Italian crafts. Ancient civilization. Rome: Craft. Reforms of Appius Claudius

In socio-economic terms, Italy VI-III centuries. BC e. presented a rather bleak picture. The most developed of its regions were Etruria and Campania, where agriculture, crafts, and trade flourished. Southern Italy, with rich Greek colonial cities, ranked second in terms of its level of development. Latium with the city of Rome, inhabited by pastoralists and farmers, very conveniently located at the intersection of important land and river routes, in the VI-V centuries. BC e. lagged behind its highly developed neighbors - the Etruscans and Greek colonies. Finally, in the mountainous regions of Central Italy lived tribes that were at the stage of decomposition of primitive relations.

Agriculture of the tribes and nationalities of Italy in the VI-III centuries. BC e.

Agriculture

The leading branch of the economy of the majority of the population peninsula was agriculture. Fertile soils and a mild climate ensured high yields in Etruria, Campania and Apulia. Dense soils were worked with heavy plows with a massive iron share (in Etruria and Apulia), and loose soils with light plows with a small share. Along with the plow, hoes were widely used to loosen the soil by hand.

In the most developed regions of Italy, wheat, barley, millet, beans, chickpeas were cultivated; in less developed and mountainous areas - spelt, barley, beans, turnips.

The ancient inhabitants of Italy did not know sugar, the body's needs for it were replenished by natural grape wine. Usually it was not strong and was always diluted with water (for 1 part of wine, 2-3 parts of water). The vine has been known since ancient times in Italy. The Greek colonists made improvements to local viticulture and turned many of the previously empty hills of southern Italy into continuous vineyards. Campanian and South Italian wines were famous throughout the Apennine Peninsula and were even exported to Greece and Gaul.

The Greeks introduced the inhabitants of Italy to the culture of olives. This heat-loving plant was cultivated mainly in Campania and the southern regions, while fresh and pickled olives, especially olive oil, were consumed throughout the country.

Cattle breeding

Italy in its relief is a hilly-mountainous country, only 20% of its territory is occupied by plains. The hills and mountains were covered with coniferous and oak forests which favored the development of cattle breeding, especially sheep and pig breeding. On the arid lands of Lucania, Calabria and inland Puglia, unsuitable for agriculture, distant pastoralism flourished (sheep, goat and horse breeding). Etruria was famous for breeding oxen - the main draft force in ancient agriculture.

Land law

Until the 8th century BC e. throughout Italy, the tribal system with public ownership of land reigned supreme. The emergence of Etruscan and Greek cities, where an early class society and state developed, led to the disintegration of communal and the emergence of the beginnings of private ownership of land.

On the territory of the Roman community, lands belonging to noble families were cultivated by members of these families, their clients and slaves, as a rule, in small plots. In addition to the patricians and their clients, plebeians lived in cities and villages, who were not part of the patrician clans. The plebeians cultivated small land plots from 2 to 7 yugers (1 yuger - 0.25 hectares), which belonged to them on the basis of private ownership. Part of the land was the property of the city-state; it was not processed and was considered common (agerpublicus - public field), it could be occupied (from the word occupare - to occupy), making a small rent to the treasury. The right to occupy state lands was widely used by the patricians. The plebeians at first did not have this right. During the VI-III centuries. they actively fought for the restriction of the rights of the patricians to occupation and for the division of the common land into small plots, giving them into the possession of the plebeians. In IV-III centuries. the plebeians partially achieved satisfaction of their demands, which contributed to the intensification of agriculture in general. In the course of this struggle, patrician tribal landownership lost the features of ancient communal property, was divided into plots that no longer belonged to the entire clan as such, but to the heads of individual families that separated from the clan, who owned the land on the basis of hereditary possession.

In the mountainous regions of Italy, communal land ownership retained its primary importance until the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC e.

Craft and trade

Development of handicraft in Italy

In the Etruscan cities, various crafts are created, trade operations are activated. This was facilitated to a large extent by the presence of minerals, in particular iron ore, copper, clay, building stone, and ship timber. The Etruscan mines on the island of Ylva (modern Elba) were the subject of a fierce struggle between the Greeks, Carthaginians and Etruscans. The latter came out victorious and organized the mining and processing of metals. On the coast closest to the island, in Populonia, the extraction of iron ore and its remelting was also organized. Mountains of slag worked out in antiquity still rise in these areas, testifying to the scope of the Etruscan metallurgy. The resulting metal was either processed in Populonia and neighboring Vetulonia (weapons, agricultural and craft tools, household items), or transported in the form of ingots to other Etruscan cities.

In the VI-IV centuries. BC e., despite the introduction of iron into the production, bronze was also widely used. Defensive weapons - helmets, armor, knee pads, etc. - were made mainly of bronze, bronze vessels, mirrors and various decorations were widely used. The manufacture of bronze products flourished in Etruria, in the Campanian cities (Capua and Dikearchii), the southernmost city of Italy, Regium, was famous for its school of bronze casting. Etruscan bronze products were distinguished by their technical and artistic perfection. They were in demand outside Italy, in particular in Athens and other Greek cities.

The most widespread of the crafts in Italy was ceramic: a variety of dishes, containers, water pipes, tiles, building and architectural details, mud bricks, burial urns, lamps. In Etruria, terracotta (i.e., from baked clay) figurines and round sculptures were produced on the largest scale. Especially famous was the Etruscan black-glazed pottery with embossed bucchero decorations. To date, the remains of numerous pottery kilns have been discovered in the ancient cities of Clusia, Arrezia, Calah - the largest centers of ceramic craft. In southern Italy, the manufacture of elegant ceremonial ceramics based on Greek models was established.

Of lesser importance was the textile craft, which for a long time retained ties with the household, but in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. woolen fabrics were already produced in special workshops in the city of Tarentum, and linen and sailcloth - in the city of Tarquinia. Rome was a major craft center in Latium.

The legendary king of Rome, Numa Pompilius, was credited with the establishment of 8 craft colleges (flutists, goldsmiths, coppersmiths, carpenters, felters, dyers and shoemakers). In small craft workshops of the VI-III centuries. BC e. the owner himself, members of his family and several slaves worked. The surviving inscriptions mentioning slaves, the finds of large ceramic ovens testify to the beginning of the penetration of slave labor into various crafts.

Trade in the VI-III centuries. BC e.

In the VI-III centuries. BC e. Italy becomes the arena of fairly active trade contacts, and not only external, but also intra-Italian trade relations are being established. Along with luxury goods, they also began to trade in necessary products - iron and metal products, ceramics and bread, wine and olive oil. The wheat of Etruria went to Rome and the Latin cities, olive oil from Magna Graecia was imported to Latium and Etruria, the trade of the Greek colonies with Balkan Greece was based largely on the export of agricultural products (mainly wheat) and the import of necessary handicraft products. The iron mined in the Ilva and in Populonia was supplied to Campania and to many Etruscan cities. The rugged terrain of Italy made it difficult for land transportation of goods, and it was carried out mainly by waterways - by sea and along rivers. The largest shopping malls VI-III centuries. BC e. there were Syracuse, Tarentum, Dikearchia - Puteoli, Populonia, Adria and Spina. The commercial importance of Rome grew.

In Rome, paths crossed from many craft centers of Etruria to rich Campanian cities. It was possible to climb the Tiber to the land of the Umbrians. For trade, every ninth day was allocated here, which was called "nundins" (ninth). Fairs were held once a year, where residents of neighboring cities gathered. Fairs were timed to coincide with major religious festivals and were held near the sanctuary of the revered deity. Volsinia, the religious center of Etruria, was also the site of the general Etruscan fair; in Latium, trading gatherings were held at the sanctuary of the goddess Juno Feronia, located on the border of four regions.

The scope of foreign trade with non-Italic peoples expanded. The Greek colonies were in regular trade relations with Balkan Greece, and the Etruscans were also active in foreign trade. Their bronzes are found in Balkan Greece, Asia Minor, even in Syria. Trade relations were established with the Celts, who inhabited in the 5th - 15th centuries. BC e. the Po Valley, and with the peoples beyond the Alps, who were sold grape wine, handicrafts in exchange for raw materials and slaves. The Etruscans were monopolists in the trade in amber, brought from the shores of a distant Baltic Sea. In Latin and Etruscan cities and necropolises, many items made in Balkan Greece and Asia Minor have been found. In Spina, the influence of the Greeks was so strong that this Etruscan city turned into a 5th century. BC. into Greco-Etruscan.

From the 4th century BC e. was involved in maritime trade and the city of Rome, as evidenced by the foundation at the mouth of the Tiber of the Roman port of Ostia. The largest maritime power of that time - Carthage - concluded three trade agreements with Rome (in 509, 348 and 280 BC).

The appearance of minted coins

The needs of domestic and foreign trade caused the appearance of minted coins as a convenient medium of exchange. The first to mint coins were the Greek colonies. Already in the VI century. BC e. many Greek cities in southern Italy and the islands of Sicily had their own mints. In IV-III centuries. Greek coiners achieved great perfection in minting silver denominations, which had a special purity of coin metal and elegant, often artistic, images.

In the VI-IV centuries. BC e. the Etruscan cities had not yet minted their own coins and used Greek for settlements. The first Etruscan coins appeared at the very end of the 5th century. BC e. They were made of gold, electrum, silver and bronze and originally had an image on only one side. In IV-III centuries. BC e.

In Rome, the first coins were cast in moulds; these were copper ingots weighing a Roman pound (273 grams), without images (the so-called heavy ass - aes grave). In the second half of the 4th c. BC. images of animals appear on it - a bull, a pig, an eagle, etc. (ace with an image - aes signatum). These heavy and bulky ingots were of little use for trade. The minting of lighter and more convenient silver coins dates back to the end of the 3rd century BC. BC e. The main monetary denominations in Rome were bronze ass, silver sestertius (2.5 ass), silver denarius (equal to 10 asses -4 sesterces).

Social structure in the VI-IV centuries. BC e.

The social structure of Rome in the VI-IV centuries. BC e. characterized by great complexity and variegation. In Roman society, there were three main types of social structures: tribal institutions dating back to primitive times, a new communal-peasant sector, and early slaveholding relations. In progress further development tribal institutions gradually withered away, the communal-peasant sector was strengthened, and early slave-owning relations tended to turn into classical slavery.

In the concrete reality of the VI-IV centuries. BC e. the carriers of these structural types were the class-estate groups of patricians, clients, plebeians and slaves. Each of these groups occupied a special place in production and in society, having its own set of rights and obligations.

patricians

Patricians got their name from the word pater, that is, the father of a large family, including, in addition to their own children, also dependent people and slaves. "Fathers" in early Rome were also called members of the highest governing body - the senate. The patricians were the privileged, ruling class of early Rome. They enjoyed full civil rights, voted in curate comitia, were elected to the senate, served both in heavily armed infantry and in privileged cavalry. Each patrician was the head of a numerous family (familias), i.e. a large family community, for the maintenance of which they had the right to take solid plots from the communal land fund for use. The main magistrate positions until the middle of the 4th century. BC e. filled with patricians. The patricians were divided into tribal groups (gentes), which went back to the distant tribal divisions of the primitive era. And although the patrician gentes of the VI-IV centuries. BC e. had a different structure and organization than the primitive clans, nevertheless, the role of traditional clan ties among the patricians was great. Being a privileged ruling class of landowners, in whose structure tribal ties occupied a significant place, the Roman patricians were a conservative element in society that hampered the development of new socio-economic relations, private property, and slavery.

Clients

In the early Roman society, clients were a large stratum - insolvent and politically disenfranchised people. Clients could be either freed slaves, or foreigners who moved to Rome, who were forced to seek protection and patronage from the patricians and acted under their patronage. Clients entered, as it were, into a tribal organization of patricians as dependent members, received the generic name of their patrons. They were obliged to work on the lands of patrons and perform various duties: to accompany their patron on a campaign, at exits to the city. The property of the client, if he did not leave a will, after his death was inherited by the patron. In case of disobedience to the patron, the client could be enslaved by court order. In turn, the patron was obliged to protect the client from the harassment of other noble persons, represented his interests in court. Clients who belonged to the genus of their patrons, associated with them by various, including religious, obligations, were separated from the plebeians in the social struggle that took place in Rome in the 5th-4th centuries. BC e., acted together with their patrician patrons. But the weakening of tribal ties in patrician births and the development of new social relations gradually changed the position of clients. By the 3rd century BC e. most of them have already freed themselves from their dependence on patrons, having received land from the state, and have become free farmers.

Plebeians

One of the main classes-estates of early Rome were the plebeians. Some of the plebeians were accepted into patrician clans as dependent clients, but the majority of the plebs stood outside the public organization of indigenous patrician citizens and were deprived of civil rights, although they were considered legally free, unlike slaves and clients. A significant part of the plebeians was made up of a newcomer mass of people who broke all ties with their former homeland and stood outside the tribal organization of Rome. These people turned out to be a particularly favorable environment for the formation of private property relations, and their struggle with the patricians associated with obsolete tribal institutions was historically progressive.

The plebeians cultivated small plots of land, were engaged in trade and crafts. They lived in their bulk in the villages surrounding Rome, had their own community organization, a system of mutual assistance. The plebeians, as small farmers, represented the main part of the emerging communal-peasant sector of Roman society, although it was constantly replenished at the expense of clients, as they freed themselves from patron dependence, and even the impoverished patricians themselves, who for various reasons lost their land holdings and their names of dependent people. In their midst, stratification occurred rather quickly and a prosperous layer emerged. General civil lawlessness united all the plebeians to fight the patricians. However, if the mass of the plebeians sought to obtain land and abolish indentured slavery, then the prosperous and wealthy plebeians fought primarily for political equality with the patricians.

Slaves

In the VI-III centuries. BC e. slave labor penetrates into various branches of the economy - slaves cultivate the fields, work in handicraft workshops, and in the household. Prisoners of war were turned into slaves, indentured debtors became slaves. Prohibition of debt slavery in Rome in 326 BC. e. made the enslavement of captives the main source of replenishment of the slave class.

Early slaveholding relations are called patriarchal slavery and are distinguished from classical slavery. Under patriarchal slavery, production is aimed at creating not a commodity, but only the means of subsistence of the master and his family, subsistence economy dominates, and ties with the market are in their infancy. Since commodity relations were weak, and the need for the slave's surplus labor was limited by the needs of the master and his family, the exploitation of the slave did not reach extreme limits. Despite the use of slaves in various branches of production, in general they were few and they had not yet become the main producers. The owner himself and his children worked alongside the slaves.

The slave was not considered as a thing, he retained some (albeit the most minimal) rights of the human person. The slave was not included in the inventory of the estate, the slaves were responsible for some actions before the court (in a later period he was punished by the owner), they could act as guarantors and be adopted. They had the right to participate in certain religious cults and festivities. According to religious beliefs, slaves were given rest on holidays, and too cruel treatment of slaves, the shedding of blood in vain was recognized as objectionable to the gods.

Etruscan golden crown and jewels,
found at Vulci in the Camposcola necropolis. 6th century BC.

The line between freedom and slavery was not sharp, it was softened and obscured by the existence of transitional categories of dependence from slavery to freedom: client connection, domestic slavery, bonded debt.

The most disenfranchised was the position of slave prisoners of war, since their master was not connected with them by tribal, kinship, religious, or any other relations. Therefore, in early Rome, the contradictions between slaves and slave owners were not exposed, they were still hidden, closely intertwined with the social antagonisms of other dependent strata of the population: impoverished plebeians, indentured debtors, clients.

From the period of VI-III centuries. BC e. news of mass uprisings of slaves did not reach; they did not yet act independently, but waged a struggle in hidden forms (flight, damage to weapons) or took an active part in the unrest of the semi-free and ruined sections of the population.

So, in Rome, the slaves took part in the capture of the Capitol fortress in 460 BC by Appius Gerdonius, who was striving to restore royal power. e., in the unrest of debtors at the beginning of the 4th century. BC e., in the popular movement of 342 BC. e.

Struggle of the plebeians with the patricians

The struggle of patricians and plebeians permeates the entire socio-political history of early Rome; in the dramatic clashes of the warring parties, the main institutions of Roman society of the 5th-4th centuries are formed. BC e. The main antagonism was manifested in the fact that the patrician nobility sought to maintain and strengthen their privileged position, based on tribal traditions and ties, in the disposal of land holdings cultivated by dependent clients and relatives, and political dominance in society.

The requirements of the plebeians boiled down to three main points:

1. the admission of plebeians to public land, the restriction of patrician land ownership, the allocation of land plots to the plebeians, that is, the solution of the agrarian question;
2. the abolition of debt bondage and the limitation of debt interest;
3. political equality, that is, participation in all meetings and the right to be elected to all public offices.

Since land was the main type of wealth, and agriculture was the main occupation of the population, the agrarian question was at the heart of all the demands of the plebs.

As in the Greek city-states, in Rome only full-fledged citizens could own land, so the solution of the land issue was closely connected with obtaining civil rights, and the plebeians sought, above all, political equality.

The struggle of the plebeians with the patricians, which began in the middle of the VI century. BC e., ended only at the beginning of the III century. BC e. There are three main stages in its history:

1. mid 6th century BC e. -494 BC e. - from the reform of Servius Tullius to the establishment of a people's tribunate;
2. 494 - 444 BC e. - from the establishment of the office of tribunes of the people to the laws of Canulei;
3. 385-287 AD BC e. - from the movement of Manlius and the laws of Licinius - Sextius to the plebiscite of Hortensius.

First stage

Until the middle of the VI century. BC e. plebeians were considered an alien element and they were not even trusted to serve in the army. However, the increase in the number of plebeians, on the one hand, and the expansion of military activity, on the other, made it necessary to involve them in the ranks of the militia, which was reinforced by the reforms of Servius Tullius. The plebeians were thus included in the Roman community, became citizens, having received not all rights, but only the right to shed blood for the Roman state.

Second phase

First secession

At the beginning of the 5th century BC e. the plebeians already formed the bulk of the Roman army, in which the patricians occupied all command posts. Relying on the majority of the warrior citizens, the plebeians fought for their rights, threatening to withdraw from Rome and found a new city. (Such departures of the plebeians from Rome were called secessions from the Latin secessio - departure, removal.) At the time of serious military complications, the plebeian army presented its demands to the patricians and retired to the Sacred Mountain (a hill located in the vicinity of Rome).

The departure from Rome of most of the soldiers, of course, put the state in a catastrophic situation, and the patricians were forced, having entered into negotiations with the plebeians, to make concessions. The most important of them was the creation of a new magistracy (position) of the people's tribunes, who could stop all decisions of the patrician magistrates, pronouncing the word veto - “I forbid” (494 BC).

The struggle between the plebeians and the patricians was fierce and bloody. She passed with varying degrees of success. If the plebeians wrested from the patricians the positions of popular tribunes, then they failed to pass the agrarian laws that were proposed by Spurius Cassius (486 BC). He offered to distribute the lands conquered from the Guernic tribe to the needy plebeians. However, his bill did not pass, he himself was accused of striving for royal power and executed. In 454, at the suggestion of the popular tribune Icilius, the lands on the Aventine (at that time a suburban area of ​​Rome) were divided among the poorest citizens.

Litigation in Italy. Second secession. Law 12 tables

Dramatic events took place in the middle of the 5th century. BC e. Under pressure from the plebeians, the patricians were forced to create a commission of 10 people (decem viri - ten husbands) to record court decisions. Hitherto, officials in Rome have held court according to customs dating back to the ancestral past and already obsolete. In addition, the patrician magistrates abused the courts, relying on their interpretation of customary law, which was not published and could not be verified. The commission of the decemvirs began to develop written laws. However, in the process of work, its members began to abuse the unlimited power they had received, which caused indignation among the plebeians and their repeated removal to the Sacred Mountain (449 BC - the so-called second secession). The patricians again made concessions: a law was established according to which every Roman citizen sentenced to death could apply for protection to the popular assembly. At the same time, written laws were published. They were written on XII copper plates and put on display in the central square of Rome - the forum. The "Laws of the XII Tables" had a huge impact on the subsequent development of Roman society and law. The old custom associated with the tribal arrangement was replaced by written law, which fixed and sanctified private property, slavery and inequality. Any infringement on private property was punished, the perpetrators were severely punished and even executed.

The "Laws of the XII Tables" recorded the legal distinction between patricians and plebeians, patrons and clients, freemen and slaves. An important conquest of the plebeians was the limitation of interest on loans to 1 ounce per 1 pound, or 8 1/3% per annum. However, the patricians achieved the inclusion in the text of the laws of a number of clauses that infringe on the rights of the plebeians: their marriages with the patricians were prohibited, the institution of the clientele was fixed, which was beneficial primarily to patrician families.

Three laws for the plebeians

In the same year 449 BC. e. the consuls Valery and Horace passed three more laws in the interests of the plebeians: the inviolability of the person of the people's tribunes was confirmed, the right of appeal to the people's assembly of a citizen condemned by a patrician magistrate to death or corporal punishment, and most importantly, the decisions of the plebeian assemblies received the force of law, binding on the patricians. Five years later (444 BC), the law of Canulei recognized the legality of marriages between plebeians and patricians and thus laid the foundation for the merger of the rich plebeian elite with the patricians into one class.

The important demand of the plebeians to occupy the highest office was satisfied, but the patricians ensured that the representatives of the plebeians received the right to be elected not to the post of consuls, but to the post of military tribunes with consular power. For a number of subsequent years, the consuls were not elected, and at the head of the administration were military tribunes, chosen not only from patricians, but also from wealthy plebeians. In 443 BC. e. A new magistracy of censors was established, to which only patricians could be elected.

Unrest in Rome. The third stage of the plebeian-patristic confrontation

Laws of Licinius and Sextius

Rome in the 80s-60s of the IV century. BC e. becomes the scene of sharp clashes and unrest of enslaved debtors, dangerous for the patricians. The first attempt to achieve mitigation of the debt law was made by Mark Manlius in the 80s of the 4th century. BC e.; she ended in failure. Mark Manlius died, but the unrest did not stop. According to legend, for 10 years the plebeians, led by the people's tribunes Sextius and Licinius, continued to fight, and in 367 BC. e. the patricians were forced to yield. At the suggestion of Licinius and Sextius, very important laws were passed that satisfied the main requirements of the plebeians:

1. If earlier the patricians could occupy (occupy) any amount of state land and thereby reduce the land fund for allocating the plebeians, then according to the law of Licinius - Sextia, it was forbidden to occupy more than 500 south (125 hectares) of land.
2. The debt issue was also partially resolved. The legislators did not go for the complete cancellation (cassation) of debts, but significantly reduced the debt by the following recalculation: the interest paid was deducted from the principal amount of the debt, and the rest was paid on preferential terms for three years.
3. The third law abolished the position of military tribunes with consular power, and instead of them they began to elect two consuls, one of whom had to be a plebeian.

Legislation 367 BC e. dealt a severe blow to the privileges of the patricians, and in the following time the plebeians quickly achieved new successes. To satisfy the land hunger, land-hungry Roman citizens began to be withdrawn to colonies founded in different parts of Italy. During the time from 334 to 287 BC. e. the Romans founded 18 colonies, i.e. more than in all previous history, and the agrarian problem was partially solved.

In 326 BC. e. the plebeians achieved a very important reform. Under the law of Tribune Petelius, debt bondage for Roman citizens and members of their families was abolished. From that time on, a Roman citizen was liable for debt only with his property. It was now possible to convert mainly prisoners of war into slaves.

Reforms of Appius Claudius

A major role in the struggle between the patricians and the plebeians was played by the reforms of Appius Claudius, the censor of 312 BC. He built the first paved road (the famous Via Appia, which is still preserved), the aqueducts, which laid the foundation for the famous Roman roads and aqueducts. He included in the Senate those magistrates whose fathers were freedmen. The supreme governing body of Rome was replenished with new people whose grandfathers were slaves. Appius Claudius patronized those plebeians who were engaged in crafts and trade, did not have landed property and did not particularly need it: at his suggestion, Roman citizens who did not have landed property could vote not only in urban territorial districts, but also in rural ones, i.e. in rural areas. e. their political influence has increased.

In 300 BC. e. laws were passed that allowed the election of plebeians to the priestly colleges. Finally, in 287 BC. e. it was again confirmed that plebiscites (i.e., decisions of plebeian assemblies) are laws binding on all citizens, including patricians (the law of the dictator Hortensius). 287 BC e. is considered the last year of the long struggle of the plebeians with the patricians for their political equality.

In the process of the struggle of the plebeians with the patricians, the remnants of the tribal system were eliminated and new social relations received favorable conditions for their development. From the end of the 5th century BC e. elements of private land ownership begin to form, both on the lands of the plebeians and patricians, and the conditions for its concentration are emerging. The abolition of debt bondage contributed to the growth of the role of foreign slaves and increased the aggressiveness of Roman society, which was increasingly in need of additional labor.

The results of the struggle between plebeians and patricians

On the other hand, the satisfaction of the basic demands of the plebeians led to the consolidation of Roman society; the class struggle, which tore apart and weakened the Roman state from within, is dying out; in the face of an external enemy at the beginning of the III century. BC e. Rome appears strong and monolithic, which could not but contribute to its military success. The equalization of the rights of the plebeians with the patricians changed the social structure of Roman society. Patricians and plebeians ceased to be different classes-estates. The top of the plebs now united with the patricians and formed a new estate - the nobility (from nobilis - the best, noble), consisting of large slave and landowners, from among whom the senate was replenished and magistrates were elected to public office.

The wealthy stratum of Roman citizens, associated with medium land ownership, trade and commerce, formed the estate of horsemen. All the rest made up the plebs - they were free peasants, small artisans and merchants.

State structure of the Roman Republic V-III centuries. BC e.

Under the tribal system, the state as such did not exist. State organization differs from the generic one in three features: the presence of a special administrative apparatus (army, courts, officials), the division of the population not by consanguinity, but by territorial basis, as well as taxes collected for the maintenance of the army, officials, etc.

The process of the emergence of the state in Rome was determined by the internal state of Roman society, but it was complicated by an external factor. At the beginning of the VI century. BC e. The Etruscans seized power in Rome, founded their own dynasty and created a government apparatus, which accelerated the formation of the Roman state itself. The Etruscans organized a monarchical government headed by the king. However, it was a primitive monarchy, severely limited in its competence by the popular assembly, first by curiae, and then by centuries.

Republican form of government and its structure

The uprising of the local population of Rome at the end of the VI century. (about 510 BC) eliminated royal power; it was established that the community would henceforth be governed by elders elected every year - magistrates. In Rome, a republican form of government was established (V-I centuries BC).

People's Assembly. Types of people's assembly

The National Assembly was considered the highest state body. It adopted or repealed laws, declared war and made peace, was the supreme court that heard appeals and protests against decisions of the judiciary. The people's assembly elected all the highest officials, in whose hands was all the executive power.

Servius Tullius - 6th king of Rome. Depiction of the 16th century by Frans Huys, 1522-62.

Three types of public assemblies gathered in Rome - comitia (from the Latin word comi tia - gathering); before the reforms of Servius Tullius in the middle of the VI century. BC e. People's assemblies met only in curiae and were called curiat comitia. They were the only kind of popular assembly. But the curia were closed associations of patricians with strong remnants of tribal government and did not include plebeians. Servius Tullius, whose role in the formation of the Roman state is especially great, admitted the plebeians to military service and created the so-called centuriate system. Due to the fact that in the V-IV centuries. BC e. the most important problems of public life were generated by numerous wars, the struggle of patricians and plebeians, the importance of curate comitia fell greatly and meetings of Roman citizens by centuries, which included both patricians and plebeians, acquired decisive importance in public life.

The centuriate comitia were assembled by senior officials - consuls - outside the city limits of Rome, on the Field of Mars (Mars is the god of war). All Roman citizens exhibited 193 centuries, of which the richest - the first class - 98 centuries, that is, more than half. Voting took place by centuries, each having one vote. The votes were given in a strictly established order: first the centuries of the first class, then the second, third, etc. If more than 50% of the votes of the centuries voted for the proposal, the vote was terminated, and the proposal became law. With a similar voting procedure, all questions were decided by 98 centuries of the first class, that is, the richest part of Roman citizenship. The oligarchic character of the centuriate meetings aroused the discontent of wide sections of the Roman citizens; they fought for the democratization of the centuriate comitia and the fair representation of the centuries. In the second half of the III century. BC e. The democratic reform of the centuriate comitia was carried out. Previously, each class exhibited a different number of centuries and, therefore, had an unequal number of votes, now each of the five classes exhibited an even number of centuries - 70, and in total in Rome there were 373 centuries (5 classes of 70 = 350 + 18 centuries of riders + 5 centuries artisans and proletarians).

tribes

In the process of the struggle between the plebeians and the patricians, meetings of the plebeians in territorial districts - tribes (Roman territory was divided into 35 territorial districts - tribes, 4 urban and 31 rural) acquired important state significance. Initially, the tributary assemblies consisted of only plebeians and met in contrast to the purely patrician assemblies in the curiae. The strengthening of the political significance of the plebeians led to the growth of the state authority of the tributary plebeian assemblies. According to the laws of 449, and then 287, the decisions of the plebeian tribunal comitia were recognized as law, binding on the patricians. Patricians also began to take part in tributary comitia, and this type of popular assembly by the 2nd century. BC e. became the main and decisive in the state. The tributary comitia, connected in origin with the gatherings of the plebeian masses, from the very beginning were distinguished by their democratic character. All 35 tribes, regardless of the composition of the population, had one vote and enjoyed the same rights. The democratic nature of the tributary comitia intensified after the reforms of Appius Claudius (end of the 4th century), according to which artisans and merchants, always more mobile and restless people, could be assigned not only to the four city tribes, but also to the rest of the rural tribes and thereby exert their influence to a wider population.

Despite the well-known democratization of the Roman popular assemblies and their broad competence, even the most democratic tributary comitia turned out to be an instrument in the hands of the aristocracy. The People's Assembly discussed only the issues introduced by the magistrates and previously discussed in the Senate, that is, it did not have the right to initiate legislation. There were several types of popular assemblies in Rome: curate, centuriate, tributary comitia. Their functions were not clearly delineated, which was used for their own purposes by the ruling elite of Rome, represented by the Senate and magistrates.

Senate

The senate played a very important role in the public life of Rome. Not a single bill came to the consideration of the people's assembly, if it had not been previously discussed by the senate. Moreover, a law adopted at a popular assembly became law only after its approval by the senate. The Senate, thus, controlled and directed the activities of the people's assembly in the direction necessary for it. The magistrates elected to office were accountable for their actions to the senate and thus entirely dependent on its will. From the 4th century BC e. the composition of the Senate began to be replenished from magistrates who had served their term, who, after the resignation of their powers, were included in the Senate list. This list was kept by a special magistrate-censor in a strictly hierarchical order. First, the list included the names of former censors, followed by consuls, then praetors, etc. Only the highest magistrates could convene the Senate for meetings: dictator, consuls, praetors. When discussing issues and voting, opinions and votes were given strictly according to the list. The adopted decision was called the senatus adviser, or decree. The Senate was the stronghold of the Roman oligarchy.

Masters

In Rome there was no permanent bureaucracy, all executive power belonged to elected officials - magistrates. Such magistrates were consuls, praetors, aediles, quaestors, who were elected for one year. Elections took place 3-4 months before new magistrates took office. The system of Roman republican magistracies did not develop immediately after the expulsion of the last king, but was created gradually. It is assumed that in the early years of the Republic, the head of the executive branch was

• one supreme magistrate (official) - praetor (walking in front),
• who was assisted by a deputy - a quaestor.

After the first departure of the plebeians to the Sacred Mountain, the posts of people's tribunes and plebeian aediles, their assistants, were created. However, the existence of a single head of executive power in the person of the praetor seemed dangerous, as it created the possibility of seizing power on his part and returning the hated monarchy. Therefore, in the middle of the 5th c. instead of one supreme magistrate, they began to choose two who enjoyed the same power and ruled jointly. They had to consult with each other and were called consuls (from consulo - I confer). Later, new positions of censors were created, elected by 2 people once every five years for 18 months. The censors were chosen from among the former consuls. They were to distribute the Roman citizens according to property classes and, after checking, draw up a new list of senators. Judicial power was transferred to the praetors. In its finished form, the system of Roman magistracies took shape only by the second half of the 4th century BC. BC e.

Composition of magistracy

According to the Roman constitution, all magistracies were collegiate (2 consuls, 2 praetors, 4 aediles, 10 tribunes of the people, 4 quaestors), annually re-elected and unpaid. The performance of the duties of a magistrate was considered not a job, but an honor (honor) and therefore was gratuitous. The lack of remuneration made it impossible for ordinary Roman citizens to hold magisterial positions. On the contrary, for the election and administration of a public office, it was necessary to spend a lot of their own money on maintaining a staff of scribes, heralds, guards, lower employees, etc., since there was no permanent state apparatus. Therefore, only a wealthy person could be elected a magistrate. While in office, a magistrate could not be prosecuted or removed. Censors, consuls and praetors were considered the highest magistrates. The consuls commanded the army, exercised the highest civil authority, while the praetors exercised the judicial power. The people's tribunes had the right to "veto" the decisions of the magistrates, they could introduce bills, convene tribunal comitia, they even had the right to arrest the magistrate and appeal against the decision of the senate. The personality of the people's tribune was recognized as sacred and inviolable (sacrosan ctus). Anyone who offended the tribune - even with words - was subject to death. The power of the people's tribune was very great, but there were 10 of them, and they could turn their power against each other, for example, using the right of "veto", and thereby neutralize the actions of their colleagues. In addition, the power of the tribune was limited only to the boundaries of the city of Rome.

The duties of the aediles were to maintain order in the city, urban improvement, food care, and the organization of public games. Quaestors were in charge of the treasury, kept financial books, they accompanied the consuls on military campaigns, disposed of the sale of prisoners and war booty.

In case of emergency (a difficult war, dangerous uprisings or the departure of the plebeians from Rome), a sole dictator (dictator) and his deputy, the so-called chief of cavalry (magister eguitum), were appointed, to whom all officials were subordinate, but the dictator could not remain in power for more than 6 months.

The magistrates and the senate enjoyed virtually the entirety of state power in the Roman Republic, which received a pronounced aristocratic character.

In order to protect the cultural heritage of the whole world in 1972, UNESCO adopted a Convention signed by representatives of more than 150 countries. This Convention covers a list of more than 500 objects that make up the world cultural heritage. At the same time, almost 60% of these objects are located in Italy.

The rich historical past and such attention of UNESCO makes tours to Italy especially attractive. Thousands of tourists tend to spend their holidays in Italy. There is probably no such corner in this blessed country, where the eye of a vacationer would not look.

Holidays in Italy can turn into an exciting adventure. Tourists who have chosen a tour of Italy can enjoy a truly royal holiday. Breathtaking views of ancient and medieval historical, cultural, architectural monuments, unforgettable trips to large and small Italian cities, a trip to the islands, various voyages to the seas and lakes, dizzying ski slopes from snow-capped mountains, acquaintance with exquisite Italian cuisine, mud therapy and thalassotherapy, a variety of medical and business tours - all this is offered by hospitable Italy.

Briefly about the geography of Italy

Everyone knows the famous Italian "boot" - this is the Apennine Peninsula, on which Italy is spread. It stretches for 1300 km from northwest to southeast. The richness of landscapes, the riot of colors of nature and the mild climate are due to the central position of the peninsula in the Mediterranean, between Spain and Greece. And the proximity of these countries makes tours to Italy even more attractive.

The total area of ​​Italy is a little over 300,000 sq. km. For 7500 km, the state is washed by four seas - Ligurian, Tyrrhenian, Ionian and Adriatic. The coast is the most densely populated (especially crowded during the holiday season, when many choose tours to Italy). It is rich in ports, resorts and industrial cities. In the same regions of Italy, many guests of the country prefer to relax.

In the north, the Alps stretch in an arc, which represent a natural climatic barrier. In some places it reaches a height of 4810 m (Mount Blanc) and accumulates decent hydropower reserves in Italy. WITH neighboring countries- France, Switzerland and Austria link Italy with numerous passes and tunnels through the Alps. By the way, the Alps are the central ski resort of Europe, because of which many ski lovers aspire to vacation in Italy.

The picturesque lakes lying at the foot of the Alps are surrounded by mountains. Further to the south is the picturesque and fertile Padana Plain, located in the Po Valley - the most big river Italy. With its beauties, it will punish the hearts of many travelers making a tour of Italy.

In the northwest, the Apennine Mountains, which border the Ligurian Gulf in an extended chain, stretch all the way to Sicily along the entire peninsula. Due to its calcareous and clay composition, karst phenomena are observed in the Apennines - the formation of very many caves, grottoes, funnels, rivers disappearing underground, etc.

Many caves in the Apennines are famous for their mineral springs and mud, which makes medical tours to Italy especially popular.

Italy has a little over 58 million inhabitants. True, due to a significant influx of immigrants, the demographic situation in the country Lately remains tense. Therefore, the consulates impose very strict requirements even on those who just want to relax in Italy.

Mostly immigrants from Morocco, the Philippines, Albania, China, the countries of the former Yugoslavia and the former republics of the Soviet Union immigrate to Italy.

Government of Italy

Italy is a bourgeois parliamentary republic, as determined by a referendum in 1946. At the head of the republic is the president, who is elected by the Parliament and representatives of regional assemblies for a period of 7 years.

Parliament is the highest body of legislative power and consists of two chambers, the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, which are elected by the population by popular vote for a period of 5 years.

The Council of Ministers represents the executive power and is approved by the President and is responsible to him.

In political and administrative terms, Italy consists of 20 historically established regions, each of which, in turn, is divided into provinces. The provinces are divided into communes, which are governed by mayors. In total, there are 103 provinces and more than 8 thousand communes in Italy.

Due to its exceptional strategic position at the crossroads of trade routes between West and East, Italy has been subjected to military attacks throughout its history. The barbarians tried to capture it countless times. A sea of ​​blood was shed in endless wars on its territory - and all for the sake of division and seizure of lands. That is why the Apennine Peninsula until the 19th century was covered with numerous principalities, duchies, kingdoms, city-states. Only in the second half of the 19th century did Italy emerge as a single state. Guides accompanying tours in Italy tell about numerous coups d'etat in great detail.

Multi-party system is feature political system Italy. There are many unions here. At the same time, the internal life of the country is full of contradictions: modernity is combined with deep antiquity, poverty - with wealth.

Economy of Italy

In the past, Italy was an agricultural country. Nevertheless, thanks to the industriousness of its citizens and the skillful policy of the authorities, the country managed to turn into an industrial power with developed infrastructure and major sectors of the economy. And at the moment, Italy is one of the seven most developed industrial countries with a market economy.

It is surprising that, having almost no minerals, Italy was able to build an industrial sector of the economy focused on the processing of raw materials. At the same time, the cost of labor is higher than the cost of raw materials. And this state of affairs is very surprising for the guests of the country who came to Italy to relax.

The Italian economy works on imported raw materials, and the country produces and exports almost all known types of products - industrial, household, transport, agricultural.

Italy can boast of a highly developed industry: ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, automotive, electric power, production of building materials, light, food, furniture industries, production of glass, faience, electrical household and many other goods. Some factories can be visited as part of some tours of Italy.

Thanks to its food industry, Italy is famous for its pasta, preserves, olive oil, wine, etc. Revenues from tourism activities make up a decent part of the country's budget. And, despite the fact that it is quite difficult to get a visa to Italy, tours to this blessed country remain one of the very popular ones.

As in many other countries with a developed market economy, in Italy, in addition to large industrial enterprises, small and medium-sized enterprises occupy a larger share.

Fashion in Italy

A riot of imagination, a flight of thought, irresistible creativity, exquisite taste - the hallmark of everything made in Italy, both in the field of fashion and in industrial production.

Every year in Rome and Florence grandiose fashion shows are held, gathering thousands of guests from all over the world. Nevertheless, Milan remains the center of fashion, which is at the same time one of the tourist centers Italy, constantly attracting those who want to relax and have fun.

Not the first year of the collection women's clothing"pret-a-porter" receives the prestigious "Occhio d'Oro" award, equivalent to the Parisian "Ditale d'Oro". The offices and production workshops of the legendary Italian stylists - Dolce and Gabbana, Armani, Trussardi, Versace, Ferre, Moschino, Laura Biagiotti, Critsia and others are concentrated in Milan. Many people make tours to Italy solely for the sake of these names.

Brief history of Italy

The history of Italy is rich and varied. And although experienced guides accompany travelers on all tours of Italy and talk in detail about all the monuments, some facts are worth remembering in advance. In ancient times, the peninsula was inhabited by various tribes: the Venets lived in the north of the Adriatic; the ligurs lived in the northwest of the peninsula; Latins - in the center; Italians - in the central and southern parts of the peninsula. In many places in Italy, during excavations, fragments of Mycenaean (Greek) bronze and ceramics were found. This suggests that between Italy and Greece already in the middle of the II millennium BC. there were close trade relations. It is known that between the VIII and VI centuries. BC. on the coasts of southern Italy and Sicily, the Greeks set up many colonies. It is believed that the VI and V centuries. BC. are the "golden" centuries of the so-called Magna Graecia, and the Greek cities in Italy, Syracuse and Taranto, competed in luxury even with Athens.

In the south of the Apennine Peninsula and Sicily, along with Greek civilization at the end of the 8th century. BC. attracts attention powerful Etruscan civilization. Until now, historians have not come to a common opinion about the origin of the Etruscans. For example, Herodotus, a historian of ancient Greece, believes that they come from Lydia (Asia Minor). The Etruscans settled between the rivers Arno and Tiber. Then their influence spread to the south and north - to the territories of the Padana Plain and Campania. The heyday of the Etruscan civilization falls on the VI century. BC. In the III century. BC. the Romans took control of them.

In the middle of the VIII century. BC. The Trojans founded Rome. As the legend tells, in 753 BC. the capital of the future powerful state was founded by Romulus. From the very beginning, the Romans proclaimed the conquest of the whole world as their main goal.

All the activity of the Roman state, which was formed from a small settlement on the Palatine Hill, was subordinated to this goal. When the sixth king reigned in Rome, the state was located on seven hills on the left bank of the Tiber. Each hill still has its own name, and if you happen to visit Italy on vacation or on a business trip, the locals will certainly tell the story of each hill.

In 509 B.C. the Romans expelled the seventh king, and, for the first time in the world, established a republican form of government. It lasted until the middle of the 1st century BC.

The Roman state was rapidly strengthening, developing and expanding due to the victories of Roman swords and well-trained legions. After three Punic wars with Carthage, Rome became a major state in the Mediterranean.

As a republic, Rome ceased to exist after the resounding victories of Julius Caesar in Gaul. Caesar's heir, Octavian Augustus, becomes the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which stretches over a vast expanse from Scotland in the west to Armenia in the east.

In 476 AD the western part of the grandiose Roman Empire ceased to exist, while its eastern part, known as Byzantium, held out until the middle of the 15th century. Many monuments that remained after the fall of a powerful empire are still being shown to lovers of antiquities who came to rest in Italy.

After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Italy was shaken by the raids of the Huns, Visigoths and Ostrogoths. At the end of the VI century. part of the territory of Italy (north and part central regions) went to the Lombards, and the center and southern regions- Byzantium. King of the Franks Charlemagne by the end of the VIII century. completely conquered Italy. Norman Crusaders in the XI - XII centuries. capture southern Italy and the islands. In the XIII - XIV centuries. they were replaced by the kings of the French Anjou dynasty. In the XV century. Italy consisted of 5 large states (the Kingdom of Naples, the Papal States, the Duchy of Milan, the Venetian and Florentine Republics), a large number of small counties (Savoia) and signories (the power of individual city-states). For tasty Italian lands in Italy in the XV - XVI centuries. there are endless wars between France and Spain.

Napoleon Bonaparte at the end of the 18th century conquers Italy, and the Republic of Venice at the beginning of the 19th century. belongs to Austria.

In the course of the national liberation movement led by the Risorgimento in 1861, Italy is united into a single whole and becomes a constitutional monarchy. Victor Emmanuel II of the Savoy dynasty became the first king of Italy.

At the beginning of the XX century. Italy is transforming from a capitalist power into an imperialist one. At the helm of power in the country in 1922 are the Nazis, led by Mussolini. During the Laterna Agreements in 1929 between the Pope and Mussolini in Rome, the creation of the sovereign state of the Vatican City was announced, which is becoming increasingly popular thanks to the pilgrimage tours of Italy.

Since 1935, Italy has been participating in aggressive wars: it conquers Ethiopia and Albania, and in 1940 it joins an alliance with Nazi Germany and enters the Second World War.

During the war, in June 1943, Anglo-American troops entered Italy, and a month later Mussolini's fascist dictatorship fell.

In 1946, an all-Italian referendum was held, as a result of which the monarchy was abolished, and Italy was again proclaimed a republic.

Art in Italy

The art of Italy is incredibly rich in masterpieces that were created in this country from the ancient era to the 18th century. This flourishing can be understood, given the unique historical conditions in which the country lived. Here is the richest heritage of the civilization of the Greeks, Etruscans, Romans, and, on the other hand, the very location of the country, stretching from Sicily to the Alps. This geography contributed to the influence of many external trends.

The era of barbarian invasions seriously affected the art of the country. At the same time, the influence of Byzantium was expressed in the use of simple forms of basilicas in architecture, endowed with powerful vaults and domes. Such, at first glance, simplicity of forms was made up for by the very rich and varied decoration of the interior, marble decorations and magnificent mosaics that covered the walls, domes and apses from the inside. You can see this when you come to Italy on vacation. Many ancient cathedrals and churches tell their story better than any reference book.

In the XI - XIV centuries. in Italy, as in any other European country, many religious buildings are being built. Inside, these buildings are richly decorated with frescoes or mosaics depicting biblical scenes ("The Poor's Bible"). The architecture is dominated by Gothic, which is a modification of some elements of romanticism. For example, church vaults are raised to their maximum height, pilasters are increased in height, tall stained-glass windows are used, etc.

In Florence in the XV - XVI centuries. a group of architects, artists, philosophers, sculptors and poets in their creations begin to speak loudly about new revolutionary ideas in art, which formed the basis of humanism. Taking all the best from ancient art, the humanists laid the foundation for a new era in art - the era of the Italian Renaissance. That is why most tours of Italy include a visit to Florence in the program.

In the XVI century. Rome instead of Florence becomes the center of art. It was in Rome, on the basis of the Italian Renaissance, that a new style appeared - baroque. Italy becomes the birthplace of the Baroque and the Renaissance. On the basis of these styles, mannerism, naturalism, neoclassicism and other trends subsequently arise. And if you have a desire, you can diversify your vacation by visiting the museums that Italy is so famous for.

There is an opinion that Italy is the birthplace of saints, heroes and poets. But Italy has also given the world legendary musicians, great composers. In Italy, for the first time, musical notation and the first violin appeared, Vivaldi and Verdi were born and conquered the world with their music. Their operas are heard in all theaters of the world. And, of course, while relaxing in Italy, one cannot fail to visit the famous La Scala Opera House, which is located in Milan.

Italian cinema was born at the beginning of the 20th century in Turin. Subsequently, it began to develop rapidly, winning the hearts and minds of millions of viewers around the world. Further victorious procession of cinema continued in Rome. It was there that Chinechitta, an experimental center of cinematography, appeared and began to develop rapidly. This unique center gave the world a galaxy of famous directors, including Rossellini, De Santis, Fellini. Over the years, the names and works of other outstanding directors and actors have become known.

Folk crafts of Italy

Folk crafts in Italy are occupied by 5 million people working for almost 1.5 million enterprises. Among the main products are clothes, which are made mainly in Milan and Carpi (Emilia-Romagna). Natural silk and knitwear are produced in the area of ​​Lake Como, furniture - in Milan, Brianza, Pesaro, Forli, fabrics - in Prato, artistic ceramics - in Faenza, Deruta. The production of leather and fur products is concentrated in Florence, musical instruments in the Marche region, and in Cremona, violins and other stringed musical instruments have been made for centuries. Arezzo, Valenza, Po have long been famous for their jewelry production, and Sardinia for filigree. Holidays in Italy will be nice to combine with shopping. And although the prices here are of European quality, the quality of some things is very high.

As a rule, cheese and wine are brought from tours to Italy as souvenirs. And fashionistas will be delighted with fashionable clothes and accessories.

Italian Cuisine

With this phrase alone, gourmet dishes of all kinds of colors and shades of taste come to mind. World famous spaghetti, pizza, espresso coffee - Italy has given the world many universally recognized dishes. But there is also a purely national Italian cuisine: Mediterranean in the south, while in the north, given the influence of the harsh climate of the mountains, it is represented by more high-calorie dishes. Each region of Italy, and what is there - each province - has its own national flavor, its favorite dishes, wines, cheeses, desserts, etc.

Rest in Italy is a wonderful gift for yourself and your loved ones. This country does not leave indifferent even convinced skeptics. Warm sun, young wine and radiant smiles local residents help you forget about boring things.

CRAFT

Initially, many middle-class plebeians were engaged in the craft in Rome. The craftsman usually worked in the workshop or watched her work and participated in the sale of products. The workshops were small, and the number of auxiliary slave labor in them was limited.

Slave labor was more widely used in mines and in hard work associated with public construction, such as temples, or the grandiose "cesspool of maxim" - an underground drain that served to collect soil water.

With the growth of slavery in Rome, cheap slave labor gradually began to supplant the labor of a free producer.

From the 2nd century BC e. the number of slaves in Rome increased greatly and slave labor was widely introduced into all branches of handicraft production. Along with small workshops, larger ones arose, in which slaves mainly worked, and not only in auxiliary, but also in more complex work.

The owners of the workshops were mostly freedmen. More often these were middle-class people who did not participate in the labor process themselves. The most successful of them reached a fairly high social position. A slave could also become the owner of the workshop, paying his master dues.

The Roman citizen treated the craft with contempt. But many of the wealthy citizens received payment for renting houses, premises, plots of land, mines, lakes suitable for trades.

In the late period of the empire, the disintegration of slaveholding relations led to the predominance of free artisans in production, who, however, were attached to their profession. By virtue of the law, the profession of a craftsman became not only obligatory, but also hereditary.

Craftsmen united in various colleges; created in the VI century. BC e., they were professional associations of free artisans. These associations of artisans on the basis of professions did not concern production interests, they were limited to common cults. Over time, artisans of narrow specialties began to enter professional associations, and admission to these colleges became more limited.

In late republican and early imperial times, when a huge number of people were concentrated in the hands of individual wealthy families.

172

In the early 1900s, household colleges appeared, which included people of various professions, both from among the slaves and freedmen. The members of these boards enjoyed a number of advantages: they participated in home celebrations, religious rites, meals, and each member of the board, including a slave, could count on burial in the family crypt - columbarium. These boards are widely included in everyday life. Their appearance was also desirable for the highest circles of the slave-owning nobility: it contributed to the strengthening of the system of subordination of dependent people.

In II-III centuries. n. e. Collegiums of "small people" were especially widespread. Such boards included people of different professions, with a small income, which allowed each member of the association to make the necessary contributions. The members of the college of "small people" were mainly freedmen from the lower strata, as well as plebeians and artisan slaves.

The leading role in these colleges belonged to their patrons and other persons who held honorary positions. They were wealthy freedmen and representatives of the slave-owning nobility. A slave could also achieve the honorary position of master. But in essence, the upper strata of the "small people" colleges were isolated from the mass of ordinary members.

Colleges of "little people" were a convenient form of municipal organization until, during the period of the late empire, the disintegration of slaveholding relations led to the emergence of new forms of social organization of the artisan population. At this time, by legislative order, the colleges become a direct tool for the enslavement of the lower urban strata of society.

The mining and processing of metal was known in ancient Italy in the earliest period of the history of state formations. They developed especially highly in Etruria, where bronze casting and processing of precious metals reached an extremely high level.

Italy itself is not rich in fossil metals, but significant deposits of iron ore were located on the island of Ephalia in the Tyrrhenian Sea.

The method of smelting and processing iron was the same as in Greece. “Blacksmiths forge pieces of metal partly into weapons, partly into picks and sickles and other tools skillfully prepared by them,” says one ancient historian.

With the development of slavery in Rome, metallurgy reached its highest level. This was facilitated by the conquest of new territories, rich in metal deposits, and a large influx of labor.

Of particular importance in the development of Roman metallurgy were the Spanish mines. Spain is rich in minerals. Nowhere on earth, says Strabo, is there so much gold, silver, copper and iron in a natural state.

Of the extraction of gold in Spain, Pliny said that Asturias, Galecia and Lusitania annually yield 20,000 pounds of gold, most of which, however, is produced by Asturias, and no other country of the world abounded in gold for so many centuries as it.

173

Preliminary exploration was limited to the removal of the upper layer of the earth and a thorough study of the content of metal signs in it.

The arrangement of the mines was basically the same as in Greece, in the Lavrian mines, but there were some technical improvements in the Roman mines of Spain. The drifts were made somewhat wider, more often wooden fasteners and mechanical devices were used to lift ore from the mine, and, most importantly, drainage mechanisms were used, the device of which was based on the use of the Archimedean screw. The sump screw was rotated by one or two slaves, who, holding onto a horizontal bar with their hands, stepped onto the propeller blades. Such a mechanism made it possible not only to pump out excess water in adits, but also to divert underground flows, draining passages for rock sampling.

It is known about Galecia that there is no silver in it, but a lot of gold. They mined gold not in mines, but in an open way, using the power of swift mountain streams, which, washing away the banks, destroy rocks and break off large blocks full of golden sand. People engaged in gold mining collect these stones and break the blocks saturated with golden sand. After that, they wash the earth and the resulting gold is melted in the forges.

Another method of extracting gold is described in detail by Pliny, who says that this method “exceeds the work of the giants themselves. According to this method, mountains are undermined by the light of lamps, and adits are arranged in them at a great distance ... In order to avoid collapses, vaults are erected in many places to support the mountain. Encountered hard rocks are overcome by fire and acids, or more often they are cut through, since the workers suffocate from heat and smoke; it happens that pieces weighing 150 pounds are cut off. Day and night workers carry these pieces on their shoulders and pass them on to each other in the dark. The light is seen only by those who work in the upper ranks... At the end of the work, the pillars of the vaults are hemmed starting from the inner ones. The mountain begins to collapse, and only the watchman at its top notices it. The watchman summons the workers with shouts and signs, and at the same time he himself runs down the mountain. The settled mountain falls with such a crash that it is difficult for a person to even imagine. Winners among unimaginable noise and wind look at the ruins of nature. But there is still no gold. For when they dug, they did not yet know whether they would find it ... "

Further, Pliny says that the collapse of the mountain is washed away by streams of water from mountain rivers, for which they arrange water pipes through rocks and stones, sometimes over a long distance. The eroded earth flows down the gutters, and the gold settles in these gutters on ledges of rough thorns.

Pliny also has information about the smelting of gold. “Dug out of the earth is crushed, washed, burned and turned into powder. The remaining sediment is ejected from the smelter, pounded and remelted. The smelters are made of white clay-like rock of the earth, since no other earth can withstand the pressure of air, fire and hot metal.

174

The technique of processing various metals among the Romans did not undergo significant changes compared to the technique known to the Greeks. One can only speak of a wider application of certain branches of production that were already widespread in Hellenistic times.

This applies especially to the use of the technique of gilding silver and copper objects by means of amalgamation. This technique was widely used in the late republican and early imperial times, when luxury penetrated the life of the rich layers of slave owners and expensive silver utensils and numerous household silver items began to be used in large quantities.

In the processing of metals, a lathe was often used, the prototype of which was the well-known lathe for woodworking.

Roman craftsmen knew how to make steel, Spanish steel was especially famous, but the Romans did not use liquid iron smelting, although they had observations of the transformation of iron into a liquid state. “Iron,” says Pliny, “when melted, becomes liquid and then breaks like a sponge.”

Some technical improvements also took place in blacksmithing: the bellows were improved, the nail board was invented, which was used along with the old nail forging technique. They used locksmith equipment more widely.

Iron products have become more diverse. But in general, throughout the entire time of the development of Roman metallurgy, it remained at a relatively low level, only the production of luxury goods and art developed rather quickly.

Labor in the workshops was divided into many specialized processes carried out different people. The narrow specialization and division of labor in the craft survived until late antiquity. In the IV-V centuries. n. e. in the silversmith's shop, even small silver vessels were made by many people.

Pottery had the widest use throughout the Mediterranean, and Roman culture inherited many of the traditions that had long existed in Italy itself, but especially developed in Greece and in the countries of the Hellenistic East. For the manufacture of dishes used hand potter's wheel. The construction of pottery kilns did not change essentially, but kilns for mass production often reached significantly large sizes and allowed higher firing of ceramics. The previously known techniques for making relief ceramics using molds and stamps were widely used.

The production of red-glazed embossed ceramics has become widespread. She replaced the painted and black-glazed Greek dishes.

One of the largest centers that produced relief red-lacquer ware was Arrezium in Italy. About two dozen ceramic workshops with the remains of their products were found in the vicinity of this city. Arretino masters have reached perfection in the manufacture of

175

red glaze, which has an even color and a shiny surface, reminiscent of the shine of sealing wax. Vessels are decorated with relief ornaments and figurative images arranged usually in horizontal bands.

The method of making red-glazed pottery was transferred from Italy to the western Roman provinces. In the I and II centuries. And. e. the workshops of Gaul flourished especially. The production of red-glazed tableware was no less extensive in the eastern Roman provinces, mainly in the centers of Asia Minor - Pergamon and Samos. Its forms and ornamentation were closely related to Hellenistic Greek traditions. Red glaze has neither the density nor the sheen of Italy.

The most significant area of ​​Roman pottery is associated with the production of building materials: bricks, tiles, ceramic pipes for heating walls and floors, and other products. Wooden molds were used to mold various building materials.

Fired brick was one of the building materials for the first time among the Romans. It was used for the construction of not only residential buildings and large public buildings, but also grandiose defensive walls and towers, underground channels and viaducts, which often reached great length.

Such structures required a large amount of building material. A special organization of this production was required. The work was carried out not only in ordinary ergasteria by slaves and artisans, but in large part by the forces of soldiers. This is evidenced by the stamps on the bricks and on the tiles with the designation of the number and name of the legion.

Roman fired bricks are comparatively flat and usually square in shape. Half-sized bricks with a triangular shape were used. The sizes of building bricks were different depending on their purpose.

In the architecture of the Roman thermae (baths), special building materials were used to construct the heating system of floors and walls. In the hot section of the thermae, hypocausts were arranged, the floor was laid on top of numerous, low columns, usually built of square or round bricks. Hot air flowed through the floor.

With great ingenuity, ceramic fixtures were made that served to heat the walls.

One of the types of such bricks has the form of a large slab, on the same plane of which four moldings are located in the corners in the form of protrusions 6-8 cm high. Wall lining was made from such slabs, laying the slabs on the edge so that the protrusions were facing the inner part of the wall . Thanks to the protrusions, the facing of the slabs remained at some distance from the wall, leaving space for the circulation of hot air, which heated the walls of the room.

176

Hollow bricks or large vessels were inserted into the ceilings of the vaults to facilitate construction and improve acoustics. Extremely light hollow bricks, probably also used in laying vaults, were made in Spain from special clay. Such bricks could float on water.

In Roman construction and engineering, a large number of pottery pipes were used. Of these, underground water pipes, gutters for roofs were made, they were used as chimneys and in the heating system.

Depending on the purpose, the sizes and shapes of the pipes were different. To connect a section of pipes, their ends were made of different diameters: the outlet end ended in a narrow sleeve, which was inserted into a wide opening of an adjacent pipe. The joints were coated with lime mortar.

A wide variety of ceramic building materials among the Romans was associated with the needs of engineering technology, civil and military construction. The flourishing of this area of ​​pottery, however, hardly affected the production of roof tiles. Compared to Greek tiles, Roman tiles look modest, their forms are monotonous, artistic ornamentation has largely disappeared, being partially preserved in the Eastern Provinces.

An example of a common type of Roman roof tile is found in Herculaneum. Two collapsed roof slopes, consisting of flat and semicircular tiles in cross section, have been preserved here.

When the Romans in the 1st c. BC e. penetrated into the Middle East, they found a well-developed glass industry here. Local craftsmen made precious two-color vessels, the surface of which was covered with carved images resembling carved cameos. They made glassware covered with gilding and decorated with engraving, as well as the finest mosaic objects from multi-colored glass threads. Bundles of these threads, cut transversely into numerous plates, preserved the image of a flower on each plate. From such plates, using a mold, the master created colorful mosaic vessels.

All these achievements were adopted by the Romans and used by Italian masters.

But the main achievement of Roman glassmaking took a different path, the origins of which are also connected with the Eastern Mediterranean.

In Syria, master glassmakers invented a method for melting transparent, colorless glass. In the 1st century BC e. blowpipe was invented. Its use has opened up completely new possibilities for the wide production of relatively cheap, mass-produced glass products. Syrian masters already in the 1st century. n. e. they transferred their art of glassmaking to the soil of Italy, and from there the production of blown glass spread to all the western provinces and continued to develop there until late antiquity.

Roman glassmaking techniques were varied. Blowing out of the tube was done with and without molds. Forms allowed language

177

prepare inflated figured vessels with relief ornamentation, relief letters and signs. Vessels made by simple blowing are extremely diverse, and most of them are the most mass-produced.

As glassmaking developed, the methods of decorating vessels became more complicated: they began to use more polishing and engraving, creating continuous patterns on the surface of vessels, decorating them with applied colored threads and solderings of dark glass.

The invention of transparent colorless glass is associated with another great achievement of the Roman craft - the manufacture of window panes.

In Italy, window glass was already used in the 1st century BC. n. e. Subsequently, this area of ​​glassmaking was very widely developed, especially in the Western Roman provinces, and continued to develop in these

178

areas up to the 4th c. n. e. Here were excavated workshops of glass production with numerous remains of production.

For the manufacture of window glass, wooden molds were used. They were pre-moistened with water and then the glass mass was poured, stretching it to the brim with tongs. The edges of window panes are always rounded and slightly thickened. The usual size of window glass is 30-40 cm. However, much larger glass sizes are known. In Pompeii, bronze window frames were found with remnants of glass measuring 1.0 X 0.70 and 54 X 0.72 m, glass thickness 0.013 m.

In Italy, crafts were especially highly developed in Etruria and Campania. Craftsmen-weavers made woolen thin and coarse fabrics, there were also dyers and fullers.

Fullers required bulky equipment that was not available to small farms. The center of this production in Campania was Pompeii. Several large fulling shops have been excavated here. On the process of work give detailed information on the wall paintings of Pompeii houses.

To remove fat from wool, the cloth was soaked in vats-stupas. In large workshops there were several such stupas, fenced off from each other by low partitions. The fabric was filled with urine and covered with a special clay capable of absorbing fat. A special craftsman - a fullon - trampled and crumpled the fabric with his feet, leaning on the partitions, then on special tables the fabric was beaten with rolls, then thoroughly washed with water and dried on poles or ropes. After drying, they piled using the skin of a hedgehog or a thistle-type plant, and fumigated white fabrics with sulfur, stretching the fabric over a hemispherical frame. After fumigation, the fabric was rubbed with special clay, which gave strength and shine to the surface, and for the final finish, the folded pieces of fabric were placed under a press.

179

The image of a press with two vertical screws is on one of the Pompeian frescoes. An authentic wooden press was found in Herculaneum. It consists of a vertically placed wooden frame, in the center of which a single wooden screw is fixed. The screw rotated with the help of a through rod, pressing on the horizontal boards, between which the fabric was clamped.

Within the same fulling workshop, the work was divided between different persons. The chief craftsman was a fullon, whose work was very hard, performed by his free artisans. There were other workers in the workshop, including women, who carried out the lighter processes involved in finishing the fabric.

Significant development was noted for joinery and carpentry, and there were cabinet makers. Numerous wooden items were preserved in Herculaneum, charred from hot ash during the eruption.

180

Vesuvius in 49 AD e .: tools, a bed with a raised wall at the head, a chest, a small carved cabinet, and other items made mainly by local craftsmen. In Roman times, even more than in Hellenistic times, veneer made from expensive types of overlaid wood was used in carpentry.

Carpentry was even more important. Interfloor decking and rafters for roofing were made from wooden beams. Carpenters also knocked together temporary sheathing on both sides of the walls, which were built mainly from layers of rubble and lime mortar. Carpentry was especially developed in the forest-rich northern provinces.

Information about the construction of two wooden bridges has been preserved. One of them was built by Caesar across the Rhine, the other - much more grandiose - was built across the Danube by order of Emperor Trajan (beginning of the 2nd century AD). The flooring of this bridge rested on wooden arches supported by stone bulls.

Carpentry has been widely introduced into military equipment associated with the construction of siege engines: the needs of military affairs largely determined the development of certain branches of crafts. This applies, in particular, to the development of the leather business. For the armament of Roman soldiers, shields and shoes were required, which were made of leather, armor was also made of leather.

The shields were made of thick leather stretched over a wooden frame. Legionnaires' shoes had a very thick sole, shod with wide-headed nails, whole pieces of leather were sewn to the edges of the sole, cut into narrow strips inside. Such a device allowed air to pass through and made it possible to quickly and easily strengthen shoes on the foot. The image of a leather workshop is preserved on one of the Pompeian frescoes.

181

Masonry is primarily associated with the extraction of stone. The types of stone are varied, and not every stone is suitable for construction. There was no good stone in the immediate vicinity of Rome, and it had to be brought in. Vitruvius advises to withstand a broken stone in the air for two years, and those rocks that give cracks should be used for foundations, and well-preserved ones should be used in the above-ground part of buildings.

The methods of extracting stone and the tools used in the quarries remained basically the same as those of the Greeks. Special mention should be made of the method of extracting large monoliths to extrude the entire shaft of the column. The surviving traces of an unfinished excavation of a monolithic block in one of the quarries in the western province give an idea of ​​the technique of these works. On the leveled surface of the rock, grooves with recesses for wedges are still visible, located at the same distance. Wedges used metal or wood. The wood for the wedges was taken hard and dry. It was hammered into recesses and soaked for a long time, as a result of which a crack formed along the furrow line and the necessary part of the rock monolith broke out. The stone processing technique of the Romans remained largely old.

One of the main construction techniques was the method of constructing an arch and a semicircular vault from wedge-shaped stone blocks laid dry. The complexity of such structures lay in the need for careful cutting of wedge-shaped blocks, the dimensions and shape of which had to match exactly. Sometimes blocks were hewn in quarries from a solid mass of stone, which made it possible to carry out a better fit of the sides of the blocks with less loss.

When laying out an arch or arched vault, a temporary wooden frame was used, on which wedge-shaped blocks were laid, starting with two lower, supporting, stones and ending with one, upper, castle,

182

which, bursting other stones, held the entire complex structure of the vault.

For laying stone wall cladding, stones were hewn in the form of blocks, laid dry and connected with brackets and iron braces filled with lead. The inner part of the wall was filled with the so-called Roman concrete: smooth alternating layers of rubble and lime mortar, which formed a strong monolith.

During the imperial period, wall cladding with tiles made of marble and other rare types of stone was widely used. The surface of the tiles was carefully polished, contributing to the impression of splendor and luxury.

The highest and most original development was achieved by those areas of handicraft work that were directly related to the achievements of monumental Roman construction and to the urgent needs of military and engineering equipment.

Of all Europeans, the people of Italy are the biggest lovers of dolls. It was they who in the Middle Ages gave Europe a puppet on strings - a puppet. Of course, the first mention of such dolls dates back to a much earlier period (they were used at festivities in ancient Egypt), but pretentious, colorful, with many details - such dolls come from Italy. And in Sicily, they became the personification of the national spirit and struggle, as well as a means of communication using theatrical language in the thirties of the century before last.

The history of Sicily left an indelible mark on the characters of theatrical performances. On the island, the protagonist of the productions was not the prankster Pulcinell, beloved by the Italians, but the noble knights of Orlando, Rinaldo, who, like other knights of Charlemagne, fought against the Saracens. But the main difference between the Sicilian puppet theater was the amazing technique of making puppets and their outfits. Knights and beautiful ladies were dressed in unimaginable medieval costumes. The puppets looked so much like real people that the audience jumped out more than once during the most tense moments of the stage performance to help their heroes. Despite all its beauty, the puppet theater in Sicily was not only a bright show, the productions raised sensitive issues, for example, about the church. The theater was in a sense even revolutionary, and supported the interests of the nobility and extolled it.

Unfortunately, since 1860, with the advent of the new state of Italy, puppet theaters, performing in their native Sicilian language, began to disappear in the expanses of Sicily, as they told about the glory of the Kingdom of Sicily. Currently, the puppet theater on the island is experiencing a revival and rise. Theatrical performances are held mainly for children, but still concern adults.