). Near the tropics, the average temperature is around 23°C, near the equator - 27°C, with little difference between the hottest and coldest months.

The climate of the islands of Oceania is also greatly influenced by such anomalies as the El Niño and La Niña currents. During El Niño, the intertropical convergence zone moves northward towards the equator; during La Niña, it moves southward away from the equator. In the latter case, a severe drought is observed on the islands, in the first case, heavy rains.

Most of the islands of Oceania are subject to the destructive effects of natural disasters: volcanic eruptions (Hawaiian Islands, New Hebrides), earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones accompanied by typhoons and heavy rains, droughts. Many of them lead to significant material and human losses. For example, the tsunami in July 1999 killed 2,200 people.

On south island There are glaciers in New Zealand and on an island high in the mountains, but due to the process of global warming, their area is gradually shrinking.

Soils and hydrology

Stream on the island of Efate (Vanuatu)

Due to the different climatic conditions, the soils of Oceania are very diverse. The soils of the atolls are highly alkaline, of coral origin, and very poor. They are usually porous, which is why they retain moisture very poorly, and also contain very few organic and mineral substances, with the exception of calcium, sodium and magnesium. The soils of volcanic islands, as a rule, are of volcanic origin and are highly fertile. On large mountainous islands, red-yellow, mountain lateritic, mountain-meadow, yellow-brown soils, yellow soils, and red soils are found.

There are large rivers only on the South and North Islands of New Zealand, as well as on the island, on which the largest rivers of Oceania, the Sepik (1126 km) and the Fly (1050 km), are located. The largest river in New Zealand is the Waikato (425 km). The rivers are predominantly fed by rain, although in New Zealand and New Guinea, rivers are also fed by water from melting glaciers and snow. On the atolls, there are no rivers at all due to the high porosity of the soils. Instead, rainwater seeps through the soil to form a lens of slightly brackish water that can be reached by digging a well. On larger islands (usually volcanic origin) there are small streams of water that flow towards the ocean.

The largest number lakes, including thermal ones, is located in New Zealand, where there are also geysers. On other islands of Oceania, lakes are a rarity.

Flora and fauna

Kiwi - a symbol of New Zealand

Oceania is included in the Paleotropical region of vegetation, while three sub-regions are distinguished: Melanesian-Micronesian, Hawaiian and New Zealand. Among the most widely distributed plants in Oceania, the coconut palm and breadfruit stand out, which play an important role in life. local residents: fruits are used for food, wood is a source of heat, a building material, copra is produced from the oily endosperm of coconut palm nuts, which is the main export of the countries of this region. A large number of epiphytes (ferns, orchids) also grow on the islands. The largest number of endemics (both representatives of flora and fauna) was registered in New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, while from west to east there is a decrease in the number of species, genera and families of plants.

The fauna of Oceania belongs to the Polynesian faunistic region with a subregion of the Hawaiian Islands. The fauna of New Zealand stands out in an independent region, New Guinea - in the Papuan subregion of the Australian region. New Zealand and New Guinea are the most diverse. On the small islands of Oceania, primarily atolls, mammals are almost never found: many of them are inhabited only by the small rat. But the local avifauna is very rich. Most of the atolls have bird markets where seabirds nest. Of the representatives of the fauna of New Zealand, the most famous are the kiwi birds, which have become the national symbol of the country. Other endemics of the country are kea (lat. Nestor notabilis, or nestor), kakapo (lat. Strigops habroptilus, or owl parrot), takahe (lat. Notoronis hochstelteri, or wingless sultan). All the islands of Oceania are inhabited by a large number of lizards, snakes and insects.

During the European colonization of the islands, alien plant and animal species were introduced to many of them, which had a negative impact on local flora and fauna.

The region has a large number of protected areas, many of which occupy large areas. For example, the Phoenix Islands in the Republic of Kiribati have been the world's largest marine reserve since January 28, 2008 (the area is 410,500 km²).

Story

Pre-colonial period

Island and nearby islands Names of Russians on the map of the tropical Pacific Ocean. Source:.

Letter from N. N. Miklukho-Maklai to the Head of the detachment of ships in the Pacific Ocean with a proposal to acquire areas on the islands of the Pacific Ocean, convenient for coal depots, March 30, 1873.

In the Russian Empire, after the discovery of the northwestern coast of America by V. Bering in 1741, merchant companies, with the support of the Siberian administration, organized about 90 fishing expeditions to the Pacific Ocean until the end of the 18th century. The state established the Russian-American Company (1799-1867), which dealt with administrative issues and trade in Alaska and the Pacific Ocean. In May 1804, two ships Nadezhda and Neva approached the Hawaiian Islands. These were the first Russian ships to circumnavigate the world. In the heart of the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean there are atolls and islands of the Russians, Suvorov, Kutuzov, Lisyansky, Bellingshausen, Barclay de Tolly, the Krusenstern reef and many others. Another distinctive side of all the trips that took place is mutual friendliness in the history of meetings between Russians and the peoples of the Pacific Ocean.

Map of Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay of Russia's alleged territorial acquisitions in the Pacific Ocean, submitted in a letter to Alexander III, December 1883.

Letter to the Main Naval Headquarters from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs regarding N. N. Miklukho-Maclay's proposal on Russian acquisitions in the Pacific Ocean with the resolution “... to consider this matter finally over. Miklukho-Maclay to refuse”, December 1886.

As the first European who settled on the shores of the Astrolabe Bay in New Guinea and explored this area, N.N. Miklukho Maclay repeatedly made a proposal to peacefully occupy or take under the protection of Russia a number of islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Russian scientist sent letters to the Naval Ministry, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, personally to Emperor Alexander III.

colonial period

The ships of the English traveler James Cook and the canoes of the natives in Matawai Bay on the island of Tahiti (French Polynesia), artist William Hodges, 1776

In the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, the period of exploration of Oceania by Europeans continued, which gradually began to populate the islands. However, the process of European colonization was very slow, since the region did not arouse much interest among foreigners due to the lack of natural resources, and negatively affected local population: many diseases were introduced that had never been in Oceania, and this led to epidemics, as a result of which a significant part of the natives died. At the same time, there was a Christianization of the inhabitants, who worshiped numerous deities and spirits.

In the XVIII-XIX centuries, the division of the islands of Oceania between the colonial powers took place, primarily british empire, and (subsequently the German Empire joined them). Of particular interest to Europeans was the possibility of creating plantations on the islands (coconut palm for the production of copra, sugar cane), as well as the slave trade (the so-called "blackbird hunting", suggesting the recruitment of islanders to work on plantations).

In 1907 it became a dominion, but formally it became completely independent state only in 1947. After the First World War, the first political organizations began to emerge ("May" in Western Samoa, "Fiji Youth" in Fiji), which fought for the independence of the colonies. During the Second World War, Oceania was one of the theaters of war, where many battles took place (mainly between Japanese and American troops).

After the war, there were some improvements in the economy in the region, but in most colonies it was one-sided (the predominance of the plantation economy and the almost complete absence of industry). Since the 1960s, the process of decolonization began: in 1962 it gained independence, in 1963 - West Irian, in 1968 -. Subsequently, most of the colonies became independent.

Post-colonial period

After gaining independence, most of the countries of Oceania retained serious economic, political and social problems, the solution of which is carried out with the participation of international organizations(including the UN) and within the framework of regional cooperation. Despite the process of decolonization in the 20th century, some islands still remain dependent to some extent: New Caledonia Portrait of a representative of the indigenous people of New Zealand - the Maori

The indigenous inhabitants of Oceania are Polynesians, Micronesians, Melanesians and Papuans.

Polynesians living in the countries of Polynesia have a mixed racial type, combining features of the Australoid and Mongoloid races. The largest peoples of Polynesia are Hawaiians, Samoans, Tahitians, Tongans, Maori, Marquesans, Rapanui and others. Native languages ​​belong to the Polynesian subgroup of the Austronesian family of languages: Hawaiian, Samoan, Tahitian, Tongan, Maori, Marquesan, Rapanui and others. Character traits Polynesian languages ​​- a small number of sounds, especially consonants, an abundance of vowels.

Micronesians live in the countries of Micronesia. The largest peoples are Carolinians, Kiribati, Marshallese, Nauru, Chamorro and others. Native languages ​​belong to the Micronesian group of the Austronesian family of languages: Kiribati, Caroline, Kusaie, Marshallese, Nauruan and others. The Palauan and Chamorro languages ​​belong to the Western Malayo-Polynesian languages, while Jap forms a separate branch within the Oceanic languages, which includes the Micronesian languages.

Melanesians live in the countries of Melanesia. The racial type is Australoid, with a small Mongoloid element, close to the Papuans of New Guinea. Melanesians speak Melanesian languages, but their languages, unlike Micronesian and Polynesian, do not form a separate genetic group, and the linguistic fragmentation is very large, so that people from neighboring villages may not understand each other.

Papuans inhabit the island and some areas. In anthropological type, they are close to the Melanesians, but differ from them in language. Not all Papuan languages ​​are related to each other. The national language of the Papuans in Papua New Guinea is the English-based Tok Pisin Creole. According to various sources of peoples and languages, the Papuans number from 300 to 800. At the same time, there are difficulties in establishing the difference between a separate language and a dialect.

Many languages ​​of Oceania are on the verge of extinction. In everyday life, they are increasingly being replaced by English and French.

The position of the indigenous population in the countries of Oceania is different. If, for example, in the Hawaiian Islands their share is very low, then in New Zealand the Maori make up to 15% of the country's population. The proportion of Polynesians located in Micronesia is about 21.3%. The majority of the population is made up of numerous Papuan peoples, although there is also a high proportion of people from other islands in the region.

In New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, the majority of the population is European, whose proportion is also high in (34%) and in French Polynesia (12%). On the islands, 38.2% of the population is represented by Indo-Fijians, descendants of Indian contract workers brought to the islands by the British in the 19th century.

Recently, in the countries of Oceania, the proportion of people from (mainly Chinese and Filipinos) has been increasing. For example, in the Northern Mariana Islands, the share of Filipinos is 26.2%, and the Chinese - 22.1%.

The population of Oceania is mainly Christian, adhering to either the Protestant or Catholic branches.

Economy

Economy of Oceania. Donation and economic unions.

Oceania is a part of the world that is a separate geopolitical region, which consists of many islands and atolls located in the western and central Pacific Ocean.

Geographical position

The islands of Oceania are located between the temperate latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere and the subtropical latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. Often in geography, Oceania is considered together with Australia.

There is even a geographical name - Australia and Oceania. The total area of ​​Oceania is 1.24 million km 2. The population is 10.6 million people.

Oceania is divided into three geographic region- Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia. Oceania is washed by numerous seas - the Coral, Solomon, New Guinea, Tasman Seas, the Koro and Fiji Seas, which belong to the Pacific Ocean, as well as the Arafura Sea (Indian Ocean).

Climate of Oceania

Most of Oceania has a tropical climate. Most of the islands in Oceania are characterized by heavy rainfall. On the islands that are closer to the tropical zone, the average annual temperature is 23 ° C, on the islands near the equator - 27 ° C.

The climate of Oceania is also influenced by currents such as La Niña and El Niño. Most of the islands in Oceania are affected active volcanoes, tsunamis and typhoons.

This region is characterized by a sharp change weather conditions Droughts are replaced by heavy rains.

Population of Oceania

The majority of the population of the islands of Oceania is represented by indigenous people, which include Micronesians, Polynesians, Papuans. Polynesians are mixed racial types - they show features of Caucasians and Mongoloids.

The largest peoples of the Polynesians are Hawaiians, Maori, Tongans, Tahitians. Each nationality has its own language, which is represented by an almost complete absence of consonants.

The racial type of the Melanesians is the Australoids. The linguistic fragmentation of the Melanesian tribes is very large - a frequent occurrence is that residents of neighboring villages cannot understand each other. The Papuans inhabit parts of Indonesia and New Guinea.

All Papuan languages ​​are very similar to each other. They are based on English, so often, even residents of remote regions speak English perfectly.

Economy

The vast majority of the states of Oceania have a very weak economy. The reasons for this are such factors as the remoteness of the islands from the developed superpowers, the limited natural resources, and the shortage of personnel.

Many countries are in complete economic dependence on Australia and the United States. The basis of the economy is agriculture. Among the most common crops are coconut palms, breadfruit, bananas. Some states have a fishing fleet.

Geographical position of Oceania, countries and dependent territories of Oceania

Geology and climate of Oceania, soils and hydrology of Oceania, economy and culture of Oceania, Melanesia, Micronesia, New Zealand and Polynesia

Section 1. Main characteristics of Oceania.

Section 2. Physical and geographical countries of Oceania.

Oceania- This part of the world; a geographic, often geopolitical region of the world consisting predominantly of hundreds of small islands and atolls in the central and western Pacific Ocean.

Key Features of Oceania

Oceania is the world's largest cluster of islands located in the western and central parts of the Pacific Ocean, between the subtropical latitudes of the northern and temperate southern hemispheres. When all the land is divided into parts of the world, Oceania is usually combined with Australia into a single part of the world Australia and Oceania, although sometimes it is separated into an independent part of the world.

Oceania is a large number of islands (about ten thousand) located in the center and South - West of the Pacific Ocean. Oceania is located between the Malay Archipelago and Australia. It is divided into Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, sometimes New Zealand is distinguished. The total area of ​​the islands is about 1.25 million square kilometers. These islands are inhabited by approximately 18 million people.

The basis of Oceania is New Zealand (South and North Islands), and New Guinea. These islands make up 4/5 of the entire territory. The islands of western Micronesia and Melanesia are large Mountain chain, rising from the bottom of the ocean, the peaks are above the water. These islands are craters of underwater volcanoes: Samoa, Cook, Easter, Hawaiian, Marquesas.

In Hawaii: Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, if you count from the bottom of the ocean, reach nine thousand meters. But mostly Micronesia and Polynesia islands of animal origin (atolls) are coral. They grew out of underwater volcanic craters.

Oceania is a kind of natural wonder, each island is its own world, with its own charms. The flora is very diverse. Some islands have vegetation of all climatic zones. The characteristic tree of Oceania is the coconut palm. Its wood is used for construction, ropes are woven from palm fibers. Coconut oil is used to make soap and margarine.

The total area of ​​the islands is 1.26 million km² (together with Australia 8.52 million km²), the population is about 10.7 million people. (together with Australia 32.6 million people). Geographically, Oceania is subdivided into Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia; sometimes New Zealand is singled out.

In the Pacific Ocean, in its central and western parts, there is the largest cluster of islands on the globe, with total area about 1.26 million km2, most of which are grouped into archipelagos. All the islands are united under the name of Oceania. The development of Oceania took place in conditions of prolonged isolation from the mainland, which determines the deep originality of its landscapes. It manifests itself both in the geological structure and relief, and in high endemism and poverty of the species composition of flora and fauna, especially in the most remote eastern islands. These reasons give grounds for distinguishing Oceania as a special part of the world with the dominance of oceanic landscapes, which has no analogues on the continents. The geological structure of the islands of Oceania is in direct connection with the structure of the bottom of the Pacific Ocean. Almost all islands are of coral or volcanic origin. In the central part of Oceania (in Polynesia and eastern Micronesia), they represent the peaks of underwater volcanoes, crowning underwater ridges, erected by powerful outpourings of basalt lavas at the end of the Neogene and in the Quaternary period along the fault lines of the ancient oceanic platform of the Pacific Ocean floor. The formation of coral islands took place in the Quaternary due to ecstatic fluctuations in the level of the Pacific Ocean and deflections of sections of its bottom. Islands focused on western outskirts Oceania, lie in the zones of geosynclinal structures framing the central platform, and are (according to V. V. Belousov) the peaks of grandiose underwater ridges - advanced structures of geosynclinal zones. From the outer (oceanic) side, these islands are framed by deep-water depressions, which are extremely clearly expressed in the topography of the ocean floor due to the extremely slow processes of drift and accumulation of sediments. Mountain-building movements in the peripheral Pacific geosynclines were actively manifested in the Mesozoic and Alpine cycles, but have not ended at the present time, as evidenced by frequent and strong earthquakes and active volcanism on the islands. The islands of western Oceania are the largest and most mountainous. Among them, New Zealand and New Guinea stand out for their size and high mountain relief, which account for 80% of the land area of ​​Oceania. The islands are scattered in latitudes from subtropical in the northern hemisphere to temperate in the southern (they lie between 28 ° 25 "N and 52 ° 30" S and 130 ° E and 105 ° 20" W) , but most of them are concentrated in the subequatorial belts, which determines the main features of the course of temperatures and moisture regime.The influence of land affects the climate closest to Australia and South-East Asia islands.

The rest are characterized by small daily and seasonal amplitudes of high temperatures, constantly high relative humidity and a large amount of precipitation, due to the exceptional dominance of sea air masses. The average temperatures of the warmest months (August in the northern hemisphere, February in the southern) vary from 25°С in the north to 16°С in the south, the coldest (February and August) from 16°С to 5°С. Sharp fluctuations in seasonal and daily temperatures are typical only for mountainous islands, on which altitudinal climatic zones are manifested. In New Zealand and New Guinea, altitudinal climatic zones end with a nival climate. Average annual rainfall is extremely variable depending on the orography. Humid winds (mainly trade winds of both hemispheres) sweep freely over low small islands, but rise along the windward slopes of high mountainous islands, on which abundant orographic rains fall (in some places up to 9000 mm or more). This creates sharp climatic and landscape contrasts on the slopes of different exposures. Evergreen moist forests grow on the windward slopes, a dense network of full-flowing rivers develops, erosion and chemical weathering are actively occurring. rocks, podzolization of the lateritic type of soil occurs. The leeward slopes are dominated by mixed (deciduous-evergreen) forests, xerophytic light forests and peculiar oceanic savannahs with hard grasses, pandanus, and groves of coconut palms. low islands, where mainly cyclonic precipitation of tropical fronts falls, are covered with oceanic savannahs, forests of coconut palms and pandanus, mangroves (mainly on coral islands) and even semi-desert vegetation, outcrops of dense, unweathered basalts are completely bare. The large islands of Oceania were centers of flora formation. At the same time, many plant species migrated to the islands from Australia, and mainly from the Malay Archipelago and Southeast Asia, as a result of which almost all of Oceania is included in the Malesian floristic subregion of the Paleotropics, which is extremely poor in species composition and highly endemic. The question of the distribution of organisms in Oceania remains unresolved. It is generally believed that migration occurred over temporary land bridges. On the other hand, one should not underestimate the role of winds, currents, birds, and, finally, people who, even in ancient times, made long voyages between the archipelagos. New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, which are classified as special subregions, have the greatest endemism of the flora. Among the plants of Oceania, there are many useful for humans coconut and sago palms, bananas, rubber plants, mangoes, melon and breadfruit trees.

Many tropical crops are grown on the islands - pineapples, bananas, sugar cane, etc. The ocean expanses present great difficulties for the resettlement of animals, therefore the composition of the fauna in Oceania is very specific, characterized by great depletion, primarily due to the almost complete absence of mammals. For this reason, most of Oceania is allocated to the Polynesian zoogeographic region. On the islands there are a lot of well-flying birds (swifts, pigeons, etc.) and there are some small animals (mainly bats, dogs and foxes, lizards), as well as insects that were accidentally brought on the trunks of floating trees. Imported animals and birds caused great harm to the fauna of Oceania, many of which occupied empty ecological niches, found a favorable environment for reproduction, and sometimes completely destroyed not only local animals, but also the vegetation cover. Regional landscape differences make it possible to single out four physiographic countries in Oceania: Melanesia, Micronesia, New Zealand and Polynesia.

The islands of Oceania are washed by numerous seas of the Pacific (Coral Sea, Tasman Sea, Fiji Sea, Koro Sea, Solomon Sea, New Guinea Sea, Philippine Sea) and Indian Oceans (Arafur Sea).

From the point of view of geology, Oceania is not a continent: only Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, New Guinea and Tasmania are of continental origin, having formed on the site of the hypothetical continent Gondwana. In the past, these islands were a single land, but as a result of the rise in the level of the World Ocean, a significant part of the surface was under water. The relief of these islands is mountainous and strongly dissected. For example, the highest mountains of Oceania, including Mount Jaya (5029 m), are located on the island of New Guinea.

Most of the islands of Oceania are of volcanic origin: some of them are the tops of large underwater volcanoes, some of which still show high volcanic activity (for example, the Hawaiian Islands).

Other islands are of coral origin, being atolls that were formed as a result of the formation of coral structures around submerged volcanoes (for example, the Gilbert Islands, Tuamotu). A distinctive feature of such islands are large lagoons, which are surrounded by numerous islets, or motu, the average height of which does not exceed three meters. In Oceania, there is an atoll with the largest lagoon in the world - Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands archipelago. Despite the fact that its land area is only 16.32 km² (or 6.3 sq. miles), the area of ​​​​the lagoon is 2174 km² (or 839.3 sq. miles). The largest atoll in terms of land area is Christmas Island (or Kiritimati) in the Line archipelago (or Central Polynesian Sporades) - 322 km². However, among the atolls there is also a special type - an elevated (or elevated) atoll, which is a limestone plateau up to 50-60 m above sea level. This type of island has no lagoon or traces of its past existence. Examples of such atolls are Nauru, Niue, Banaba.

The relief and geological structure of the bottom of the Pacific Ocean in the Oceania region has a complex structure. From the Alaska Peninsula (which is part of North America) to New Zealand, there are a large number of basins of marginal seas, deep ocean trenches (Tonga, Kermadec, Bougainville), which form a geosynclinal belt characterized by active volcanism, seismicity and contrasting relief.

There are no minerals on most of the islands of Oceania, only the largest of them are being developed: nickel (New Caledonia), oil and gas (New Guinea, New Zealand), copper (Bougainville Island in Papua New Guinea), gold (New Guinea , Fiji), phosphates (on most of the islands, the deposits are almost or have already been developed, for example, in Nauru, on the islands of Banaba, Makatea). In the past, many of the region's islands were heavily mined for guano, the decomposed dung of seabirds, which was used as a nitrogen and phosphate fertilizer. On the ocean floor of the exclusive economic zone of a number of countries there are large accumulations of iron-manganese nodules, as well as cobalt, but at the moment no development is being carried out due to economic inexpediency.

Oceania is located within several climatic zones: equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate. Most of the islands have a tropical climate. The subequatorial climate dominates on islands near Australia and Asia, as well as east of the 180th meridian in the equator zone, equatorial - west of the 180th meridian, subtropical - north and south of the tropics, temperate - in most of the South Island in New Zealand.

The climate of the islands of Oceania is determined mainly by the trade winds, so most of them experience heavy rainfall. The average annual rainfall varies from 1500 to 4000 mm, although on some islands (due to topographical features and on the lee side in particular) the climate can be drier or wetter. One of the wettest places on the planet is located in Oceania: on the eastern slope of Mount Waialeale on the island of Kauai, up to 11,430 mm of precipitation falls annually (the absolute maximum was reached in 1982: then 16,916 mm fell). Near the tropics, the average temperature is around 23°C, near the equator - 27°C, with little difference between the hottest and coldest months.

The climate of the islands of Oceania is also greatly influenced by such anomalies as the El Niño and La Niña currents. During El Niño, the intertropical convergence zone moves northward towards the equator; during La Niña, it moves southward away from the equator. In the latter case, a severe drought is observed on the islands, in the first case, heavy rains.

Most of the islands of Oceania are subject to the destructive effects of natural disasters: volcanic eruptions (Hawaiian Islands, New Hebrides), earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones accompanied by typhoons and heavy rains, droughts. Many of them lead to significant material and human losses. For example, the tsunami in Papua New Guinea in July 1999 killed 2,200 people.

The South Island in New Zealand and the island of New Guinea have glaciers high in the mountains, but due to the process of global warming, their area is gradually shrinking.

Due to the different climatic conditions, the soils of Oceania are very diverse. The soils of the atolls are highly alkaline, of coral origin, and very poor. They are usually porous, which is why they retain moisture very poorly, and also contain very few organic and mineral substances, with the exception of calcium, sodium and magnesium. The soils of volcanic islands, as a rule, are of volcanic origin and are highly fertile. On large mountainous islands, red-yellow, mountain lateritic, mountain-meadow, yellow-brown soils, yellow soils, and red soils are found.

There are large rivers only on the South and North Islands of New Zealand, as well as on the island of New Guinea, on which the largest rivers of Oceania, the Sepik (1126 km) and Fly (1050 km), are located. The largest river in New Zealand is the Waikato (425 km). The rivers are predominantly fed by rain, although in New Zealand and New Guinea, rivers are also fed by water from melting glaciers and snow. On the atolls, there are no rivers at all due to the high porosity of the soils. Instead, rainwater seeps through the soil to form a lens of slightly brackish water that can be reached by digging a well. On larger islands (usually of volcanic origin) there are small streams of water that flow towards the ocean.

The largest number of lakes, including thermal ones, is located in New Zealand, where there are also geysers. On other islands of Oceania, lakes are a rarity.

Oceania is included in the Paleotropical region of vegetation, while three sub-regions are distinguished: Melanesian-Micronesian, Hawaiian and New Zealand. Among the most widespread plants of Oceania, the coconut palm and breadfruit stand out, which play an important role in the life of local residents: the fruits are used for food, wood is a source of heat, a building material, copra is produced from the oily endosperm of coconut palm nuts, which is the basis of the export of countries of this region. A large number of epiphytes (ferns, orchids) also grow on the islands. The largest number of endemics (both representatives of flora and fauna) was registered in New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, while from west to east there is a decrease in the number of species, genera and families of plants.

The fauna of Oceania belongs to the Polynesian faunistic region with a subregion of the Hawaiian Islands. The fauna of New Zealand stands out in an independent region, New Guinea - in the Papuan subregion of the Australian region. New Zealand and New Guinea are the most diverse. On the small islands of Oceania, primarily atolls, mammals are almost never found: many of them are inhabited only by the small rat. But the local avifauna is very rich. Most of the atolls have bird markets where seabirds nest. Of the representatives of the fauna of New Zealand, the most famous are the kiwi birds, which have become the national symbol of the country. Other endemics of the country are kea (lat. Nestor notabilis, or nestor), kakapo (lat. Strigops habroptilus, or owl parrot), takahe (lat. Notoronis hochstelteri, or wingless sultan). All the islands of Oceania are inhabited by a large number of lizards, snakes and insects.

During the European colonization of the islands, alien species of plants and animals were introduced to many of them, which negatively affected the local flora and fauna.

The region has a large number of protected areas, many of which occupy large areas. For example, the Phoenix Islands in the Republic of Kiribati have been the world's largest marine reserve since January 28, 2008 (the area is 410,500 km²).

The indigenous inhabitants of Oceania are Polynesians, Micronesians, Melanesians and Papuans.

Polynesians living in the countries of Polynesia are of a mixed racial type: in their appearance, features of the Caucasoid and Mongoloid races are visible, and to a lesser extent - Australoid. The largest peoples of Polynesia are Hawaiians, Samoans, Tahitians, Tongans, Maori, Marquesans, Rapanui and others. Native languages ​​belong to the Polynesian subgroup of the Austronesian family of languages: Hawaiian, Samoan, Tahitian, Tongan, Maori, Marquesan, Rapanui and others. The characteristic features of the Polynesian languages ​​are a small number of sounds, especially consonants, and an abundance of vowels.

Micronesians live in the countries of Micronesia. The largest peoples are Carolinians, Kiribati, Marshallese, Nauru, Chamorro and others. Native languages ​​belong to the Micronesian group of the Austronesian family of languages: Kiribati, Caroline, Kusaie, Marshallese, Nauruan and others. The Palauan and Chamorro languages ​​belong to the Western Malayo-Polynesian languages, while Jap forms a separate branch within the Oceanic languages, which includes the Micronesian languages.

Melanesians live in the countries of Melanesia. The racial type is Australoid, with a small Mongoloid element, close to the Papuans of New Guinea. Melanesians speak Melanesian languages, but their languages, unlike Micronesian and Polynesian, do not form a separate genetic group, and the linguistic fragmentation is very large, so that people from neighboring villages may not understand each other.

The Papuans inhabit the island of New Guinea and parts of Indonesia. In anthropological type, they are close to the Melanesians, but differ from them in language. Not all Papuan languages ​​are related to each other. The national language of the Papuans in Papua New Guinea is the English-based Tok Pisin Creole. According to various sources of peoples and languages, the Papuans number from 300 to 800. At the same time, there are difficulties in establishing the difference between a separate language and a dialect.

Many languages ​​of Oceania are on the verge of extinction. In everyday life, they are increasingly being replaced by English and French.

The position of the indigenous population in the countries of Oceania is different. If, for example, in the Hawaiian Islands their share is very low, then in New Zealand the Maori make up to 15% of the country's population. The proportion of Polynesians in the Northern Mariana Islands, located in Micronesia, is about 21.3%. In Papua New Guinea, the majority of the population is made up of numerous Papuan peoples, although there is also a high proportion of people from other islands in the region.

In New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, the majority of the population is European, the share of which is also high in New Caledonia (34%) and French Polynesia (12%). In the Fiji Islands, 38.2% of the population is represented by Indo-Fijians, descendants of Indian contract workers brought to the islands by the British in the 19th century.

Recently, in the countries of Oceania, the proportion of immigrants from Asia (mainly Chinese and Filipinos) has been increasing. For example, in the Northern Mariana Islands, the share of Filipinos is 26.2%, and the Chinese - 22.1%.

The population of Oceania is mainly Christian, adhering to either the Protestant or Catholic branches.

The island of New Guinea and the nearby islands of Melanesia were supposedly settled by people from Southeast Asia who sailed by canoe about 30-50 thousand years ago. About 2-4 thousand years ago, most of Micronesia and Polynesia were settled. The process of colonization ended around 1200 AD. By the beginning of the 16th century, the peoples of Oceania were going through a period of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of an early class society. Crafts, agriculture, and navigation were actively developing.

In the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, the period of exploration of Oceania by Europeans continued, which gradually began to populate the islands. However, the process of European colonization was very slow, since the region did not arouse much interest among foreigners due to the lack of natural resources, and negatively affected the local population: many diseases were introduced that had never been in Oceania, and this led to epidemics, in which resulted in the death of a significant part of the natives. At the same time, there was a Christianization of the inhabitants, who worshiped numerous deities and spirits.

In the XVIII-XIX centuries, the islands of Oceania were divided between the colonial powers, primarily the British Empire, Spain and France (later they were joined by the USA and the German Empire). Of particular interest to Europeans was the possibility of creating plantations on the islands (coconut palm for the production of copra, sugar cane), as well as the slave trade (the so-called "blackbird hunting", which involved recruiting islanders to work on plantations).

In 1907, New Zealand became a dominion, but it did not formally become a fully independent state until 1947. After the First World War, the first political organizations began to emerge ("May" in Western Samoa, "Fiji Youth" in Fiji), which fought for the independence of the colonies. During the Second World War, Oceania was one of the theaters of war, where many battles took place (mainly between Japanese and American troops).

After the war, there were some improvements in the economy in the region, but in most colonies it was one-sided (the predominance of the plantation economy and the almost complete absence of industry). Since the 1960s, the process of decolonization began: in 1962, Western Samoa gained independence, in 1963 - West Irian, in 1968 - Nauru. Subsequently, most of the colonies became independent.

After gaining independence, most countries in Oceania still have serious economic, political and social problems, which they are trying to solve with the help of the world community (including the UN) and through regional cooperation. Despite the process of decolonization in the 20th century, some islands of the region still remain dependent to some extent: New Caledonia, French Polynesia and Wallis and Futuna from France, the Pitcairn Islands from Great Britain, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau from New Zealand, a number islands (all outer small islands except Navassa Island) from the USA.

Most countries in Oceania have a very weak economy, which is due to several reasons: limited natural resources, remoteness from world markets for products, and a shortage of highly qualified specialists. Many states depend on financial assistance from other countries.

The basis of the economy of most countries in Oceania is agriculture (the production of copra and palm oil) and fishing. Among the most important agricultural crops stand out the coconut palm, bananas, breadfruit. Possessing huge exclusive economic zones and not having a large fishing fleet, the governments of the countries of Oceania issue licenses for the right to catch fish to vessels of other states (mainly Japan, Taiwan, the USA), which significantly increases the state budget. The mining industry is most developed in Papua New Guinea, Nauru, New Caledonia, and New Zealand.

A significant part of the population is employed in the public sector. Recently, measures have been taken to develop the tourism sector of the economy.

The art of Oceania has developed a distinctive style that gives uniqueness to the local culture.

In the visual arts of the Polynesians, the main place belongs to woodcarving and sculpture. Maori carving reached a high level, they decorated boats, details of houses, carved statues of gods and ancestors, such a statue stands in every village. The main motif of the ornament is a spiral. Moai stone statues were created on Easter Island and the Marquesas Islands. Of the crafts, the most important was the construction of boats, as they allowed fishing and traveling on boats. long distance(In connection with this, astronomy developed among the Polynesians). Among the Polynesians, tattooing has become widespread. Tapa, which was made from the bark of mulberry trees, served as clothing. In Polynesia, myths, legends, fairy tales, singing and dancing were developed. Writing, probably, was only on Easter Island (rongo-rongo), on other islands folklore was transmitted orally.

Singing and dancing are popular art forms among Micronesians. Each tribe has its own myths. In the life of the islanders, the main place was occupied by ships - boats. There were boats of different types: dibenil - sailing, valab - a large rowing boat. Megaliths are found on the Yap Islands. Of particular interest is Nan Madol, known as the "Micronesian Venice". This is a whole city on the water, in a lagoon on the island of Ponape. Stone structures are built on artificial islands.

Among the Melanesians, wood carving reached a special flowering. Unlike the Polynesians, the Melanesians were not so tied to the sea, they were more land dwellers. The main musical instrument is the drum, or tam-tom. Folklore, songs, dances, myths are widespread among the Papuans. The songs and dances are very simple. The singing is called mun, the melody varies very little. The cult of ancestors and skulls is of great importance. Papuans make korvara - images of ancestors. Well developed wood carving.

Physiographic countries of Oceania

Regional landscape differences make it possible to single out four physiographic countries in Oceania: Melanesia, Micronesia, New Zealand and Polynesia.

Melanesia

Melanesia includes New Guinea, the Bismarck, Louisaids, Solomon Islands, Santa Cruz, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, Fiji and a number of small islands. The islands of Melonesia lie in the alpine geosynclinal zone and were created by the mountain-building processes of the Neogene and the beginning of the Quaternary. They are composed of crystalline intrusions and folded sedimentary deposits. The complex of crystalline rocks contains ore minerals: nickel, gold, iron ores, chromites. Oil-bearing basins are confined to sedimentary suites.

Volcanic activity continues to this day. There are frequent and strong earthquakes.

The relief of the islands is predominantly mountainous. The islands received their modern outlines in the Quaternary period, earlier they were connected with each other, with Australia, with the Malay Archipelago land bridges through which flora and fauna migrated. In this regard, the flora and fauna include many Australo-Malayan species.

Mountains rise to 2000 m and higher in New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and the Bismarck archipelago, which are combined under the name of North Melanesia. The climate here is constantly hot and very humid, most of the islands are covered with evergreen wet forests.

The climate of South Melanesia is hot, seasonally humid, hylaean forests cover only the windward slopes of the mountains, and savannahs appear on dry, leeward slopes.

The largest island of Melanesia and Oceania is New Guinea with an area of ​​829,300 km2. This island is located entirely in equatorial latitudes. The flora of the island is rich in species and includes 6872 plant species, of which 85% are endemic. The Sredinny Ridge stretches across the entire island, the height of which rises to the west to Jaya Peak (5029 m). A huge amount of moisture condenses on its slopes, brought in the winter by the southeast trade winds, and in the summer by the northwest monsoon. On the high peaks of the mountains, precipitation falls in solid form. The snow line lies at an altitude of 4420 m. There are small glaciers on the tops of the mountains.

Below the eternal snows and stony placers there are tall-grass meadows with rhododendron bushes, even lower - a belt of mountain hyla, which at an altitude of 900 m are replaced by wilds of typical hyla.

To the south of the Sredinny Ridge lies a wide lowland, at the base of which lies a crystalline basement overlain by marine and alluvial deposits.

The lowland receives up to 4000-5000 mm of precipitation, but its southern regions are very dry. A characteristic type of vegetation is savannas with bunches of hard grasses and Australian tree species - banksias, eucalyptus and acacias.

There are many reed bogs in the floodplains of the Fly and Digul rivers. Mangrove forests grow in estuaries and along low-lying banks.

New Zealand

New Zealand consists of two large islands - North and South - and a number of smaller ones. It occupies the southernmost position in Oceania. The islands of New Zealand stretch from southwest to northeast and follow a major fault line that continues along the Kermadec and Tonga Deep Sea Basins.

New Zealand structures began to form in the Upper Paleozoic. The most important mountain-building movements took place in the Mesozoic era and in the Paleogene, after which a period of tectonic quiescence and peneplenization began. In the Pliocene, new folding and differential vertical movements took place, which fragmented the ancient land and determined the modern outlines of the coast.

The development of the organic world took place mainly without replenishment from outside. The flora of the islands consists of 74% endemic plants and is relatively poor in species. There are tree ferns (cyathea, dixonia), conifers, myrtle, etc. The fauna of New Zealand is also characterized by high endemism and deep antiquity. Local mammals are represented by two species of bats and one species of rats. There are flightless (kiwi, owl parrot) and flying (nestor parrot) birds. The only representative of the most ancient reptiles (primary lizards) has survived - the tuatara.

The nature of the North and South Islands is diverse.

The South Island (area 150 thousand km2) has a mountainous relief. The Southern Alps stretch along the western half of the island. Their height reaches 3764 m. They have up to 50 glaciers with a total area of ​​about 1000 km2. From the south, the Otago Plateau (1200-1800 m) adjoins the mountains. Large lakes lie in southwestern Otago. Along the western slopes of the Southern Alps is a narrow coastal lowland, the eastern slopes are adjacent to the coastal plains of Canterbury.

Almost the entire South Island lies in the zone of a moderately warm, very humid climate. The average winter temperature is 5-7°C. Sometimes it drops below 0°C. Western winds prevail. In summer, the western circulation remains in a weakened form. The temperature is 14° in the south and 17°C in the north. Precipitation falls in both winter and summer, but the maximum is in summer. In the lowlands, the annual amount of precipitation is 2500 mm, on the slopes of the mountains - 3500 mm. The eastern slopes receive only 700 mm per year.

The rivers are full-flowing with a uniform flow and are fed by snow, glaciers and rain. They bloom widely in spring and summer.

Western slopes The mountains are covered with dense mixed forests, in which evergreen trees (laurel and coniferous) penetrate far to the south. Above 600 m and up to 1000 m there is a belt of evergreen beech forests. Above it is a belt of low-growing hard-leaved shrubs and mountain meadows. The eastern slopes are covered with thickets of evergreen shrubs and beech forests.

The North Island (area 115 thousand km2) is separated from the South Island by a graben in the Cook Strait. The relief is dominated by medium-altitude plateaus, and lowlands are widely developed along the edges. The Ruahine Ridge stretches along the east coast. central part The islands are occupied by a volcanic plateau, above which volcanic cones rise. Among them are active: Ruapehu - the highest in New Zealand, Taravera. There are many lakes on the plateau, often thermal ones. The largest of them is Lake Taupo.

The climate of the North Island is subtropical, warm temperate, with very wet winters. There is less rainfall in summer. The vegetation is represented by mixed subtropical forests, richer in species composition than on the South Island. The lava plateaus are dominated by thickets of evergreen shrubs, forests appear only on weathered lavas.

micronesia

Micronesia includes about 1,500 islands: the Kazan, Mariana, Caroline, Marshall, Gilbert and Nauru archipelagos. All islands are small; the largest of them, Guam, has an area of ​​583 km2.

The western archipelagos are located in the belt of geosynclinal structures of the Pacific Ocean floor and are the peaks of volcanoes. The relief of the islands is mountainous (altitude from 400 to 1000 m). The islands of eastern Micronesia are coral. They rarely rise above the water by more than 1.5 - 2.5 m. Many of them have the shape of typical atolls.

The islands lie in latitudes from equatorial to subtropical. Climate northern islands as hot and humid as the south. The greatest amount of precipitation (1500-2000 mm) falls on the eastern slopes of the mountainous islands windward with respect to the northeast trade winds. Previously, the slopes were covered with dense moist evergreen tropical forests, but these forests have now been greatly reduced in area. The leeward slopes of the islands are occupied by cereal savannahs. Inland lagoons are lined with mangroves.

Polynesia

Polynesia unites the islands lying in general to the east of the 180th meridian, between 30 ° N. sh. and 30°S sh .: Hawaiian, Phoenix and Tokelau archipelagos, Samoa, Cook Islands, Tubuau, Tahiti, Tuamotu, etc. The islands are the tops of basalt volcanoes, mostly decapitated by weathering and abrasion, covered by reef limestones. There are also coral islands - a product of the ocean, stony corals and calcareous algae.

The name "Polynesia", meaning many islands, was first used by Charles de Brosses in 1756, and was originally applied to all the islands of the Pacific. Jules Dumont D'Urville, in an 1831 lecture to the Geographical Society of Paris, proposed a restriction on its use, and also coined the terms Micronesia and Melanesia. This division into three distinct Pacific sub-regions is still used today.

Geographically, Polynesia can be described as a triangle with corners at Hawaii, Aoteaora (New Zealand) and Rapa Nui (Easter Island). Other major island groups located within the Polynesian triangle are Samoa, Tonga, the various island chains that form the Cook Islands and French Polynesia. Niue is a rare secluded island nation near the center of Polynesia. Island groups outside this large triangle include Tuvalu and the French territory of Wallis and Futuna. There are also small enclaves of isolated Polynesians in Papua New Guinea, the Solomons and in Vanuatu. However, in general, it is an anthropological term applied to one of the three parts of Oceania (others called Micronesia and Melanesia), whose populations generally belong to the same ethnocultural family as a result of centuries of maritime migration.

Polynesia is divided into two distinct cultural groups, Eastern Polynesian and Western Polynesia. The culture of Western Polynesia is due large population. It has strong marriage institutions, and well-developed judicial, monetary, and commercial traditions. It includes groups of Tonga, Niue, Samoa Islands and Polynesian outlying areas. Eastern Polynesian cultures are highly adapted to the smaller islands and atolls, including the Cook Islands, Tahiti, Tuamotus, Marquesah, Hawaii, and Easter Island. However, the large islands of New Zealand were first settled by Eastern Polynesians who adapted their culture to the non-tropical environment. Religion, agriculture, fishing, weather forecasting, canoes (similar to modern catamarans) building and navigation were highly developed skills because the population of the entire island depended on them. Trade was divided into two types: luxury and household items. Many small islands could suffer a severe famine if their gardens were poisoned with salt from a hurricane's storm surge. In such cases fishing, a primary source of protein, would not attenuate food energy loss. Sailors, in particular, were highly respected, and each island maintained a home of navigation, with a canoe development area. The settlements of the Polynesians had two categories, villages and towns. The size of the inhabited island determined whether or not a village would be built. Large volcanic islands usually had villages divided into many zones across the island. Food and resources were more abundant and so these settlements of four to five houses (usually with gardens) were set up so that there was no overlap between zones. Villages, on the other hand, were built on the coasts of smaller islands and consisted of thirty or more buildings. Usually these villages were fortified with walls and palisades made of stone and wood. However, New Zealand demonstrates the opposite; large volcanic islands with fortified villages. Due to the relatively large number of competitive Christian missionary sects in the islands, many Polynesian groups have converted to Christianity. Polynesian languages ​​are all members of the Oceanic language family, a subset of the Austronesian language family.

The organic world is represented by reef-loving plants and animals not only on land, but also on the sea. Along the outer edge of the atoll, seaweeds, foraminifers, sponges, sea ​​urchins And sea ​​stars, crabs and shrimps. Behind the outer graben of the atoll, on powerful carbonate soils, land vegetation appears: thickets of evergreen xerophytic shrubs, forests of coconut palms, pandanus, banana thickets and breadfruit groves.

Most large archipelago Polynesia - Hawaiian Islands, stretched for 2500 km. Hawaiian archipelago consists of 24 islands with a total area of ​​16,700 km2. The largest islands are Hawaii, Maui, Oahu and Kauai. Volcanic activity continues only on the island of Hawaii; on other large islands, it ceased at the beginning of the Quaternary.

Most of the islands are stretched in a belt tropical climate, is under the continuous influence of the northeast trade winds. The amount of precipitation on the windward slopes exceeds 4000 mm, on the leeward slopes - no more than 700 mm per year. Characterized by high air temperatures. The northwestern islands of the archipelago lie in the subtropical zone. They are further away from the cold California current, so they have higher mean seasonal temperatures. Precipitation is cyclonic, maximum in winter. The amount of annual precipitation is about 1000 mm.

The flora of Hawaii is highly endemic (up to 93% of species) and monotonous, therefore it is distinguished in a special Hawaiian subregion of the Paleotropics. It contains gymnosperms, ficuses, epiphytic orchids. Palm trees are represented by three types. The mountains are characterized by seasonally wet mixed forests up to a height of 700 m), constantly wet evergreen forests (up to 1200 m), and tropical mountain hylaea (up to 3000 m). Savannahs do not climb slopes higher than 300-600 m.

The avifauna (67 genera) is very richly represented on the islands. More than half are sedentary and nest on the islands. In addition to birds, there is one species of bat, several species of lizards, and beetles.

Current state nature and its protection

The landscapes of the islands are extremely vulnerable to human activities. Great harm is caused by accidental or deliberate introduction of alien organisms - plants or animals - to the islands.

Worsens the condition natural environment and unsustainable land use, cutting down valuable tree species, pollution of coastal waters and outright destruction of island land.

The nature of biogenic islands is the most vulnerable. The vulnerability of their flora and fauna, as well as the small volume of fresh water and surface land, create great difficulties for the conservation of the natural environment.

With a rapidly growing population, maintaining the necessary sanitary standards on the islands becomes a difficult task, especially since it is not easy to find appropriate place for disposal of waste and sewage.

Great devastation is caused by the mining of phosphorites on some islands. As a result, people form deserts, the restoration of which is practically inaccessible to the young states of Oceania.

Tourists - lovers of spearfishing and collectors of living souvenirs - cause great harm to the nature of the islands. Already now, many states have adopted laws prohibiting the breaking of corals, the collection of shells, the extraction of pearls, as well as the hunting of birds and animals.

Island groups

The following are islands and island groups, or nations or sub-national territories, that have a native Polynesian culture. Some islands of Polynesian origin are outside the general triangle that geographically defines the area.

American Samoa Islands (Overseas Territory of the United States)

Anuta (in the Solomon Islands)

Cook Islands (self-governing state in association with New Zealand)

Easter Island (part of Chile, named Rapa Nui in Rapa Nui)

Emai (in Vanuatu)

French Polynesia (“foreign country”, territory of France)

Hawaii (state of the United States)

Kapingamarangi (in the United States of Micronesia)

Mele (in Vanuatu)

New Zealand (named Aotearova in Māori, commonly associated with Australasia)

Niue (self-governing state in free association with New Zealand)

Nigeria (in Papua New Guinea)

Nukumanu (in Papua New Guinea)

Nikuoro (in the United States of Micronesia)

Ontong Java (in the Solomon Islands)

Pileni (in the Solomon Islands)

Rennell (in the Solomon Islands)

Rotuma (in Fiji)

Samoa Islands (independent nation)

Sicaina (in the Solomon Islands)

Island of the Country Boys (politically part of American Islands Samoa)

Takuu (in Papua New Guinea)

Tikopia (in the Solomon Islands)

Tokelau (New Zealand overseas dependency)

Tonga (independent nation)

Tuvalu (independent nation)

Wallis and Futuna (French overseas territory).

Sources

Wikipedia - The Free Encyclopedia, WikiPedia

oceaniasport.info - Oceania

stranymira.com – Countries

polynesia.ru – Polynesia

Oceania is the name of a region of the world made up of island groups in the central and southern Pacific Ocean. It covers more than 8.5 million km². Some of the countries that make up Oceania include Australia, New Zealand, Tuvalu, Samoa, Tonga, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Kiribati and Nauru. Oceania also includes several dependent territories such as American Samoa, Johnston and French Polynesia.

Physical Geography of Oceania

In terms of physical geography, the islands of Oceania are often divided into four distinct sub-regions based on the geological processes that played a major role in their physical development. The first one is . It stands out because of its location in the middle of the Indo-Australian Plate, and the lack of mountain building during its development. Instead, the current physical features of Australia's landscape have been shaped primarily by erosion.

The second region of Oceania consists of islands located at the boundaries of the collision between the plates of the earth's crust. They are in the South Pacific. For example, on the line of collision of the Indo-Australian and Pacific plates, and includes places such as New Zealand, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. Northern part The Pacific Ocean also has similar landscape types along the boundary of the Eurasian and Pacific plates. Collisions of tectonic plates are responsible for the formation of mountains, such as those in New Zealand, towering over 3,000 meters above sea level.

Volcanic islands such as Fiji are the third category of terrain type found in Oceania. These islands tend to rise from the bottom of the sea in the hotspots of the Pacific basin. Most of these areas consist of very small islands with high mountain ranges.

And finally Coral reefs islands and atolls such as Tuval are the last type of landscape in Oceania. Atolls are specifically responsible for the formation of low-lying land areas, some with enclosed lagoons.

Climate of Oceania

Climate map of Oceania according to Köppen

Most of Oceania is divided into two climatic zones: temperate and. Most of Australia and all of New Zealand is in the temperate zone, while most of the Pacific islands are considered tropical. The temperate regions of Oceania have high rainfall levels, cold winters, and warm to hot summers. The tropical regions of Oceania are hot and humid all year round.

In addition to these climatic zones, most countries in Oceania are subject to continuous trade winds and sometimes hurricanes (called tropical cyclones), which have historically caused catastrophic damage to the countries and islands of the region.

Flora and fauna of Oceania

Since most of Oceania lies in the tropical or temperate climate zone, abundant rainfall supports the growth of humid and temperate rainforests throughout the region. Tropical rainforests are common in some island countries near the tropics, while temperate rainforests are found in New Zealand. In both forest types, there are many animal and plant species, making Oceania one of the most biologically diverse regions in the world.

It is important to note that not all areas of Oceania receive heavy rainfall and some parts of the region are arid or semi-arid. Australia, for example, has large areas of dry land that support little diversity in flora. In addition, El Niño has caused frequent droughts over the past decades in Northern Australia and Papua New Guinea.

The fauna of Oceania, like its flora, is also extremely . Because much of the region is made up of islands, unique species of birds, animals, and insects have evolved in complete isolation. The presence of coral reefs such as Great barrier reef and Kingman Reef are also areas of high concentration of flora and fauna and are considered biodiversity hotspots.

Population of Oceania

The population of Oceania is about 40 million people, with the bulk of the people (about 30 million people) living in Australia and New Zealand, while Papua New Guinea has a population of about 8 million people. The rest of the population of Oceania is scattered across the various islands that make up the region.

Like population distribution, urbanization and industrialization are also unevenly distributed across Oceania. About 89% of the region's urban areas are in Australia and New Zealand, and these countries also have the most well-developed infrastructure. Australia, in particular, has many mineral and raw energy resources and generates much of the region's economy. The rest of Oceania and, in particular, the island states of the Pacific Ocean are very poorly developed. Some islands are rich but most of them are not. In addition, some of island states experiencing a shortage of clean drinking water or food.

Agriculture is also important in Oceania and there are three types that are common in the region. These include subsistence agriculture, plantation crops and capital intensive agriculture. Subsistence farming occurs in most of the Pacific Islands and is done to support local communities. Cassava, taro, yams and sweet potatoes are the most common products of this type of agriculture. Plantation crops are planted on the middle tropical islands while capital intensive agriculture is practiced only in Australia and New Zealand.

And finally, fishing and tourism are important sectors of the Oceanian economy and a stimulus for its development. Fishing is an important source of income because many of the islands have maritime exclusive economic zones that stretch for 370 km. Tourism is also important to Oceania, as tropical islands such as Fiji offer aesthetic beauty, while Australia and New Zealand attract developed cities with modern infrastructure. New Zealand has also become an important tourism region in the area.

Oceania countries

Map of countries in Oceania/Wikipedia

The following is a list of the 14 independent countries of Oceania, ranked from largest to smallest country by area:

1) Australia:

• Area: 7,617,930 km²
• Population: about 25,000,000 people
• Capital: Canberra

2) Papua New Guinea:

• Area: 462,840 km²
• Population: more than 8,000,000 people
• Capital: Port Moresby

3) New Zealand:

• Area: 268,680 km²
• Population: about 5,000,000 people
• Capital: Wellington

4) Solomon Islands:

• Area: 28,450 km²
• Population: about 600,000 people
• Capitals: Honiara

5) Fiji:

• Area: 18,274 km²
• Population: about 900,000 people
• Capital: Suva

6) Vanuatu:

• Area: 12,189 km²
• Population: about 270,000 people
• Capital: Port Vila

7) Samoa:

• Area: 2842 km²
• Population: about 193,000 people
• Capital: Apia

8) Kiribati:

• Area: 811 km²
• Population: about 110,000 people
• Capital: Tarawa

9) Tonga:

• Area: 748 km²
• Population: about 107,000 people
• Capitals: Nuku'alofa

10) Federated States Micronesia:

• Area: 702 km²
• Population: about 105,000 people
• Capital: Palikir

11) Palau:

• Area: 459 km²
• Population: about 21,000 people
• Capital: Melekeok

12) Marshall Islands:

• Area: 181 km²
• Population: about 53,000 people
• Capital: Majuro

13) Tuvalu:

• Area: 26 km²
• Capital: Funafuti

14) Nauru:

• Area: 21 km²
• Population: about 11,000 people
• Capital: No