The architecture of medieval Eastern Europe in world architecture - the history of architecture. Medieval cities of the East: Arab, Indian, Chinese. Their differences from European cities. Economic prerequisites for the territorial organization of the population from gender

The eastern city developed differently than the European, western one. In fact, Eastern civilizations in the Middle Ages were much more urbanized than European ones. Urban population in the Eastern empires, by the end of the 16th century, it reached 10-20% compared to 5-7% in the countries of Western Europe.

In China, there were cities with millions of people, while in Europe the population of cities did not exceed several tens of thousands (with the exception of Milan, whose population had already reached 200 thousand inhabitants in the 13th century). But this does not mean that the qualitative side of urban life corresponded to the quantitative one.

IN Arab world the heyday of city life falls on the period when the Arab Caliphate began to disintegrate. Apparently, with the release of pressure central government more enterprising and enterprising citizens become more active, science and culture, concentrated in cities, flourish. But even in the 10th-13th centuries, when elements of democracy appeared in Europe, Arab East there were no political freedoms or legal guarantees. The heads of numerous corporations were subordinate to the city administration, the governor-hakim, the mayor-rais, the overseer-mukhtasib, the head of the guard and the judge-qadi.

In the XV-XVI centuries. in the cities of Turkey and subject territories, a system of workshops arises, but, unlike in Europe, petty tutelage on the part of the authorities and the almost complete absence of self-government did not even lead to intentions to carry out something similar to communal revolutions. In addition, the majority of the urban population were non-Christians. Something similar to workshops was formed in other countries of the Middle East (asnafs), in Japan (dza), in China (khans). In India city ​​life organized by caste elders. But the city in most countries of the East remained the object of direct administration by the central government. The heads of workshops, guilds and castes were appointed either from above or in agreement with the authorities. And if, say, relatively independent trading corporations were formed in India in the early Middle Ages, then by the 16th century this independence not only did not develop, but, on the contrary, disappeared without a trace. The only relatively free city Japan - Sakai in the XVI century. loses its independence and begins to be controlled by government officials.

There is nothing surprising in the fact that under such conditions the urban life of the East, with the exception of Japan, experienced stagnation on the eve of colonial subjugation.

Architectural features of medieval cities of the eastern type on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula

Summing up the consideration of the layout of the medium European cities, one cannot leave aside that seemingly completely alien urban invasion of Europe, which they brought with them at the beginning of the 13th century. Arab conquerors, better known as the Moors. As a result of the rapid onslaught through the Strait of Gibraltar, almost the entire Iberian Peninsula was in their hands, on the territory of which there were not only many ancient Roman and even Carthaginian cities, but also settlements, founded later by the Portuguese and Spaniards. The peculiar life of the newcomers-Arabs and at the same time their long stay in Europe, which lasted over seven centuries, led to the fact that the plans of the Pyrenean cities and their development have changed significantly. In Spain and Portugal, an oriental-type city was established with extremely complex ramifications of narrow winding streets, built up with low-rise buildings that had internal light courtyards and windowless street facades. It is enough to compare the plans of Toledo, Cordoba, Granada, or even the southeastern region of Lisbon with any ancient Italic or Northern European city, to be convinced of the essential differences between them. And at the same time, the Moorish cities almost exactly repeated the plans of Moroccan Fez, Mesopotamian Baghdad, and even the very remote Samarkand of the Timurid and Sheibanid era.

The centuries-old struggle between the newcomers and the Spanish-Portuguese natives required the strengthening of cities with external stone or brick walls, as well as the creation of reliable castles in the cities. If there was a high natural hill inside the city or in its immediate vicinity, it was turned into an impregnable citadel, not inferior in defense capability to the most powerful Central European castles. If the city was located on level ground, then they erected an "alcazar" - a palace-fortress, which housed representatives of political or judicial power.

The Arabs and Berbers who invaded Spain were an enlightened, enterprising and artistically gifted people. They brought with them to Europe not only the means of attack and destruction in the form of primitive artillery and guns ("modfa"), but also the highest building culture, unprecedented yet, embodied in Muslim palaces and mosques. In the thousand-column Cathedral Mosque of Cordoba with its horseshoe-shaped two-tiered marble arches, Europeans first saw a phenomenal Muslim prayer building, while the palaces of the Moorish rulers revived the ancient theme of front atriums and peristyles in a new way. Undoubtedly, the best creation of this kind was the Alhambra, which served as the last residence of the Granadian emirs until the end of the reconquista ( Reconquista (Reconquista) Spaniards called the reconquest of lands occupied by the Arabs. It began at the end of the 18th century. in Asturias, i.e. off the coast Bay of Biscay, and gradually descended into southbound to Toledo, Cordoba, Seville, Granada and Strait of Gibraltar. The Catholic Church took an active part in the reconquest, which strengthened the confidence of the broad masses of the people in it, but at the same time turned it later into a monstrous tool of the Inquisition.).

The Alhambra ensemble that has come down to us was built into old citadel, as the medieval Polish and Czech kings (Wavel and Hradcany) did in their capitals. This citadel is separated from the city itself by a narrow valley of the river. Darro, due to which the castle, crowning a high hill, seems to hang over Granada in the form of a formidable jagged stronghold, reminiscent of African "kazbahs". However, the severity of the external appearance of the fortress is contrasted by the charm of the palace itself, which is by no means overwhelming, but a system of cozy courtyards and covered palace premises proportionate to a person.

It is hardly necessary to describe in detail the ensemble of the Alhambra, which has already received countless rave reviews. But it is still impossible not to note its artistic and imaginative living content. The Granada Palace was created not only to glorify the power and wealth of local rulers, but also for their intimate relaxation under the babble of fountains and the rustle of evergreen myrtle trees. To imagine a living Alhambra, you need to recreate everyday and portrait images of emirs and their courtiers, fill the palace with beauties from the harem and a motley crowd in multi-colored silk robes made right there in the largest center of European sericulture - Granada. Turning to the domestic environment, one should recall Persian carpets, wrought iron braziers and gilded lamps, take into account music, dances, flowers and overseas incense, and, finally, bring to the palace beautiful folk prose and poetry, dating back to Shahrazade and the great works of Ferdowsi, Nizami, Saadi and Omar Khayyam. Of course, all this living content of the Alhambra, together with the delightful ornamental decoration of the palace, was a single ensemble - as if the embodiment of the cherished, but unattainable heavenly paradise.

During the last war of the Reconquista (1481-1492), Granada was taken by the combined efforts of the Castilians and their allies. Under the terms of the surrender, the remnants of the Arab and European trading population were expelled to Africa, some of the inhabitants were forcibly baptized, mosques were turned into Catholic churches, and the Alhambra itself became the property of the Spanish kings.

It seemed that the famous Moorish palace, which replaced the cultural center of the lost Baghdad caliphate, could protect its high artistic performance. However further fate this ensemble turned out to be sad. The palace of the Granada emirs was devastated, and after that, a direct threat hung over it from the side of ruthless and blind destroyers.

Mid 16th century passed in Europe under the sign of major political upheavals, more and more inflamed religious struggle and almost endless devastating wars. The initiator of most of them was the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who dreamed of creating a world monarchy under his autocratic leadership. Mentally unstable, cunning and cruel, Charles V was one of the darkest and sinister figures of the nation-state period. Implacable enemy of France and Ottoman Empire, an orthodox supporter of a single and again subordinate to him, the Catholic Church, the inspirer of the plunder of Mexican gold, Charles V, finally convinced of the impossibility of his conquest goals. The direct consequence of this gravest political defeat was his renunciation of both crowns (1556). There is no need to talk about the voluntary imprisonment of this monarch within the walls of the monastery of St. Justa ( Note that the departure of Charles V from political life led to the collapse of his gigantic empire, over which, according to contemporaries, "the sun never set." The title of emperor passed to his brother Ferdinand (Austria), while Spanish crown went to the son of Charles, the tyrannical Philip II).

But long before that, he chose the beautiful Alhambra as his permanent residence. And so, slavishly obeying the august customer, one of the early masters of the Spanish Renaissance, namely Pedro Machuca, laid in 1526 a new palace in the immediate vicinity of the Alhambra on the flat top of the same hill.

The building plan of Charles V and his court architect is easy to decipher. Like a slave brand imposed on a defeated enemy by the hand of an executioner, the new square palace looks like in the setting of the Granada acropolis. Part of the old Moorish ensemble has already perished in the pit dug for it. And what was approaching the still surviving part of the emirs' palace threatened it with complete physical destruction. Indeed, the northwestern facade of the palace of Charles V has already merged with the end wall that encloses the Myrtle Court. In search of the space needed to view the new palace, one would have to give up the famous Lion's Court, and the halls of the Court, the Two Sisters and the Messengers, which amaze the imagination of even the most enlightened and demanding spectators. The question is, who could afford such a provocative and criminal action in the field of art? Certainly not an architect, no matter how immature an artist he may be. This could only be done by one who, possessing immense power, committed an unprecedented defeat of the most clerical " the eternal city"(1527) and, as a punishment for disobedience, he beheaded all the patrician towers of old Siena, which originally surrounded the huge Piazza del Campo. Such a criminal, not only in front of the affected cities, but also in front of all human culture, was the same pretender to world domination. Charles V never exhibited the philanthropy that adorned many medieval kings and popes.Fortunately, the unsuccessful building of Pedro Machuca was never fully realized, which is why a significant remnant of the incomparable Moorish palace has been preserved.

As for the fate of other monumental structures and ensembles built in Spain by oriental architects, many of them not only survived, but also went through a historical transformation of styles over time, paying a natural tribute to Gothic, Renaissance, and even Baroque. Such a continuous stylistic chronicle of medieval Spanish architecture was the huge Seville Cathedral, whose quadrangular minaret, called the La Giralda tower, still rises above the ancient capital of Andalusia.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-1.jpg" alt=">Medieval Cities of the East">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-2.jpg" alt=">Peculiarities in the Middle Ages, the countries of the East experienced several invasions of nomadic peoples who"> Особенности в Средние века страны Востока переживают несколько нашествий кочевых народов, которые с течением времени воспринимают городскую культуру, но происходит это каждый раз практически заново. развитие городов на Востоке идет значительно медленнее, а связь с древними городами оказывается более тесной. В наибольшей степени это проявляется при формировании сети и принципов организации арабских городов.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-3.jpg" alt=">The Arab conquests in the 7th-8th centuries covered a vast territory from the Iberian Peninsula before"> Арабские завоевания в VII-VIII вв охватили огромную территорию от Пиренейского полуострова до долина Инда. При этом большинство древних городов на этой территории было разрушено, а на их месте возникли лагеря кочевников, впоследствии ставшие городами (Каир в Египте, Рабат в Марокко) Столицей !} Arab state originally there was Medina - a small city in the desert part Arabian Peninsula

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-4.jpg" alt="> Medina"> Медина В древности город назывался Ясриб (Ятриб), В 622 в Медину из Мекки переселился основатель ислама Мухаммед и создал первую в мире мусульманскую общину. После этого город получил название Медина (от арабского «мадина» - город, сокращение от «Мадина-эн-Наби» - «Город Пророка»!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-5.jpg" alt="> Medina. Prophet's Mosque In the Prophet's Mosque, one of the greatest shrines of the Muslim world,"> Medina. The Mosque of the Prophet In the Mosque of the Prophet, one of the greatest shrines of the Muslim world, are the tombs of the Prophet Muhammad, his daughter Fatima and Omar - the second Caliph of the Arab Caliphate.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-6.jpg" alt=">Arab cities Later, the capital was moved closer to the main trade routes of that"> Арабские города Позже столица была перенесена ближе к главным торговым путям того времени - сначала в Дамаск, а затем в специально построенный в 762 г. в качестве столицы город Багдад возник в месте схождения рек Тигра и Евфрата, т. е. примерно в том же месте, где существовали Вавилон и другие столицы древности. Багдад в период своего расцвета насчитывал до 2 млн. жителей и являлся самым !} major city in the world, but after the Mongol conquests of the XIII century. it has lost its meaning.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-7.jpg" alt=">Building principles of Arab cities. A hill in the city center was occupied by a fortress (shahristan or"> Принципы застройки арабских городов. Возвышенность в центре города занимала крепость (шахристан или касба), в которой поселялся правитель данной местности (в Багдаде - халиф) со своими приближенными, военной дружиной и слугами. Дворец правителя включал в себя систему внутренних дворов, занятых садами, бассейнами и фонтанами. Вокруг крепости располагалась торгово-ремесленная часть города (рабад), окруженная внешней оборонительной стеной. В ее центре находилась базарная площадь, а ремесленники жили в кварталах по профессиональному признаку, каждый из которых бал окружен своей стеной.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-8.jpg" alt=">Mosque and rich"> Мечеть В шахристане и каждом квартале находилась мечеть, которая была тем больше и богато украшенной, чем богаче был данный квартал!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-9.jpg" alt=">Arab city The mosque, as a rule, ended with a dome, and next to she was"> Арабский город Мечеть, как правило, завершалась куполом, а рядом с ней находился башня - минарет (или несколько минаретов). Дома простых жителей были с плоскими крышами, одноэтажными, сооруженными из глины, выходящими на улицы глухой стеной, с внутренним двором. Важными !} public buildings The city had caravanserais (hotels), madrasahs (schools), baths located in the center of the city.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-10.jpg" alt=">India ."> Индия До Индии мусульманские завоевания докатились в XIII в. В XVI в. прошла !} new wave conquests, as a result of which the Mughal Empire was created, which included almost the entire Hindustan peninsula. Large capital cities, numbering hundreds of thousands of inhabitants, developed in the north of the country, from where the conquests came. In different periods they were the cities of Delhi and Agra. The urban planning principles of Indian cities of that time included both ancient Indian and Arabic elements.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-11.jpg" alt=">The Red Fort was built in Delhi (made of red sandstone ), which was"> Города Индии в Дели был построен Красный форт (сложен из красного песчаника), являвшийся крепостью и дворцом императоров.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-12.jpg" alt=">Cities of India outstanding buildings of the medieval"> Города Индии Вблизи Агры сохранился мавзолей Тадж-Махал - одна из самых выдающихся построек !} medieval India, built according to the classical plan of the mosque and surrounded by specially created reservoirs.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-13.jpg" alt=">China was first subjected to the Mongol and then the Manchu invasion. At the same time, the capital country was also"> Китай подвергся сначала монгольскому, а затем манчжурскому нашествию. При этом столица страны также была перенесена на север - в Пекин.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-14.jpg" alt=">Planning The complex of imperial palaces surrounded by gardens became the center of Beijing - Purple"> Планировка Центром Пекина стал комплекс императорских дворцов, окруженных садами - Пурпурный (Запретный) город. Вокруг него находился Императорский город, в котором проживали приближенные императора, его гвардия и слуги. Окружал Императорский город Внешний Татарский (варварский) город, в котором проживали монголы, а затем манчжуры. К нему примыкал Внешний Китайский город, в котором проживала основная масса населения!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-15.jpg" alt=">Cities of China">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-16.jpg" alt=">Layout Each of the parts was surrounded by its own walls. At night they locked and"> Планировка Каждая из частей была окружена своими стенами. На ночь запирались и отдельные улицы во Внешнем городе, застроенные деревянными домами, образующими правильные квадратные кварталы. Видимо, власти опасались, что огромные массы людей, сосредоточенные в городе, могут выйти из повиновения. Пекин уже с XVIII в. насчитывал более 1 млн. жителей, являясь в то время крупнейшим городом мира. Наиболее выдающимися постройками китайских городов являлись дворцы правителей и храмы (пагоды), которые резко выделялись на фоне рядовой застройки своими размерами и оформлением.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/17271574_64202430.pdf-img/17271574_64202430.pdf-17.jpg" alt=">Different from medieval cities Europe In the cities of the East, the main functions remained administrative "> Differences from the medieval cities of Europe In the cities of the East, the main functions remained administrative and military, although the majority of the population in them, as in Europe, were artisans and merchants. Eastern cities never received any autonomy, which hindered social progress and preserved the remnants of feudal relations until the beginning of the 20th century. Constant external conquests by more backward peoples hampered the cultural and technical progress. Outwardly, the eastern cities still looked like a combination of magnificent palaces and temples - on the one hand, and the wretched shacks of the majority of the inhabitants - on the other, from which the cities of Europe began to leave in the early Middle Ages.

The variety of monetary systems and units gave rise to the need for money exchange operations. This is how the profession of changers stood out, who were also involved in the transfer of sums of money and usury. From the 13th century in connection with the ruin of the small workers of the city and the countryside and the expansion of trade, credit and loan operations gained considerable scope, especially in the sphere of transit and wholesale transactions. Banking offices and banks began to spring up. It is characteristic that the separation of financial activity into a separate industry took place on Italian soil. The Italians have mastered such instruments as bills of exchange, credit, commercial transactions for a period of time, loans, etc. to perfection. Bankers' operations expanded: they took money for safekeeping, paid interest on it, and provided loans. The large houses of Italy and Germany expanded their activities: in addition to organizing the production of cloth and trading in it, they began to engage in banking operations.

During this period, internecine clashes intensified in all countries of Western Europe. Money was needed to wage wars, so the kings resorted to large loans, which were provided primarily by the trading houses of Italian cities.

2. Features of the eastern feudal cities.

In terms of population, cities in the East before the era of the industrial revolution were significantly superior to Western European ones, they were distinguished by a high level of development of crafts, an assortment of products, a solid accumulation of merchant capital, there was a high concentration of service nobility, and hence power. In the eastern cities, the imperial or district administration was concentrated, various links of the military-administrative apparatus, endowed with military-administrative, judicial and police power. Large and medium-sized servicemen lived with their families, servants and military detachments in cities. Under the conditions of the existence of despotic eastern states with their characteristic state property, a type of eastern city developed, which did not know urban liberties, freedoms, communes. They were centers of culture, they were not centers of freedom. Being the main figure in the urban industry, an independent small-scale producer, the owner of the tools of production and products, both the townspeople and the peasant were powerless before the power of the despot. However, in socio-political terms, the eastern city was more organically connected with the entire system of feudal relations than the European one.

IN eastern state there was no economic integration between the city and the countryside. The demand for handicraft products was provided by the class of recipients of state rent-tax (serving the nobility and bureaucracy), therefore, the Asian city, unlike the Western European one, needed not a rural market, but a rural taxpayer, which led to the huge scale of the surplus product withdrawn from agriculture. Eastern feudalism has a centuries-old (multi-thousand-year) history. Its socio-economic structure has not changed for centuries, as if reproducing itself in every generation, preserving the customs and traditions of the way of life, the main characteristics of which are: state ownership of land, the combination of power and property in the face of a despotic state, a cruel class structure of society in which estates differed in duties, but not in rights. Here, instead of a civil society with the rule of law and a developed representative power, there are strong centralized bureaucratic empires with the dominant ideology "not a state for a person, but a person for a state."

3. Feudal cities in Rus'.

In Rus', cities, unlike Western European cities, arose primarily as administrative centers, being centers of church life, education, and culture. Becoming then centers of exchange and trade. And in this they are similar to the eastern cities. In the 11th-13th centuries, the appearance of Russian cities gradually took shape, receiving a typically feudal appearance. Cities are surrounded by fortifications surrounding large areas in large centers. Not only the "city", but also the settlement, or the forefront (forefront), is surrounded by fortifications. Russian cities are decorated with beautiful buildings, there is a desire for improvement (the creation of wooden pavements, bridges over rivers and streams, etc.). The number of stone buildings is steadily growing, and along with temples, stone residential buildings for civilian purposes appear. However, unlike Western European cities, wooden buildings in Rus' in conditions of a sharply continental climate and cold winters were the most typical.

The most important in all cities is the city market, the “merchant”, which is the center of the economic and, in some cases, political life of the city. Foreign trade was conducted in three directions: the Mediterranean, Western European and Eastern. It had a huge impact on the development of the state as a whole. There were no workshops and guilds in Russia, new forms of production arose here, characteristic only for Russia - artels, contracts. The contractor was an elder, a man with significant, at that time, means. At the head of the cities was not an elected body, but a representative of the tsarist government, usually from the service nobility. The increase in the power of the feudal lords in the cities was manifested in the fact that, in contrast to the "black" settlement, that is, the part of the city inhabited by free citizens, the "white-located" settlement grew - feudal estates in cities. The townspeople voluntarily "mortgaged" the feudal lords, so as not to pay ruinous taxes. The lack of rights of the townspeople hampered the development of the craft, which was especially affected by the Mongol invasion. The Mongols destroyed cities, stole artisans into captivity. In the period of the decline of the craft, in contrast to it, peasant crafts developed intensively in Russia, which took the place of the craft. In large cities, there is a desire to limit princely power within the city. This trend first manifests itself in Kyiv with its rich merchant and artisan population. In this regard, the Kiev uprising of 1068 is of particular importance as a turning point in the history of the development of city liberties. The townspeople strive to put their candidates on the princely table, providing them with armed support. Veche and elected posadniks and thousands are becoming city authorities. The desire to establish city liberties takes place in an atmosphere of class struggle among the townspeople, which is especially noticeable in Novgorod at the beginning of the 13th century, where "big" and "smaller" people are fighting.

The development of urban life in the X-XIII centuries. did not pass fruitlessly and left a deep mark in the history of the three fraternal peoples - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

Thus, the Western European medieval cities had an enormous impact on the economy of the countryside and contributed to the growth of productive forces in agriculture. They were trade and craft centers that contributed to the development of domestic and foreign trade, which led to the development of monetary, credit and tax systems. From an economic point of view, cities played the role of industrial centers, they became workshops, where the division of labor actively developed, expressed in the growth of the number of various crafts, and it was at that time that the grandiose scale of the construction of stone structures (churches, castles, city walls, houses, bridges) began. The art of building has become a science. Cities were centers of culture and education, were places of residence of secular and spiritual power. The distinctive features of the Western European feudal cities in the Middle Ages were their own right, their own court and autonomous government. The city acts as a communal union that emerged primarily as an alliance for defense, as an association of people economically capable of organizing defense. In European medieval cities, the beginnings of a civil society are observed, expressing and protecting the interests of their members. A citizen (citizen), as a person belonging to a certain class group, has always been at the same time the bearer of certain political rights and, as such, is found only in Europe.

The eastern city demonstrates the stability of the urban tradition with its attributes: the market, the division of handicraft labor, the presence of merchant and loan capital. At the same time, the concentration of the population in cities was the basis for the division of labor, creating conditions for a very narrow specialization of trade and crafts. But the greater urbanization of the East compared to the West did not contribute to the early start of the industrial revolution. One of the main reasons is the strong state power, which preserves the existing socio-economic relations. Differences between Western European and Eastern cities obvious. While the cities of Western Europe were the bearers of a free spirit, the eastern city was the direct personification of despotic power.

Cities in Rus' were a kind of mixture of elements of Western and Eastern feudalism, because. The development of Russia had a number of features and characteristics associated with foreign and domestic political development, mentality, traditions, a vast territory, and a multi-ethnic population. Therefore, the later entry of Russia into the era of industrial development predetermined its lagging behind the leading countries of Europe.

II. Features of the economic development of the Russian Federation at the present stage.

1. The economic situation in the country after 1991.

Speaking about the current state of affairs in the economy of our country, it is impossible not to mention the fact that it is undergoing grandiose changes. In December 1991, the Russian Federation, along with other republics of the former Soviet Union, embarked on the path of independent existence. In the field of foreign and domestic policy, the Russian leadership has identified several priority tasks. The first of them is a deep reform of the economy, the transition to market methods of management. It is known that as a legacy from the Soviet Union with its planned economic management, Russia inherited not only the economy in a deplorable state, but also a huge external debt. Behind last years The Russian economy has undergone many different changes.

In order to eliminate the old economic power in Russia, a course was taken to transform state property into personal private property, which led to the destruction of many large enterprises. Since October 1992, without proper preparation, voucher privatization was carried out at an accelerated pace. On July 1, 1994, the sale of state and municipal property for money began. Privatization did not give the proper economic result and did not help to prevent the decline in production. Another consequence of mass privatization is the extreme concentration of ownership of industrial enterprises. This phenomenon is common in the process of mass privatization, but in Russia it has taken on a particularly large scale. As a result of the transformation of the old ministries and related departmental banks, a powerful financial oligarchy arose.

The fundamental transformation of common joint property led to the creation of a new economic system.

In the 1990s in Russia, the absolute monopoly in domestic and foreign trade was undermined. The initiators of market reforms have chosen a clearly erroneous path - the transition to a free market. In such a market, its participants can decide for themselves: where and what to sell, at what prices. As a result, many undeveloped and uncivilized food and clothing markets arose, in which domestic and foreign goods were individually resold. At the same time, proper sanitary-epidemiological, environmental and other control was not always observed, and low-quality and illegally acquired products were sold. Thus, attempts to revive the free market have yielded negative results.

There is also a very contradictory and generally very unfavorable dynamics of business efficiency. On the one hand, many industrial monopolies in 1992-1999. raised the rate of profit to 50-70% or more. In the criminal economy, for example in the drug business, the rate of return has reached 1000%. But, on the other hand, the efficiency of enterprises in the national economy has declined sharply: the profitability of products fell from 32% in 1992 to 8% in 1998, due to the crisis decline in domestic production.

An abnormal situation was also observed in the activities of banks. Banks used a number of favorable conditions for them (huge depreciation of money, speculative profit on the purchase and sale of foreign currency, the use of money from the state budget for their own enrichment, etc.) to bring the bank profit rate to astronomical values ​​​​(1000% or more). Abnormality This situation consisted in the fact that money capital began to be increasingly withdrawn from the sphere of production. His goal in itself was to receive huge usurious interest. But such percentages have turned into a brake on the development of the manufacturing business.

Russia in the 1990s became heavily dependent on the IMF (International Monetary Fund) and other foreign creditors. Only since 2000 has the situation begun to improve. The country refused IMF loans, significantly increased exports and improved external debt service.

In the same period, a crisis of underproduction arose and worsened in Russia. It was due mainly to extensive growth in production, an increase in the output of means of production due to a corresponding decrease in the number of consumer goods, and an excess of the consumer demand of the population in comparison with the supply of goods and services. In 1992–1998 domestic production of consumer goods and the latest technology dropped sharply, and the standard of living of the population fell. Since 1999, the increase in gross domestic product has begun.

The transformation of the command-administrative management system in Russia began with a rapid transition from state regulation to a spontaneous market mechanism. Due to the fact that centralized planned management was eliminated, and a developed and regulated market was not created, all the administrative activities of the state fell into decay in Russia. It was possible to recreate modern effective management only through an optimal combination of state and market regulation of economic activity.

Since the early 90s. an unrealistic budget was drawn up every year with a constant deficit, which adversely affected the socio-economic situation of the country. Since 2000, the execution of the budget ends with the formation of a surplus. The strategic budgetary policy of the state provides for: a) a significant reduction in the tax burden on the economy; b) social support for the most needy citizens; c) the concentration of financial resources to ensure the security of the country, the improvement of the judicial system; reproduction of scientific potential, development of the social sphere; the fight against poverty; d) reducing the dependence of budget revenues on the current state of world prices; e) creation of an effective system of public finance management.

Short description

At the origins of feudalism were two social systems - ancient, slaveholding, and barbarian, tribal. The gap between them was huge. The first was quite highly developed, the second did not yet know the class system. On the one hand, in ancient society in the IV-V centuries. proto-feudal elements began to take shape, on the other hand, many peoples came to feudalism through independent internal development. Therefore, the development of feudal relations and the emergence of cities with a feudal society in states took place in different periods.

Table of contents

I. The feudal city, its origin and economic role. 3
1. Western European city - as a classic model of feudalism. 3
1.1. Causes of cities and their struggle for independence. 4
1.2. The shop organization and its role. 5
1.3. The role of cities in the development of commodity-money relations and the emergence of capitalist production. 7
2. Features of the eastern feudal cities. 8
3. Feudal cities in Rus'. 9

Bibliography

Question 1. Medieval cities of the East: Arab, Indian, Chinese.

Their differences from European cities 3

Question 2. Economic background territorial organization of the population. 6

Used Books
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Abstract on the subject "Territorial organization of the population".

1. Medieval cities of the East: Arab, Indian, Chinese.

Their difference from European cities.

Unlike most of Europe, the countries of the East in the Middle Ages experienced several invasions of nomadic peoples who, over time, perceive urban culture, but this happens almost anew every time. Therefore, in the end, the development of urban settlement in the East is much slower, and the connection with the ancient cities is closer. This is manifested to the greatest extent in the formation of the network and principles of organization of Arab cities.

Arab conquests in the 7th-8th centuries. covered a vast territory from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. At the same time, most of the ancient cities in this territory were destroyed, and nomad camps arose in their place, which later became cities (Cairo in Egypt, Rabat in Morocco, etc.). The capital of the Arab state was originally Medina - a small city in the desert part of the Arabian Peninsula. Then the capital was moved closer to the main trade routes of that time - first to Damascus, and then to the city of Baghdad, specially built in 762 as the capital. Baghdad arose at the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, that is, approximately in the same place where Babylon and other capitals of antiquity existed. Baghdad in its heyday had up to 2 million inhabitants and was the largest city in the world, but after the Mongol conquests of the XIII century. it has lost its meaning.

The building principles of Baghdad were repeated in other Arab cities. The hill in the center of the city was occupied by a fortress (shahristan or kasbah), in which the ruler of the given area (in Baghdad - the caliph) settled with his entourage, military squad and servants. The ruler's palace included a system of courtyards occupied by gardens, pools and fountains. Around the fortress there was a trade and craft part of the city (rabad), surrounded by an external defensive wall. In its center was a market square, and artisans lived in quarters on a professional basis, each of which was surrounded by a wall. In shakhristan and each quarter there was a mosque, which was the larger and more richly decorated, the richer the given quarter was. The mosque, as a rule, ended with a dome, and next to it there was a tower - a minaret (or several minarets). The houses of ordinary residents were flat-roofed, one-story, built of clay, facing the streets with a blank wall, with a courtyard. Important public buildings of the city were caravanserais (hotels), madrasahs (schools), baths located in the city center.

Muslim conquests reached India in the 13th century. In the XVI century. a new wave of conquests took place, as a result of which the Mughal empire was created, which included almost the entire Hindustan peninsula. At the same time, large capital cities, numbering hundreds of thousands of inhabitants, developed in the north of the country, from where the conquests came. At different periods they were the cities of Delhi and Agra. The urban planning principles of Indian cities of that time included both ancient Indian and Arabic elements. So, in Delhi, the Red Fort was built (composed of red sandstone), which was a fortress and a palace of emperors. Near Agra, the Taj Mahal mausoleum has been preserved - one of the most outstanding buildings of medieval India, built according to the classical plan of a mosque and surrounded by specially created reservoirs.

China was first subjected to the Mongol and then the Manchurian invasion. At the same time, the capital of the country was also moved to the north - to Beijing. The center of Beijing was a complex of imperial palaces surrounded by gardens - the Purple (Forbidden) City. Around it was the Imperial City, in which the emperor's close associates, his guards and servants lived. The Imperial city was surrounded by the Outer Tatar (barbarian) city, in which the Mongols and then the Manchus lived. It adjoined the Outer Chinese City, in which the bulk of the population lived. Each of the parts was surrounded by its own walls. Separate streets in the Outer City were also locked at night, built up with wooden houses, forming regular square blocks. Apparently, the authorities were afraid that the huge masses of people concentrated in the city could get out of obedience. Beijing since the 18th century. had more than 1 million inhabitants, being at that time the largest city in the world. The most outstanding buildings of Chinese cities were the palaces of rulers and temples (pagodas), which stood out sharply against the background of ordinary buildings in their size and design.

In general, we can say that in the cities of the East, the main functions in the Middle Ages remained administrative and military, although the majority of the population in them, as in Europe, were artisans and merchants. The eastern cities never received any autonomy, which hampered social progress and preserved the vestiges of feudal relations until the beginning of the 20th century. Constant external conquests by more backward peoples hindered cultural and technological progress. Outwardly, the eastern cities still looked like a combination of magnificent palaces and temples - on the one hand, and the wretched shacks of the majority of the inhabitants - on the other, from which the cities of Europe began to leave in the early Middle Ages. It is not surprising that in modern times the cities of the East began to develop under European influence and at present retain their originality only in the old parts.

2. Economic prerequisites for the territorial organization of the population.

The main task of the economy (economy) is to provide the material basis for the functioning of society. Economic relations and processes permeate the entire social life. Naturally, in this case, the economy affects almost all aspects of society, including the territorial organization of the population. The most general dependencies can be identified on the type of farm, determined by its economic structure. The main types distinguished in this case are:

1) appropriating economy;

2) agricultural holding;

3) industrial economy;

4) post-industrial economy.

In the earliest stages of human development, the economy as such was absent. The so-called appropriating economy dominated - people lived off what nature gave them. At the same time, they were engaged in hunting, fishing, gathering, not standing out economically from many species of animals (but already standing out socially). Tribes of people slowly moved along the shores of the seas and rivers, following the herds of large hunting animals, gradually populating almost the entire surface of the land, except for the most severe natural areas in the regions of the poles and high mountains. There were no permanent settlements, and the population density was extremely low - even in the most densely populated areas, no more than 1 person. per 1 km 2. At present, there are no large territories on Earth with a predominance of the appropriating economy.

In the VIII-X millennium BC. e, at about the same time in several areas of the earth, an agrarian (Neolithic) revolution began - the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing (agricultural) one. The resulting type of economy is agrarian (pre-industrial), which by the II millennium AD. e. spread to almost all territories inhabited by people (except Australia and a large part of America). The main sign of the dominance of the agrarian type of economy is the predominance of agriculture (the primary sector of the economy) in the structure of employment and / or the structure of production (GDP). At present, the agrarian type of economy still prevails in the least developed states of the Earth (Burundi and others in Africa, Bhutan and others in Asia).

The main branches of agriculture are plant growing and animal husbandry. Accordingly, already at the beginning of the agrarian revolution, two different types of territorial organization of the population were formed - permanent agricultural and nomadic livestock. Their common features are the dispersion of the population, the strong dependence of density and settlement on natural conditions, extremely rare (as a rule, one in several generations) permanent migrations for the agricultural development of new territories.

Under the influence of nomadic animal husbandry, a network of permanent settlements did not develop. People are constantly moving through certain areas following herds of animals that need food and water. The population density remains low, rarely exceeding the value of 1 person. per 1 km 2. Initially, the areas of distribution of nomadism significantly exceeded the areas of agricultural settlement, but at present, nomadic settlement has survived only in certain areas of the Northern and East Africa, Southwest and Central Asia. In some cases, permanent migrations were transformed into seasonal ones (between high-mountain and low-mountain territories, between tundra and forest-tundra, etc.), which led to the emergence of temporarily inhabited settlements and some increase in population density, but not more than 10 people. per 1 km 2.

Under the influence of plant growing, a network of permanent settlements has developed, the size and density of which strongly depend on the favorable natural conditions for plant growing. As a result, the population density can vary widely, but, as a rule, it ranges from 10 to 100 people. per 1 km 2. At the same time, residents are distinguished by a strong attachment to the land, extremely low migration mobility. Most of them never leave their settlement in their lives. The most common trips are to the nearest market several times a year. Initially, permanent agricultural settlement occupied relatively small territories, but today it prevails in the countryside of the vast majority of the states of the Earth.

The Industrial Revolution began in the 17th and 18th centuries. V overseas Europe, and by now has spread to the vast majority of the territories of the Earth inhabited by people. As a result, an industrial type of economy was formed - the predominance of industry and construction or the secondary sector in the structure of employment and production. The industrial type of economy prevails in most modern states.

The development of industry causes a rapid concentration of the population in cities and their agglomerations. As a result, mass flows of permanent migrants are formed - mainly from rural areas to cities, and then to suburban areas. There are mass labor commuting migrations - mainly within the framework of urban agglomerations, which gradually begin to surpass permanent resettlements in terms of their scale (the number of people involved). The importance of natural conditions for the concentration of the population is markedly reduced. The main ones are socio-economic conditions, especially the convenience of transport links. The population density increases sharply - up to 1000 people. per 1 km 2 in the most urbanized areas. At the same time, population density in non-urbanized rural areas is starting to decline.

The transition to a post-industrial type of economy (the predominance of the service sector or the tertiary sector in the structure of employment and GDP) began in the most developed countries of the Earth (USA, Japan, Western Europe) in the second half of the 20th century. Intensive development of the service sector is possible only with a sufficiently high concentration of the population - as a rule, at least 50 people. per 1 km 2. But then the multiplier effect kicks in. The greater the concentration of the population, the more people are needed to work in the service sector, so the concentration of the population increases even more, i.e. the population itself becomes the main resource for the development of the economy. As a result, the population density in areas with a developed service sector can reach several thousand people per 1 km2. But at the same time, not only the share of those employed in the secondary and primary sectors of the economy is decreasing, but also the absolute scale of production in these sectors - industrial enterprises are being closed, the area of ​​agricultural land is shrinking. Thus, the scale of human impact on the natural environment, including the area of ​​intensively used territories, is reduced. In the future, with such a trend, it is even possible to reduce the population

people of the territories of the Earth.

As a result, return migrations surpass permanent resettlements in their scope and significance. At the same time, commuting for services and irregular recreational trips are becoming especially large. Although the importance of labor migrations (pendulum and longer irregular) remains. Specific migration flows turn out to be strongly related to the level of development of the service sector and the characteristics of its organization.

The conducted retrospective analysis of the relationship between the development of the economy and the territorial organization of the population allows us to identify a general pattern due to the degree of development of the territory. In the early stages of development of the territory (and the initial stages of development of the economy), the population "follows" the economy. So, gradually people settled almost the entire surface of the earth's land, following the biological natural resources, and then mastered almost all the territories suitable for this for agriculture. The latest manifestation of this trend is the modern "areas of new development", where people appeared to extract industrial natural resources. But with the development of the territory and the development of the economy, the economy begins to "follow" the population. A turning point occurs with the industrial type of economy, when for many branches of industry the main factor in the location of enterprises is labor (the availability of labor resources, especially skilled ones). With the post-industrial type of economy, even the reduction of territories already developed by man begins - the economy is "pulled" into the most populated and developed areas. Thus, at all stages there is a regular correlation between economy and settlement. But at first, the leading link in this connection is the economy, and subsequently - resettlement.

In a market economy, the interaction between the economy and the population is carried out through the mechanisms of the labor market. The supply in this market is the number of people willing to work, and the demand is the number of jobs provided by employers. The ratio of supply and demand is regulated by the price of labor - the level of wages. At the same time, at any particular moment in time, supply and demand, as a rule, do not coincide, as a result of which either unemployment is formed - an excess of supply over demand, or a shortage of personnel - an excess of demand over supply.

In the general case, unemployment in a limited area (local, regional or national labor market) contributes to the outflow of the population to other territories, and the shortage of personnel - to the influx of people from other territories. But in certain situations this may not be the case.

First, it's important unemployment rate- the share of the unemployed in the economically active population. An unemployment rate above 10% is considered high - only then can we talk about the outflow of the population caused by it, and the impact of unemployment will be relatively noticeable at a level of at least 5%.

Secondly, it is necessary to take into account types of unemployment. She may be:

1) dynamic (frictional) - when an unemployed person already knows where he will work, but has not yet started work for various reasons, for example, the workplace has not yet been created, although it should appear in the near future;

2) structural - when the unemployed and the available vacancies do not correspond to each other according to some characteristics (occupation, age, etc.), although there may be more vacancies than the unemployed;

3) cyclic - when, in the conditions of an economic crisis (reduction in employment), the number of unemployed is, in principle, greater than the number of available vacancies, and it is impossible to provide all the unemployed with work;

4) associated with agrarian overpopulation - when in areas dominated by the agrarian type of economy, in conditions of constant natural growth and limited resources (land and water), an "excess" population is constantly formed, unable to find jobs.

At dynamic unemployment, which can reach significant levels in areas with a large seasonal unevenness of labor (agricultural, resort, etc.), there are no large population movements. The unemployed are waiting for the appearance of work (the onset of the season), existing on benefits or savings accumulated over the past season. But seasonal labor migration to other areas is also possible.

At structural unemployment, the outflow of the population will occur if there are vacancies in other areas in the same specialty that the unemployed have, and if the resettlement will have less significant costs than retraining for those specialties that are required locally. Naturally, the level of wages after resettlement or retraining will also matter.

At cyclical unemployment, there will be a massive outflow of the unemployed. At the same time, most of them will initially be resettled for a limited period, hoping to return back after the situation improves. And only in the case of a successful settlement in a new place, while maintaining a difficult economic situation in the old one, the final resettlement with the relocation of the family can occur. In addition, the cyclical unemployed will massively participate in migration to areas with seasonal rises in employment.

At agrarian overpopulation there will be a constant outflow of the "surplus" population - either to areas of new agricultural development (if any), or to the cities of their country and other states where there is a chance of finding work. In this case, resettlement to permanent place residence, but many of them will have a step-by-step character, as in the previous case: first for a certain period (from several months to several years), then for permanent residence. Another essential difference- with agrarian overpopulation in migrations, the proportion of young people is the highest, since it is they who constantly turn out to be "superfluous" in agricultural areas where all jobs are already occupied.

In addition to the ratio of supply and demand in the labor market (the presence of unemployment or a shortage of personnel), the level of wages is also important, or rather, its relationship with the cost of living. Thus, there will be no influx of unemployed into areas with a shortage of personnel (or even an outflow of the local population) if the ratio of wages and the cost of living in these areas is worse than in others.

The influence of the labor market on population migration can be well seen in the example of modern migrations between developing and developed countries. These migrations are predominantly labor. At the same time, in accordance with the general laws of development of the economy and resettlement, the importance of permanent resettlements gradually decreases, and the value of temporary resettlements (seasonal, for several years, etc.) increases.

In developing countries, there is a constant agrarian overpopulation, which provides a significant amount of unskilled labor. Economic crises with cyclical unemployment are also not uncommon. IN developed countries On the contrary, there is an almost constant shortage of unskilled labor (except during the most acute economic crises). As a result, flows of unskilled migrants ("muscle drain") from developing countries to developed ones are formed, in which all parties involved are interested:

Countries of emigration (outflow of migrants), as this eases the demographic pressure in them, making it possible to ease the problem of unemployment and the lack of various resources for a growing population;

countries of immigration (influx of migrants), because without their labor the functioning of many sectors of the economy would be impossible. Especially great importance immigrant labor in the sparsely populated oil-exporting states of the Persian Gulf (Kuwait and others) - up to 90% of all employed. But also in many European states immigrants make up to 30% of all employed;

Migrants themselves, since as a result of migration they significantly improve their economic situation, receive a relatively high (relative to the country of emigration) paid job, which allows them not only to live in the country of immigration, but also in many cases financially support relatives in the country of emigration. In many developing countries (even such large ones as Egypt), remittances from emigrants are one of the main sources of foreign exchange in the country.

But due to a more favorable ratio of wages and the cost of living from developing countries to developed countries, there is also an outflow of highly qualified personnel ("brain drain"), despite their shortage in the developing countries themselves. The scale of such migrations is hundreds of times smaller than the flows of unskilled workers. But there is a clear problem, because in this case there is an "injured" party. These are developing states that have spent significant funds on training the necessary specialists, and are losing them without any compensation.

These general patterns of the relationship between the economy and the territorial organization of the population operate in modern Russia. So, for centuries, Russia pursued a policy of developing the outskirts of the state, primarily the sparsely populated northern and eastern ones. This policy manifested itself especially clearly in the 1930s-1970s, when large-scale projects for the development of natural resources in the northern and eastern regions of Russia were created under the conditions of a planned economy - a hydropower cascade on the Angara, Baikal-Amur railway line, the Norilsk Metallurgical Complex, etc., and the population was involved in the implementation of these projects, as a result of which the settlement systems of many previously practically uninhabited territories were practically re-created. Population of some regions (Murmansk region, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, Kamchatka region, etc.) for the period of 1930-1980s. increased by 20-40 times, while the proportion of the population living in the old developed parts of the country (Central and North-Western Russia) was constantly decreasing.

Unfortunately, in many cases, resettlement was not voluntary (due to high wages, various benefits, and other similar reasons), but forced (widespread use of the labor of the repressed and prisoners, mass deportations, including entire peoples). Nevertheless, the main trend was very clear: the population followed the production, although by the 1980s. the pace of this process has clearly slowed down.

In the 1990s there was a turning point, accelerated by an acute socio-economic crisis. The economy in the most developed and populated areas of the country was affected to a lesser extent than in areas of new development. Some sectors of the service sector - trade, finance, etc. - increased the scale of production, and this also happened in the most populated parts of the country, i.e., a tendency was manifested to concentrate the economy in the most populated areas.

The dynamics of the employment structure by industry is shown in the table. It is clear that at the beginning of the XX century. Russia was a typical country with an agrarian type of economy (and the predominance of the corresponding territorial organization of the population). By the middle of the century, the industrial type of economy became predominant. And in the 1990s. there has been a transition to a post-industrial type of economy. At the same time, in fact, the post-industrial type of economy (and the corresponding territorial organization of the population) is typical only for the two most developed regions of the country - Moscow and St. Petersburg. Whereas in many regions (the republics of Dagestan, Kalmykia, Ingushetia, Altai, Tyva, Chechen, autonomous regions Evenki, Koryak, Aginsky and Ust-Ordynsky Buryat) still retain the agrarian structure of the economy with a predominance of rural settlement, formed under the influence of primarily natural conditions. Most regions of the country are characterized by a territorial organization of the population associated with an industrial type of economy (concentration in cities and urban agglomerations, development of commuting labor migrations, etc.).

Changing the structure of employmentby sectors of the Russian economy,%

There are also several special local cases of the territorial organization of the population associated with the development of the mining industry and transport in the absence (or insignificant influence) of other industries. When resettling in areas of a non-labor-intensive extractive industry (oil, gas), for the resettlement of workers and their families, sites are selected that are most favorable in terms of nature, and rather large cities are built (examples - New Urengoy, Nefteyugansk). At the same time, the distance to places of work (deposits) can reach tens or even hundreds of kilometers, and a relatively small number of workers make rotational trips by various modes of transport, up to aviation.

When settling in areas of a labor-intensive mining industry (coal mining, underground mining of ores), in order to avoid long-term mass transportation of workers, settlements are as close as possible to places of work. But at the same time, the size of the point directly depends on the capacity of the deposit. Therefore, these are mainly small settlements, the existence of which after the depletion of the deposit is problematic, gravitating towards a larger point, in which the organizing enterprises are located - a processing plant, a construction department, etc. And the planning structure of the settlements turns out to be dependent on the occurrence of the layers of the extracted mineral - buildings should be located above underground mine workings.

Settling along transport routes(railroads) turns out to be linear and strictly hierarchical. The most numerous (after 1-3 km) are the smallest settlements, often consisting of only one house (houses of linemen, crossings). The next level is sidings and small stations, where only 2-3 families live, located 5-10 km away. Then there are large stations where cargo handling is already carried out - usually these are rather large rural settlements or small urban settlements. Even larger settlements (large urban settlements or not big cities) are formed near the junction stations, where trains are formed, repair work is carried out, and depots are located. Finally, the largest settlements (large cities) develop at the intersections of the main routes of different types of transport.

When analyzing the structure of employment in Russia, it should also be noted that during the crisis of the 1990s. the total number of people employed in the country's economy decreased by more than 10 million people. - from 75.5 million at the end of the 1980s. up to 65 million at the beginning of the XXI century. For the first time after a long break (since the 1930s), the existence of the unemployed was again recognized. The maximum unemployment rate (almost 14%) was observed at the beginning of 1999, and by 2003 it had dropped to 8.5% of the country's economically active population.

In Russia, one can distinguish two types of regions with increased unemployment rate:

1. Regions with high natural population growth, where the labor market is constantly entering more quantity young people, and a corresponding number of new jobs are not created. These are the republics of Dagestan, Chechen, Ingush, Kalmykia, Tuva, Altai and some other regions. In some years, the unemployment rate reached 50%. In fact, here we are dealing with a typical agrarian overpopulation. The way to solve the problem in the long term is the development of labor-intensive sectors of the economy, in the near future - the migration of the population to other regions of the country.

2. Regions with the maximum reduction in production during the crisis of the 1990s. These are regions with a predominance of light, military, woodworking industries (Ivanovo, Pskov, Vladimir and others), where the unemployment rate reached 25%. The unemployed in this case are mostly of pre-retirement age. And in the future, the problem will be solved here without special measures - most of the unemployed will become pensioners, and the revival of production has already begun.

There are also two types of regions with low levels him unemployment:

1. Regions with a high rate of job creation. First of all, these are the Moscow and St. Petersburg regions, where new sectors of the economy were actively developing in the 1990s, as a result of which there are more vacancies than unemployed. The way to solve the problem of shortage of personnel is the migration of the population from other regions of the country (including from regions with agrarian overpopulation) and from abroad (primarily from the CIS countries). At the same time, the majority of visitors, apparently, will come temporarily, and not for permanent residence.

2. Regions with an export-oriented economy (production of oil, natural gas, metals), where production in the 1990s. decreased slightly - the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug, the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), etc. In these predominantly sparsely populated northern and eastern regions The country experienced a shortage of personnel in the past, which in many cases intensified in the 1990s. The fact is that in market conditions after the abolition of state subsidies for food production, housing construction and many others, it turned out that the ratio of wages and the cost of living in regions with harsh natural conditions is worse than in many other regions of the country. Therefore, an outflow of residents from the northern and eastern regions of Russia began, and not only to the labor-deficient capitals and "average" regions of the country in terms of unemployment, but even to the regions of Central Russia with a high level of unemployment (Ivanovo region, etc.). The effect of the wage level factor in this case turned out to be stronger than the effect of unemployment. In the near future, the outflow of the population from the northern and eastern regions of Russia will continue, since attracting workers here in most cases is economically efficient only on a temporary basis (on a rotational basis), and not for permanent residence.

Russia as a whole, subject to economic growth in the coming decades, will be a country of immigration, since its own natural increase will not be able to provide the economy with personnel. At the same time, in the first place, it is necessary to attract to the country the inhabitants of the former Soviet republics - Ukraine, Moldova, Kazakhstan, etc., who are closest in culture to Russians. In the longer term, it is possible to attract residents of far-abroad countries to Russia. Apparently, migration should be encouraged, both temporary - for the development of natural resources in the northern and eastern regions of the country, and permanent - to increase the concentration of the population in areas of the European part of Russia, where in many regions the population density is too low for the intensive development of the modern service sector.

References:

1. Russia in numbers. - M.: Goskomstat of Russia, 2002.

2. Simagin Yu. A. Territorial organization of the population: Textbook for universities. - 2nd ed., corrected. and additional / Under the total. ed. V. G. Glushkova. - M.: Publishing and Trade Corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2005, - 244 p.

3. Territorial organization of the population: Textbook. allowance / Ed. prof. E.G. Chistyakov. - M.: Vuzovsky textbook., 2005.- 188 p.