The concept and types of migration processes. Migration processes in the world
Theme "Population migration"
The concept of population migration and migrants. The scale of population migration in the world. Who studies migration. Classification of population migration. Stages of the migration process: decision-making, moving, adaptation. Sources of information on migration. Accounting and assessment of population migration. Cross-border migrations and remittances of migrants. Major migration flows in the world.
The concept of population migration and migrants
Under population migration usually understand the movement, resettlement, change of residence by people for a permanent period or for a long time, due to various reasons. In the narrow sense of the concept, population migration is a movement that is accompanied by a long-term move or an irrevocable move with people crossing the administrative boundaries of a settlement. In a broad sense, migrations include various movements, incl. not accompanied by a permanent change of residence. In this case, migrations include trips made between different administrative units for different reasons, with varying degrees duration and at different intervals. For example, episodic trips (business, recreational, non-regular tourist trips), pendulum trips (movements most often occurring between the place of residence and place of work or study), seasonal trips (can be both labor and recreational).
Permanent migrations of the population differ from the rest in that they are accompanied by the connection of the place of residence with the place of work, study or other activity in one settlement. In migration statistics, permanent migrations of the population are most often taken into account. At the same time, when analyzing migration, it is important to understand that not all migrants are included in migration statistics, which depends on the characteristics and criteria for recording migrants in different countries of the world.
As synonyms for the concept of population migration, one can meet the concepts of mechanical movement of people, migration of labor resources, migration of labor.
Causes, intensity, directions, structure of migration flows, consequences caused by migrations, including economic, cultural, demographic, are different at different historical stages and in different countries with different levels of social economic development.
Population migrations affect the transformation of the demographic structure, ethnic processes, population reproduction, social movement and other aspects of the population's life.
Experts talk about both positive and negative aspects of migration. On the one hand, migration entails the exchange of various skills, new life experiences, and so on. On the other hand, population migration increases social tension in some countries and leads to a weakening of the social, cultural, economic and demographic potential of other countries.
Under the migrants understand those , who participate in migration, that is, cross state and administrative borders for the purpose of permanent or temporary change of residence. International migrants (external migrants) are foreign citizens who have arrived from another country. Internal migrants include residents of the country who cross the administrative-territorial borders within the country for the purpose of temporary or permanent change of residence.
Migrants also refer to people born outside the region or foreign nationals born outside the country but currently residing in their territory, regardless of the length of residence.
The scale of population migration in the world
According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM) in 2008, every 33 inhabitants of the Earth lived outside the country of birth. Thus, there are about 214 million international migrants in the world. Different countries of the world have a different proportion of migrants, there are countries in which a significant proportion of the population was born outside of these countries. These are Qatar, where 87% of the country's population is made up of migrants, the UAE (70%), Jordan (46%), Singapore (41%) and Saudi Arabia (28%).
Although the percentage of migrants in these countries is high, the number of migrants is attracted by the developed countries of Europe and North America. The most significant outflow of migrants is observed from the developing countries of Africa and Asia.
In the European Union migration growth population higher than natural population growth, so for 1990-1999. 8.7 million migrants arrived in the EU from other countries, and the total increase in the population of the EU over this period amounted to 12.7 million people. At present, for the countries of the European Union, 700,000 people are predicted annually for the next 20 years. For 1990–1999 The United States received 8.7 million people. The demographic forecast provides that the migration growth of the American population for 2000-2050. will amount to 45 million people.
In addition to the flows of migrants, their economic influence is also growing, both on the countries of origin and on the countries receiving migrants. Thus, for example, migrants' remittances to "their" countries in 2010 amounted to 440 billion dollars, and in 2000 they amounted to 132 billion dollars.
What sciences and researchers study population migration
As long as humanity exists, so many migrations of people exist, this is one of the most ancient social phenomena in the world. But migrations have come into the sphere of scientific interest relatively recently. Interest in the scientific study of population migrations appeared in Western Europe and in the United States in the second half of the 19th century, when systematic statistical accounting of migrants, both internal and international, began.
In the 1870s The German-born British geographer Ernst Georg Ravenstein published The Laws of Migration, he studied the relationship between the distance over which migration occurs and the types of migrants.
In Russia, interest in the study of migration also intensified during this period after the abolition of serfdom in 1861. Attention to population migration was caused by the large-scale resettlement of peasants from the densely populated provinces of the European part of Russia to free territories beyond the Urals, as well as the mass otkhodnichestvo of peasants in search of work from rural areas. areas to large cities of European Russia.
In the early Soviet period in the 1930s-50s. Population migrations have practically not been studied systematically and regularly. Interest in the study of migrations resumed in the 1960s, when many works appeared, including in social geography, devoted to pendulum migrations (in the suburbs big cities), the survival rate of new settlers (in the regions of Siberia and the Far East), etc.
In the 1990s The range of migration studies has expanded: forced migrations of the population, labor migrations of the population, and the process of adaptation of migrants are being actively studied. New research methods have appeared, in addition to quantitative analysis of statistical data, methods of mass survey, in-depth interviewing of migrants and experts, content analysis of news flows, content analysis of migration legislation, etc. are used.
It is important that the study of migrations has always been interdisciplinary in nature, they are studied by demography, statistics, history, economics, geography, ethnography, linguistics, jurisprudence, political science, etc. On the one hand, such a wide interest in migration from many sciences contributes to the acquisition of new knowledge about this phenomenon, on the other hand, it complicates the systematization of the acquired knowledge, does not allow the formation of a single conceptual apparatus, and makes it difficult to generalize the studies that have already been carried out.
The lack of a systematic study of migrations in the Soviet period largely explains the absence of migration theories in Russian science, this vacuum in the 1990s-2000s. was not completed, most of the theoretical developments in the field of studying migration are borrowed by Russian researchers from Western works, where in the second half of the 20th century. accumulated vast experience in studying various aspects of migration.
In social and economic geography, among the works on migration topics, the works of V.V. Pokshishevsky, B.S. Khoreva, P.M. Polyana, Zh.A. Zaionchkovskaya, V.I. Perevedentseva, L.L. Rybakovsky, V.A. Iontsev.
Classifications of population migration
In any science there are various classifications of the phenomenon under study. Naturally, migrations are also classified according to different criteria. The most common types of migration classification are:
By duration, they distinguish between permanent or irrevocable migrations, episodic (for example, vacation trips), pendulum (shuttle), seasonal migrations;
For reasons (economic or labor, political, family, educational, etc.)
By directions (external and internal migration);
By nature (voluntary, forced, forced migration);
By the structure of migrants (skilled and low-skilled);
They also distinguish between legal and illegal migration, etc.
Let us consider in a little more detail various examples of types of migrations that are the most common and relevant at present in the world or that cause ambiguous definitions. These are pendulum migrations, seasonal migrations, labor migrations, as a separate type of skilled migration - "brain drain", the difference between forced and forced migrations.
Pendulum migrations - These are regular (daily, weekly) labor or educational movements of people from the locality of residence to the locality of work or study and back. Pendulum migrations arise due to a discrepancy between the territorial distribution of places of application of labor (study) and the place of residence.
Currently, pendulum migrations are a mass phenomenon in a number of regions of Western Europe and in Russia, the scale of pendulum migrations exceeds the scale of permanent migrations of the population.
Pendulum migrations occur most often in agglomerations, the centers of which are large and largest cities or in highly urbanized areas, with a high population density, a developed road network and transport infrastructure.
The main reasons limiting the development of pendulum migrations are the time and material costs to reach the place of work (study), while motorization of the population plays an important role. The boundaries of the influence of the agglomeration can be distinguished along the border of the most intense pendulum migrations. In Western Europe, the distance between the place of residence and work can reach 70-150 km or more (1-1.5 hours one way). The “shoulder” of pendulum migrations for Moscow for daily trips can reach 300 km (up to 3 hours one way).
In Russia, the main areas where active pendulum migrations are observed are the largest agglomerations, primarily Moscow and St. Petersburg. The active development of pendulum migrations in these agglomerations over the past 20 years is not caused by mass suburbanization, as in developed countries oh, but mass unemployment in small and medium-sized cities, the difference in wages in the places where commuting migrants exit. The pendulum migrants of Moscow are not Muscovites who left for the suburbs, but residents of the Moscow and neighboring regions who come to Moscow to work and study. According to various estimates, at present, up to 1 million commuters arrive in Moscow daily from the Moscow Region alone.
The next type of temporary migration is seasonal migration, that is, the return migration of the population, which is characterized by temporary (seasonal) movements of the population to work, study, rest, etc., for a period of several months. A distinctive feature of seasonal migrations, in addition to the seasonal nature of movements, is their mass and regular nature. Much of this type of migration depends on the time of year and the climatic season. Depending on the purpose of travel, economic (labor) migration, socio-cultural, recreational seasonal migration are distinguished.
Labor seasonal migrants are employed in crop production (harvesting), in construction, in the fishing and forestry industries, in tourist services, etc. The development of technologies in the agricultural sector is constantly reducing the need for seasonal labor migration. Labor seasonal migrants involved in international migration are most often low-skilled workers employed in countries with more developed economies.
A significant amount of international seasonal migrants in Western Europe and Russia is occupied by vacationers who go on vacation to other countries for the summer, which is reflected in the intensification of transport flows between countries.
Statistical records of seasonal migrants are practically not kept; indirectly, data on the scale of seasonal migrants can be obtained from the analysis of traffic flow data, sample sociological surveys of the population, and analysis of the seasonal potential of the labor market.
Currently, for Russia, we can talk about the three most significant flows of seasonal migrants. The first stream is the seasonal departure of residents of large cities to dachas, garden plots and the countryside (suburbanization). The population of a number of settlements in Moscow and neighboring regions in the summer increases significantly. Thus, seasonal migration affects the settlement system, the burden on social and transport infrastructure, trade turnover, etc. The second stream is a mass departure in the summer to rest in southern regions Russia (coast of the Black and Seas of Azov), Ukraine (Crimea) and other countries (Turkey, Egypt, Italy, etc.). The third stream is the seasonal entry of labor migrants from other CIS countries into the Russian Federation, although not all studies confirm this trend, some indicate the outflow of labor migrants to their countries in the summer for agricultural work.
Economic reasons are one of the most common reasons for migration, so economic or labor migration is one of the most popular areas in the study of migration. It is customary to use such a definition of labor migration, this is the territorial movement of the population for the purpose of permanent or temporary employment in another city, region, country.
Labor migration is not a new phenomenon for Russia either, but our country has not previously encountered such a scale of external and internal labor migration. The most numerous groups of external labor migrants arrive in Russia from Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Moldova. Among countries far abroad Russia is attractive for labor migrants from China and Vietnam. It is difficult to talk about the number of external labor migrants, because of the undeveloped system of statistical records and the large number of illegal labor migrants employed in the household or in illegal enterprises. In any case, all experts agree that these are several million external labor migrants, according to various estimates, up to 12.3 million.
The volume of internal labor migrants is estimated at about 10 million people; no statistical records of temporarily registered migrants are kept. The distinctive features of modern internal labor migration in Russia are: the centripetal nature of labor migration (the majority of internal labor migrants tend to Moscow and the Moscow region), the predominance of return internal labor migration over permanent ones.
Labor migrants in a number of countries of the world dominate the labor market and occupy a significant share in the population of countries, influencing the age and sex structure. They affect the economy and social situation of both host and donor countries. The countries receiving the highest number of remittances (remittances) in 2010 according to the IOM were: India, China, Mexico, Philippines and France. Among the countries from which money transfers are made, the United States ranks first, followed by Saudi Arabia, Switzerland and Russia.
One of the types of labor migration is skilled migration, our country is characterized by an influx of low-skilled migrants and an outflow of highly skilled migrants or "brain drain" ("brain drain").
This phenomenon is understood as the departure from the country of specialists employed in the field of skilled intellectual or creative work. In the XX century. the first massive surge of "brain drain" was caused by the consequences of the Second World War, at the turn of the 1940s-1950s. in countries Western Europe. Scientific personnel from Germany, Great Britain, Italy and France migrated to scientific centers USA, Canada, Australia.
The second stage of the "brain drain" took place in the 1960s-1980s, when developing countries became active suppliers of intellectual migrants in the world, and the list of countries receiving scientific personnel also included the countries of Western Europe. Experts estimate the scale of the entry of scientific personnel into the USA, Canada, Great Britain during this period at 500 thousand people.
The third period of "brain drain" in the world is associated with the collapse of the socialist system and the inclusion of qualified specialists from countries in the international intellectual migration. of Eastern Europe and countries formed after the collapse of the USSR.
There are no unambiguous estimates of the extent of the “brain drain” from Russia after 1991. Most likely, the peak flow of skilled migrants occurred in the first 5-10 years after the collapse of the USSR. Representatives of exact and natural sciences (mathematicians, physicists, chemists, biologists) prevailed in the structure of those leaving. Then, for a number of reasons, which include both the stabilization of the situation in Russia and the insufficient level of qualification of our specialists compared to the world level, then intellectual emigration from Russia decreased.
Let's stop at different types forced migrations, which include the movement of significant masses of people committed by the state through coercion. They share direct (forced migrations and deportations) and indirect (voluntary forced migrations) coercion. In the second case, the state does not forcibly move people, but influences the factors of individual decision-making on the move by the inhabitants of the country. Deportations (forced migrations) are a form of political repression. The peculiarities of deportations are their administrative (extrajudicial) nature, deportations are not aimed at individual migrants, but at a group (social or ethnic) of the population.
Massive internal forced migrations took place in the USSR, starting from the resettlement of Cossacks in 1919 and up to the eviction of "parasites" in the mid-1950s. Deportations affected about 6 million people. In the USSR in 1936-1951. Poles, Germans, Koreans, Karachays, Balkars, Chechens, Ingush, Kalmyks, Crimean Tatars, Greeks, Meskhitian Turks were subjected to mass deportation. A significant number of citizens of the USSR were involved in international forced migration. During the Great Patriotic War, more than 3.2 million people were sent to forced labor in the Third Reich.
Forced migrations refer to indirect types of forced migration or non-voluntary migration, people make their own decision to change their place of residence, the state does not participate in this, but the causes of forced migration are threats to the life, health and / or property of migrants and / or their relatives. Threats can arise as a result of environmental, natural, man-made disasters, as a result of social conflicts and wars.
In Russia, the status of a forced migrant is granted for five years on the basis of the Law of the Russian Federation "On forced migrants", which was adopted in 1993. A forced migrant is a citizen of the Russian Federation who left his place of residence as a result of violence committed against him or members of his family or persecution in other forms, or due to a real risk of being persecuted on the basis of race or nationality, religion, language, as well as on the basis of belonging to a certain social group or political opinion, which became the reason for conducting hostile campaigns against a particular person or group of persons, mass violations public order. In Russia, the statistical registration of forced migrants has been carried out since July 1, 1992.
In other countries, the term internally displaced persons is more often used in relation to forced migrants.
Stages of the migration process: decision making, relocation, adaptation
The migration process is usually divided into three qualitatively different stages: initial, main and final.
At the first, preparatory stage, the formation of migration mobility, migration attitudes, psychological readiness for resettlement takes place. Persons with greater migratory mobility, as a rule, also have a greater psychological readiness for resettlement. A person with extensive migration experience is more likely to decide to relocate if he is not satisfied with the living conditions in last place residence than someone who was born in the area and lived there all his life.
The second stage of the migration process is the resettlement of the population. The power of migration flows depends, as a rule, on two conditions; on the population of the regions between which migration exchange is carried out, and on their relative position. The larger the population of the territories between which the migration exchange is carried out, the more powerful the migration flows; the closer the territories are located, the more intense the migration links between them.
The third and final stage of the migration process is the survival of new settlers, their socio-economic adaptation and the process of integration into the host society. Settlement or integration is that part of the migration process, the beginning of which is the transformation of a migrant into a new settler, and the end - in the transition of the new settler into the old-timers. L.L. Rybakovsky shares the concepts of "survival" and "adaptation". Integration is an objective social process of changing the existing way of life by improving the new social environment through social activity, in contrast to this, adaptation is the process of adapting a person to new living conditions for him.
The third stage is the most difficult for migrants and does not have clear time limits. The adaptation of a migrant and the success of his integration depend on many objective and subjective factors, both external, emanating from the host society, and the characteristics of the migrants themselves and the conditions of their residence in the same place. The most important factors are: knowledge of the language, the age of the migrant, the level of education of the migrant, his marital status, the socio-economic situation in the country of origin of the migrant; migration policy of the state, etc.
Typically, internal migrants adapt faster than external migrants, a process that can take years. A number of studies show that the full integration of external migrants can only be spoken of in the second or third generation of migrants, but not in the first generation of migrants.
Sources of information about migrations
Depending on the legal norms regarding the procedures for registering and registering migrants, as well as due to the different approach to determining international migration in different countries, the current population statistics take into account a different number of migrants, which makes it difficult to compare the number of migrants in different countries.
There are two main sources of information on population migrations: the current population register and the population census. In Russia, a system of data collection based on the registration or registration of migrants in passport offices emerged in 1932. This statistic was closed to research until the 1980s. The registration of migrants was carried out on the basis of migration registration sheets at the place of arrival of migrants; only the permanent population is taken into account.
Accounting for population migration is carried out within the framework of administrative-territorial units, because of this, movements of people between different administrative entities are taken into account, although they can occur within the same agglomeration or a single regional labor market and affect relatively short distances, and movements within the same administrative territory are not taken into account . Due to the different administrative-territorial divisions in different countries, it is difficult to conduct a comparative analysis of internal migrations in different countries.
In a number of countries of the world, a system of population registers is currently widespread, on the basis of which migrants are also taken into account.
Population censuses are also a source of information about migrants in a country or region. The census asks about place of birth and length of residence in this place, so you can find out the number of people born outside the region or outside the country and the length of their stay in this place.
Indirect sources on migration flows can be: data on the number of visa denials; information on the registration and control of international passenger flows; data on the number of asylum requests; statistics providing information on the number of work permits and residence permits issued.
The difficulties in recording migration from Russia are due to the fact that migration statistics do not take into account those who leave for permanent residence without obtaining official permission from the Ministry of Internal Affairs and those who have not been removed from the register at their place of residence. Russian statistics on emigration in the 2000s differ significantly from the estimates of the scale of immigrants from Russia in foreign sources.
Accounting and assessment of population migration
The most common indicators that assess migration include the number of migrants who entered the country or region over a certain period of time, or the number of migrants who left the country or region for a certain period of time.
The balance of migration is calculated as the difference between the migrants who left and entered the country or region for a certain period of time.
Migration turnover - the sum of those who entered and left the region or country, shows the intensity of the migration ties of the territory.
In addition to indicators of the absolute number of migrants, for the convenience of comparing different regions and countries, relative indicators are used, for example, the number of migrants per 10 thousand inhabitants. They also use such an indicator as the proportion among those living in the territory who were born in another country.
Also, when calculating, special migration coefficients are used, which allow taking into account the heterogeneity of the structural characteristics of migration flows. For example, age coefficients of arrival and departure.
Cross-border migration and migrant remittances
Cross-border migrations or transnational migrations are stable mass territorial movements of labor migrants across state borders. Cross-border migrations arise as a result of the globalization of the world labor market and the development of information technologies. The difference between cross-border migrations and international migrations is that the first ones lead to the emergence of special types of communities or social spaces, the so-called trans-border communities (trans-border spaces). The members of these communities are labor migrants and their relatives and acquaintances living in different countries, but maintaining close social contacts.
In the context of globalization modern world, expansion of integration processes, changes in the geopolitical situation, destruction of the bipolar (capitalist - socialist world) system, increasing separation between developed, developing and poor countries of the world, demographic imbalance (due to a decrease in natural population growth in developed countries and overpopulation in developing and poor countries of the world) migration, the development and implementation of migration policies come to the fore in the domestic and foreign policies of many countries of the world.
At the end of the twentieth century. in the migration movement of the world's population, the following migration flows came to the fore:
1) to the USA - from China, countries South-East Asia(Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines), India, South and Central America(Brazil, Colombia, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Panama, El Salvador, Mexico, etc.);
2) to European countries (EEC countries) - from countries Balkan Peninsula(Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia, Albania, Turkey), North Africa(Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco), republics that were formerly part of the USSR. Within the EEC, there is a migration flow from Portugal (the poorest of the EEC countries) to other countries European Union;
3) in Arab countries Persian Gulf zone ( Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, United United Arab Emirates etc.) - from poorer countries, mainly the Islamic world (Pakistan, Egypt, Bangladesh, India);
4) in South Africa - from countries bordering South Africa in the north (Zambia, Mozambique, Angola, Namibia);
5) to Argentina - from Bolivia.
The allocation of these flows as dominant allows us to conclude that the United States is still the most attractive country not only for residents of Asian and Latin American countries, but also for Europeans. At the same time, an increase in the intensity of migration flows between the countries of the South and the North can also be noted. Their intensity is associated with an ever-growing gap in the level of development of developed and developing countries. Among the latter in the last decades of the twentieth century. A group of countries has emerged whose economy has fallen into a state of deep depression, and whose population is experiencing a lack of basic means of subsistence. Among such countries are Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, Bangladesh and others. The state of their economy, destroyed as a result of long civil wars, interethnic, religious conflicts, allows them to be classified not as developing countries, but as fourth world countries. developed countries of the world, international organizations, forming and implementing their policy towards the countries of the fourth world, are faced with the need to solve the dilemma that the increase in assistance to poor countries further increases their dependence on rich countries, and the refusal to implement such assistance leads to a sharp activation of migration processes, immigration of the population from poor countries to the countries of Western Europe and North America.
Currently, more than 20 million only legal immigrants from other regions of the world already live in Western Europe. Civil wars, economic and political instability in the developing and poor countries of the world each time lead to the emergence of more and more new waves of migration that hit the countries of Europe and North America. The leader of the Chinese Communist Party Deng Xiaoping once pointed out how much political instability can affect migration processes and, in turn, political and economic stability in the developed countries of the world. In particular, he wrote that political instability in China could cause mass migration of the Chinese population to nearby countries. In this case, according to Deng Xiaoping, about 500 thousand Chinese will move to Hong Kong, 10 million people - to Thailand, 100 million - to Indonesia. How many will move to Russia and the CIS countries through transparent and practically unguarded borders is unknown, but this figure, only by rough estimates, could amount to several tens of millions of people.
Significant scales of migration can make significant changes in the demographic, ethnic, religious, economic, cultural, political landscape of the modern Western world. In many ways, these changes form the objective basis for the growth of aggression and racism in the environment of Western society in relation to immigrants. Or, as modern Western researchers A. King and B. Schneider call it, “demographic aggression” and “defensive racism”.
However, European countries, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and a number of other countries, due to demographic and other problems, are showing interest in the influx into their territory of certain categories of migrants who meet certain professional, intellectual and other requirements. It is significant that, for example, in the United States at present, out of every 10 people receiving a doctoral degree in natural and technical sciences, almost one in ten comes from Asian countries: China, Taiwan or Korea. Even more significant is the proportion of scientists and engineers who come from European countries and the former USSR.
In the spring of 2000, the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs prepared a report titled "Replacement Migration: Is it the Solution to Population Declining and Aging?".
“Replacement migration” is a migration increase that compensates for the lack of births necessary to maintain, in a certain period of time in a given country, the constancy of either the number or any other demographic indicators (for example, the ratio of sex or age groups of the population). concept "replacing migration" used in three different senses:
4) this is a migration increase, in which Population does not change;
5) this is a migration increase, in which working-age population does not change;
6) this is a migration increase, in which proportion of people at older ages does not increase.
According to the authors of the report, in the absence of replacement migration, population decline in the developed world is inevitable. An increase in the birth rate to the amount necessary to ensure simple reproduction of the population in the coming decades seems unlikely. Only immigration can prevent population decline in all the countries featured in the report. The amount of immigration required to do this varies considerably across countries, depending on their demographic background (see Table 2).
table 2
Average annual migration growth for 1990 - 2000 and necessary for the invariance of the population in 2000 - 2050.
Ural State University them. A.M. Gorky
Faculty of Political Science and Sociology
Department of Theory and History of Sociology
Demography essay
Migration processes in the world.
Artist: student of group 202
Schroeder T.A.
Lecturer: Ph.D. philosophy Sciences,
Associate Professor Levchenko I.E.
Yekaterinburg, 2001
Introduction ................................................ ................................................. ................................... 3
Chapter 1. General information on population migration .............................................................. ............. 4
Types of migrations................................................... ................................................. ..................... 4
Population immigration .............................................................. ................................................. ....... 6
Emigration................................................. ................................................. ............................... 7
Urbanization................................................. ................................................. ......................... 8
Basic functions of migration .................................................................. ............................................. 10
The structure of the migration process. The concept of migration flow................... 12
Chapter 2. Causes of migrations and their historical conditioning .............................................. 15
Conclusion................................................. ................................................. ........................ 20
Bibliography................................................ ................................................. ............ 21
Population migrations - population movements associated with a change of residence. Population migrations are one of the most important problems of population and are considered not only as a simple mechanical movement of people, but as a complex social process that affects many aspects of socio-economic life. Population migrations. played an outstanding role in the history of mankind, the processes of settlement, economic development of the earth, the development of productive forces, the formation and mixing of races, languages and peoples are associated with them. Population migrations. have a variety of aspects; their nature and structure, the consequences that they cause, explore a number of sciences - demography, economics, geography, sociology, statistics, ethnography, etc. Studies of population migration are of applied importance. for the purposes of general economic and regional planning, the use of labor resources.
A positive moment in migration is the resettlement of peoples: a certain number and population density are necessary prerequisites for the development of each country. Although it is impossible to exaggerate the role of population density and establish a direct relationship between it and the level of socio-economic development. Finally, some states (USA, Australia, Canada, Israel) are practically created by migrants.
Nowadays, migration processes in the world are quite intense, although many countries impose entry restrictions.
Taking into account these factors, one cannot belittle the role of population migration and, accordingly, question the relevance of the topic.
Translated from the Latin migratio means moving, resettlement. Migration of the population is considered in the narrow and broad sense of the word. In a narrow sense, population migration is a complete type of territorial movement, culminating in a change of permanent place of residence, i.e. literally means "resettlement". Population migration in the broad sense of the word is any territorial movement that takes place between different settlements of one or more administrative-territorial units, regardless of duration, regularity and target orientation.
Migration of the population in a broad sense covers four types of movements: irrevocable, pendulum, episodic, seasonal. The listed species are specific in nature, and the population participating in them pursues a variety of goals.
An irrevocable species (or resettlement) can be called population migration in the strict sense of the word, i.e. displacement of the population, which leads to its territorial redistribution. Irreversible migration simultaneously meets two conditions: Firstly, the population moves from one settlement to another and, secondly, the movements are accompanied by a change of permanent residence.
Seasonal migration of the population is the movement of the mainly able-bodied population to places of temporary work and residence, usually for a period of several months, with the possibility of returning to the place permanent residence. For the most part, they are aimed at satisfying the labor needs of industries with a seasonal nature of production.
Circular migrations are daily or weekly trips of the population from places of residence to places of work (and vice versa) located in different settlements, and they cannot be considered as migrations of the population in pure form. UN statistics recognize as migrants persons living in a new place for more than 6 months. Sometimes tourism, resort trips, pilgrimage, etc. are referred to as population migrations, which, however, is incorrect, because there is no change of residence.
Migration of the population increases the qualitative and quantitative labor resources of those settlements where the number of jobs exceeds their own labor resources or does not correspond to the professional and qualification structure of the population. The pendulum migration of the population creates conditions for satisfying the various labor needs of residents, as a rule, of small settlements, in which the choice of jobs is qualitatively and sometimes quantitatively limited.
Episodic migrations of the population are business, recreational and other trips that are not only irregular in time, but not necessarily in the same directions. If the able-bodied contingent participates in business trips, then the rest of the population also participates in recreational trips. The composition of participants in episodic migrations of the population is very diverse. In terms of scale, this type of migration surpasses all others. Episodic migrations do not differ from seasonal migrations either in their duration or goals: they can be not only recreational, but also labor.
All types of population migration are closely interconnected. For the population involved in movements, one type of population migration can turn into another or act as its starting point. In particular, episodic, pendulum and seasonal migration of the population are sometimes the forerunners of irrevocable migration of the population, since they create conditions (primarily informational) for choosing a permanent place of residence.
Each of these types of population migration can be considered in two ways: as inter-territorial and inter-settlement movement.
In inter-territorial migrations of the population, flows are usually distinguished: intra- and inter-regional, intra- and inter-republican, intra- and inter-district. In inter-settlement migration flows, four directions can be distinguished: within urban areas, i.e. between cities and urban-type settlements; inside the countryside, i.e. between rural settlements, as well as between rural and urban settlements, and in one case this is a rural-urban migration movement, and in the other - an urban-rural one. The last two directions are usually referred to as rural-urban migration. According to the All-Union Sample Survey of the Population in 1985, the main directions of migration in the USSR were moving from villages to cities (40%) and from cities to cities (34%). Moving from one rural area to another accounted for 19%, and from the city to the village - 7%.
Immigration of the population - entry into the country for permanent or temporary residence of citizens of other countries. population immigration. determined by a number of reasons: economic (importation of labor or entry into countries with more favorable working conditions or higher living standards, etc.), military (seizure of foreign lands and their military colonization) and political (flight from political, national, racial , religious and other persecution, the exchange of national minorities between states, etc.). Population immigration played a crucial role in the settlement of some parts of the world and the formation of the population of many countries of the world. Population immigration has a significant impact on population dynamics; its demographic consequences are determined not only by the number of migrants, but also by the peculiarity of their gender and age structure: a noticeable predominance of young and middle-aged people, as well as men, among the migrants. Immigration leads to a mixture of various ethnic groups of the population, as a result of which new nations and nationalities are formed. This is a phenomenon. characteristic of all historical eras. The migrations that took place over the past two thousand years, such as the Great Migration of Peoples in Europe (4th-7th centuries), migrations associated with the Arab conquests (7th-8th centuries), with the expansion of the Turkic peoples, had a huge impact on the formation of the population of Eurasia. -Mongols (11-17 centuries). Age of the Greats geographical discoveries(mid-15th - mid-17th centuries) marked the beginning of a wide development of intercontinental migrations, mainly from Europe to other parts of the world, primarily to America and Australia. In the 20th century the pace of migration is unabated, although the migration itself takes on a different aspect in a number of cases: the huge population movements associated with the two world wars; the resettlement of more than 16 million people, caused by the division of British India into two independent states - India and Pakistan; migrations associated with the resettlement of Jews to Israel and the flight and expulsion of Arabs from there, etc. At the same time, there are still significant migrations for economic reasons. After World War II (1939–45), the immigration of labor force to the developed countries of Western Europe gained wide scope (the number of immigrants reaches 8 million people, including 3.4 million in France, 2 million in Germany, and 1 million in Switzerland). million, or 16% of the country's population, etc.). Countries supplying immigrants: Spain, Italy, Portugal, Greece, Turkey, North African countries.
Emigration of the population - departure from the country, resettlement to another country for the purpose of permanent residence or temporary justification, usually for work. Emigration of the population. it can be permanent (“final”) and temporary, even only seasonal, the term of which is sometimes limited by the contract or other conditions of employment (for example, for harvesting, etc.). Along with the emigration of the population for economic reasons, they have. a place of resettlement from one country to another for political, ethnic, religious reasons. In the 2nd half of the 20th century. the main emigration flows are the departure from Western European countries to the USA, Canada, Australia and some other countries (this is usually permanent emigration) and the influx of “cheap” labor from developing countries into Western European countries (this is usually temporary emigration).
Urbanization (French urbanisation, from lat. urbanus - city, urbs - city) - the historical process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, which covers the socio-professional, demographic structure of the population, its lifestyle, culture, location, forces, resettlement and etc. Urbanization has a huge impact on the development of various socio-economic formations and states, it is with cities that the main achievements of civilization are associated. In the 3rd-1st millennium BC. e. cities appeared in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria, India, Asia Minor, China; Athens, Rome, Carthage played a huge role in the Greco-Roman world. In the cities of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, elements of the capitalist mode of production and bourgeois culture were formed. Strengthening the process of urbanization in the 19th century. caused an increase in the concentration of the population in cities, which was made possible due to the growth of industry, the intensification of agriculture, the development of means of transport and communications, medicine, etc. K. Marx noted the role of “urban relations”, the penetration of which into the countryside characterizes “recent history”.
Between 1926 and early 1975 the urban population of the USSR increased almost 5.8 times, from 26.3 million to 153.1 million people. By mid-1976, his share was 62%.
The share of the urban population in other regions of the world was (by 1970): in overseas Europe – 63,6%, overseas Asia- 24.7%, Africa - 22.3%, North. America - 74.5%, Latin America- 56.2%, Australia and Oceania - 67.9% of the total population. In individual developed capitalist countries, the proportion of the urban population was: in the USA - 73.5%, Germany - 82.2%, Great Britain - 79.1%, France - 70% (1968), Italy - 51.5%. During 1965–70, the number of city dwellers in the world grew 1.5–2.5 times faster than the entire population of the world.
Urbanization, urban development are caused by the objective need to concentrate and integrate various forms and types of material and spiritual activities, communication, strengthening ties between various spheres of production, science and culture, which, in turn, increases the intensity and efficiency of social processes. These processes are most effective in the largest urban centers, big cities where the interaction of socio-political, economic and scientific and technical factors is especially fruitful, cultural traditions, different segments of the population, etc. It was in the largest urban centers that advanced social ideas and movements arose and concentrated. On present stage urbanization, there is a tendency to increase the concentration of the population in large cities (100 thousand people or more). In the USSR in 1970, 31.2% of the total population lived in such cities, 45.6% in Great Britain, and 48.2% in Japan. Special place This process is occupied by the growth of “millionaire” cities, the number of which in the world is about 150, including 12 in Russia.
The process of urbanization has two sides, or “phases”. In the first "phase" there is a concentration and accumulation of the economic and cultural potential of society in large urban centers, which creates conditions for the formation of the highest achievements and models of material and spiritual activity. In the second "phase" these achievements are mastered by others, not central cities and rural settlements, which, in turn, gives a new impetus to building the capacity of the main centers. The effectiveness of this two-pronged process depends on the socio-economic nature of society. Under capitalism, the interaction of the two sides of urbanization is disrupted; social disunity opposes the integrative nature of urbanization, the clash of antagonistic interests of classes and social groups, private ownership of land, the opposition of centers and stagnant periphery give rise to a crisis of cities. The process of urbanization is spontaneous. In the big cities of the capitalist countries, the problems of unemployment and crime are becoming especially acute, slum areas, ethnic ghettos, and so on are taking shape. In this regard, anti-urban sentiments are intensifying in bourgeois society (for example, “anti-urbanism” in the USA).
An important role is played by the process of urbanization in developing countries. For all its complexity and pain (the rapid concentration in the cities of unprepared for "urban" work rural population, limited material resources, etc.) it contributes to the formation modern economy, overcoming backwardness and diversity, national consolidation, development of the socio-political structure of society.
Population migration affects social development through the implementation of its functions - those specific roles that population migration plays in the life of society. The functions of population migration are not unambiguous. On the one hand, they are presented as independent of the type of socio-economic system and the characteristics of individual societies. And on the other - as functions, the nature of which is determined by the socio-economic conditions of specific societies. The first are the general functions of population migration, the second are the specific functions of population migration of a particular socio-economic formation. The most common functions of population migration include accelerating, selective and redistributive.
The accelerating function consists in providing one or another level of spatial mobility and means both the turnover of the composition of the inhabitants of different regions and the expansion of the number of places of residence by individual citizens. Territorial movements contribute to changing the socio-psychological image of migrants, expanding their horizons, accumulating knowledge about various areas of life, exchanging work skills and industrial experience, developing the individual, their material, social and spiritual needs, and integrating national cultures.
The second function is the redistribution of the total population, associated with the distribution of productive forces, between individual territories of the country, including between natural areas, districts, different types urban and rural settlements. Migration of the population in its redistributive function not only increases the population of certain territories, but also indirectly affects the demographic dynamics by the fact that migrants participate in the reproduction of the population. Therefore, the importance of population migration in changing the population of a particular territory is always greater than the proportion of migrants in the population of this area.
The essence of the selective function of population migration is that the uneven participation of the population of various socio-demographic groups in migration leads to a change in the qualitative composition of the population of different territories. Experience shows that men and people of working age participate in migration more actively than disabled people and women. There are great differences in the migration mobility of people of different nationalities and people born in a particular area, on the one hand, and recently settled there from other areas, on the other.
The general functions of population migration have some independence and, at the same time, are closely interconnected. Territorial redistribution of the population and changes in its qualitative composition are carried out only with the corresponding mobility of the population. The quantitative redistribution of the population may or may not be combined with a change in the composition of the population of areas of outflow or inflow of migrants. In the same way, intensive qualitative selection of the population can occur even when the quantitative result of the redistribution is negligible.
Population migration to various conditions performs its specific functions, the most important of which are economic and social.
The economic function in its most general form is to ensure the connection of geographically distributed means of production with the necessary labor force and their functioning in the production process. Full implementation of this task through the implementation of common functions population migration leads to the provision of quantitative and qualitative correspondence between material and personal factors of production.
The social function of population migration is entirely determined by production relations and contributes to the improvement of living standards and the social development of the working people.
From the standpoint of managing population migration, it is necessary to create conditions under which economic and social functions would be in harmony, and not in contradiction, such as, for example, lagging behind the standard of living of the population in those areas in which the productive forces should develop at a faster pace.
Population migration is a complex socio-demographic process. It consists of three stages: initial, or preparatory, representing the process of formation of the territorial mobility of the population; the main stage or actual resettlement of the population; final, acting as the survival rate of migrants in a new place. The individual stages of the migration process are closely linked. A migrant is a future newcomer during the period of his territorial movement, and a newcomer is a former migrant during the period of his settlement and adaptation in the area of settlement. The extreme stages of the process are also connected. So, new settlers, having increased migration activity, are also potential migrants to a large extent.
The population living in different areas countries, in settlements of various social status, differs in the level of migration mobility, which depends both on the degree of socialization of individuals, certain groups and the population of a particular territorial unit as a whole, and on the characteristics of its structure (age-sex, genetic, ethnic, social, etc.).
The set of migrations that take place at a certain time within the framework of a particular territorial system, i.e. between its parts, represents the migration flow. According to available estimates, in the 1970s. In the USSR, 15-16 million resettlements took place annually. The migration flow is not only a statistically significant value, but also an extremely diverse set in a structural sense. Domestic and foreign studies have shown that an increased proportion of men, people of working age and single people in the migration flow compared to the country's population as a whole is the most common socio-demographic feature of the migration structure; moreover, this is a regularity of migration processes in general, and not just one country or another. However, there are also more specific features that depend on ethnic composition population, from the industrial specialization of territories, from historically established migration ties, etc. But these features are limited, often regional in nature.
The main determinants of the power of migration flows are the population of the territories between which migration links are carried out, and their location. The larger the population of the territories between which migration is exchanged, the more powerful the migration flows. And the closer the territories are located, the more intense their migration ties and, consequently, the greater the migration flows. The power of migration flows is affected by ethnic, economic and natural factors, as well as historically established connections, management decisions, etc. However, all this is either episodic or limited localization, in contrast to such factors as the proximity of territories and population.
In the migration of the population of our country, there are three most important directions in economic and socio-demographic terms: the movement of the population to the sparsely populated eastern and northern regions countries, the continuous outflow of residents from the village to the city, the intensive and highly productive influx of migrants to large and largest cities, to regional and republican centers.
Regardless of the nature of the tasks facing in the field of regulation of all three directions in which migration flows are concentrated, for the management of population migration at the resettlement stage, the first condition is to identify possible areas and exit points for migrants, as well as places of their settlement according to the criterion of labor supply. The solution to this problem is connected with the improvement of the development of the balance of labor resources in all territories and large settlements.
The final stage of the migration process is the survival rate of new settlers, i.e. the process of transition of new settlers to the old-timers. An increase in the survival rate of migrants in the place of settlement is the opposite of the intensification of the migration mobility of the population. Settlement is that part of the migration process, the beginning of which is in the transformation of a migrant into a new settler, and the end is in the transition of a new settler into the old-timers. Structurally, survival includes two main components, one of which is adaptation, i.e. the process of adaptation of a migrant to new living conditions for him in the place of settlement.
According to the results of research by Soviet scientists, the survival time of new settlers in different areas varies on average about 10 years. This period depends on the places where migrants leave, changes in settlement status during resettlement, the degree of differences in the structure of migrants and the population of areas of settlement, etc. Many studies have established that people from villages take root better in cities, and in inter-district migrations, migrants from the same region take root better, etc. In general, the survival rate of new settlers differs in great territorial diversity. It depends on the geographical structure of migration links, differences in natural and geographical environments, settled statuses, the structure of migration flows, the conditions for migrants to settle in new places, etc. By regulating these flows and creating timely conditions for the rapid settlement of migrants and their successful adaptation, it is possible to increase the efficiency of survival and migration processes in general.
Each social formation is associated with specific forms and causes of population migration, volumes and directions of migration flows. The earliest migrations of the population include the spontaneous settlements of ancient tribes that lasted for millennia throughout the globe, which were peaceful in the development of new territories. Later, in the era of decay primitive communal system, with the development of production and the growth of the population, its mass movements occurred as a result of a clash of tribes; all this was accompanied by the formation and destruction of early class states, the formation of new peoples. At the end of ancient times and the beginning of the Middle Ages, as a result of the Great Migration of Nations, a mixture of different tribes took place, which had a decisive influence on the formation of the modern ethnic composition of the European population. During the period of feudalism, mass migrations of the population were associated with the flight of peasants from feudal oppression to free lands, as well as with the forced resettlement of serfs to lands seized by feudal lords.
External (large intercontinental) migrations of the population followed after the Great geographical discoveries. In the era of the primitive accumulation of capital, these migrations of the population were associated with the colonization of lands discovered and seized by Europeans in America, Asia and Africa, the extermination and displacement of the indigenous population deep into the country. In the 16-18 centuries. A significant part of America was settled by free settlers from Europe and Negro slaves from Africa; before the beginning of the 19th century. the importation of slaves exceeded the influx of free people.
With the development of capitalism throughout the 19th century. the volume of population migration is increasing. Interstate migrations of the population, generated by the relative overpopulation of some countries and the shortage of workers in other countries, are intensifying. The main centers of attraction for migrants were the United States and Canada, to a lesser extent - Australia and New Zealand, individual countries South America- Argentina, Brazil, and also South Africa. For the resettlement migration of the population of the period of developed capitalism, it was characteristic that at the beginning, up to the 90s. 19th century, the migration flow came from the industrially developed capitalist countries of Europe - Great Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, Scandinavian countries, and then, from the end of the 19th century, an even more numerous stream was made up of immigrants from less industrial, but gripped by an agrarian crisis, countries of Southern and Eastern Europe - Italy, Poland, Hungary, Russia, etc. V. I. Lenin called these two stages " old immigration" and "new immigration". Emigration from Europe reached its greatest intensity in 1900-14 (during this time about 20 million people left, almost 3/5 of them settled in the USA). After the 1st World War of 1914-1918, as the general crisis of capitalism expanded and deepened, the appearance of a permanent army of unemployed population migration decreased sharply, because. encountered restrictive legislative measures from a number of countries, especially the United States and Australia (the so-called restrictive restrictions).
Asia in the first third of the 20th century. interstate migrations of the population gained scope, associated with the mass recruitment of cheap labor (mainly in China and India) to work on foreign plantations in the countries of Southeast Asia and East Africa.
Along with migrations of the population, which are based on socio-economic factors, in certain periods there are migrations of the population for political reasons (formation of new states, change state borders, political and economic transformations in states). Sometimes national and religious factors play a significant role in population migration.
Big sizes accepted population migration during and after
2nd World War 1939-1945. A significant contingent of migrants were refugees and displaced persons. As a result of the defeat of fascist Germany, about 9.7 million Germans were resettled in an organized manner from Poland and Czechoslovakia to the GDR, the FRG and West Berlin; accordingly, about 5 million Poles and about 2.3 million Czechs moved to the liberated regions. When formed on the territory of the former Brit. the colonies of India, two independent states - India and Pakistan, the exchange of population between these states, mainly on religious grounds, covered about 16 million Muslims and Hindus. The repatriation of the Japanese after the war to Japan from China, Korea, and other regions of Asia covered about 6.3 million people.
After the war, restrictive restrictions on interstate migration of the population became even more intensified (in particular, a special term "unwanted foreigner" appeared). In the early 1970s immigration (from Europe) to the United States did not exceed 100-150 thousand people annually, and to Canada and Australia - 100 thousand each. "brain drain"; it began in the 1930s, when the United States received a monopoly on the selection of scientists - refugees from fascist Germany.
In the 1960s - early 70s. migration of the population from the less developed countries of Europe to the more developed ones - Germany, France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland (the number of migrants, mainly unskilled workers, here reaches different years 5-8 million people). Immigrants in capitalist countries are, as a rule, the most underpaid, exploited and disenfranchised part of the workers. The position of immigrants belonging to other racial types (Indians in South Africa, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans in the USA, etc.) is especially difficult.
Internal migrations of the population in capitalist countries are caused mainly by the same reasons as external ones: resettlement in search of work from relatively overpopulated, land-poor areas to newly developed areas, from rural areas to cities, seasonal movements in rural areas - for agricultural work and to the city ( otkhodnichestvo), the resettlement of peasants to free lands, etc. Internal migrations of the population are especially common in countries with a vast territory, diverse geographical and economic conditions. In the USA, for example, according to 1960 data, about 30% of people lived outside the states where they were born; here the "secular" increase in the population of the western and southwestern states, the intensification of seasonal migrations of agricultural workers, the resettlement of Negroes from the so-called areas of the so-called. "black belt" to the north of the country, increased attraction of the population to large cities and agglomerations. In the capitalist countries of Europe, internal migration of the population is relatively small. In developing countries, the picture of population mobility is quite varied, but in general, the higher the level of development of productive forces, the stronger the internal migration of the population.
The main type of modern internal migration of the population is the influx of people from rural areas to cities. From 1920 to 1970, the number of city dwellers in the world as a whole grew by almost 1 billion people, moreover, more than 1/2 - due to a mechanical influx of population.
V. I. Lenin gave great importance internal migrations of the population in Russia, which contributed to the settlement of the southern steppe and forest-steppe regions, the Volga region, the Urals and Siberia, as well as the growth of cities (25-30 million people moved from the 16th to the beginning of the 20th centuries). In the USSR, under the conditions of socialist construction, with the elimination of class contradictions that give rise to mass migrations of the population, social disasters that force the population to leave their country or native lands are becoming a thing of the past. But population migrations do not disappear, although their types, forms, and, most importantly, their causes are changing radically. State planning National economy creates the prerequisites for an organized flow of migrants within the country, depriving the migration of the population of the features of spontaneity. They are regulated by a number of either direct or indirect economic and social levers and are designed to directly meet the needs of the national economy in the rational distribution of the population. In the socialist countries there is an intensified development of underdeveloped regions, and migration is directed to these regions in the first place. In the USSR, the scope internal migration population is associated with the industrialization and urbanization of the country. In 1926-39 to the Urals, to Siberia, Kazakhstan, Central Asia, Far East about 4.7 million people moved. During the years of the Great Patriotic War 1941-45 there were sharp territorial shifts in the distribution of the population in connection with the evacuation to eastern regions from the occupied regions and the front line (for 1941-42, about 20-25 million people). In the post-war period, population migration continued to new industrial areas, to new buildings, to areas of development of virgin lands (in 1959-1970 alone, the influx to Kazakhstan and Central Asia amounted to 1.2 million people). The process of urbanization has reached a high level. During 1927-1969 the urban population of the USSR increased by 105.4 million people; migration accounted for 59.7 million people.
So, let's briefly summarize. Today we can talk about the existence of two main types of population migration: external (emigration, immigration, colonization) and internal (including urbanization). Resettlement can be carried out by force.
Migration of the population performs certain functions in society, the most important of which for demography are the redistribution of the population across territories (settlement of densely populated areas), economic, social.
main reason migrations are economic, but they are also caused by political, national, religious, ecological and other reasons.
Of course, migration also has a negative side: it disrupts the normal mode of population reproduction. However, as you know, migration growth is, along with natural growth, a component of the total population growth.
So, the migration of the population plays an important role in the life of society, the state, the world as a whole.
Of course, this work reflects only a small part of the knowledge about this process. You can write about migration processes in any particular country, but still at least something will remain uncovered.
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Boyarsky A.Ya., Valentey D.I., Kvasha A.Ya. Basics of demography. M., 1980
Valentey D.I., Kvasha A.Ya. Basics of demography. M., 1989
Gozulov A.I. Population censuses the globe. M., 1970
Demography and ecology big city/ ed. ON THE. Tolokontseva, G.M. Romanenkova. L., 1980
Demographic encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1985
demography course. M., 1985
Maksakovskiy V.P. Geography. M., 1997
Population. Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1994
Population and labor resources. M., 1989
Population of Russia 1996. 4th Annual Demographic Report. M., 1997
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http:/encycl.yandex.ru
NIZHNY NOVGOROD COLLEGE
ECONOMICS OF STATISTICS AND INFORMATION
GOSKOMSTAT OF RUSSIA
REPORT
ON THE SUBJECT: WORLD ECONOMY
ON THE TOPIC: MIGRATION PROCESSES IN THE WORLD
Group 79 students
Zyuzina O. V.
Checked by teacher:
Vorobieva V. A.
2000
INTRODUCTION
The second half of the 20th century is characterized by a further increase in the scale economic activity, expanding links between various countries deepening of the international division of labor. There are no countries that would not interact with each other economically, would not be included in the system of production relations and interdependencies. At present, the whole world is an arena of interconnected economic activities of people. In economic literature and in everyday speech, the concepts of "world economy", "world (global) economy" are widely used. It is obvious that the world, with all its complexity and inconsistency in economic terms, is a certain integrity, unity.
In the economic literature there is no common understanding of the terms "world economy", "world economy". Since these terms have a wide scope, researchers emphasize aspects that are important from their point of view. Several approaches can be distinguished in the domestic literature.
1. The most common understanding of the world economy as a set of national economies interconnected by a system of international division of labor, economic and political relations.
In this definition, nationally isolated countries are dominant, regardless of whether their production is for the domestic or foreign market. With this approach, the reasons that determine the relationship, the state and prospects for the development of the world economy are obscured.
2. According to another point of view, the world economy is interpreted as a system of international economic relations, as a universal connection between national economies. Many Western researchers adhere to a similar concept, in particular, believing that the international economic system includes both trade and financial relations, as well as an uneven distribution of capital resources and labor. In this case, production, which largely determines international economic relations, falls out of the field of view of researchers.
3. A more complete interpretation of the world economy defines it as an economic system that is self-reproducing at the level of productive forces, production relations and certain aspects of superstructural relations, to the extent that the national economies included in it have a certain compatibility at each of the three named levels. It reflects the main components of the economy, including the material base, the implementation of various forms of ownership and a certain order of the functioning of reproductive processes.
As you can see, all researchers recognize that the world economy is a certain system. The basis for the emergence and existence of the system is its integrity, which implies the economic interaction of all the components of the system at a fairly stable level. Only in this case is it possible to regularly circulate a reproduced product on a global scale and ensure constant activity, viability of the system, its self-regulation and development. This unity of the world economy, the circulation of a reproduced product is ensured by national and international markets with their inherent commodity-money relations and the multiplicity of prices.
World economy refers to the number of complex systems characterized by the multiplicity of its constituent elements, hierarchy, multi-level, structural. Economic power is distributed very unevenly in the world. Three states - the USA, Japan and Germany, with 9% of the world's population - accumulate half of the world's income and have more than 1/3 of the purchasing power of all countries in the world.
The system is based on international and national production of material and spiritual goods, their distribution, exchange and consumption, limited by the framework of individual states. Each of these phases of the world reproduction process, both on a global scale and within individual states, depending on their place and role as a whole, has an impact on the functioning of the entire world economic system. The latter also has certain directions of its development inherent in it as a whole, but it does not develop outside of national economies.
The system is understood ambiguously. With one approach, it must have a common goal, which acts as the driving force of its development. Within such a system, there may be separate sectors - subsystems that have specific characteristics, but nevertheless are subordinate to the organizing goal of the system as a whole. Another understanding of the system comes from the fact that it consists of a number of separate subsystems with different and even opposite goals. But the subsystems included in it must be interconnected and mutually influence each other. Such a structure of systems can be of a temporary, transitional nature, since the most viable subsystems transform or subordinate others to their goals. Otherwise, the system breaks up.
The world economy as a system has a common goal. Ultimately, its functioning is aimed at meeting human needs (demand), but in different subsystems this goal is modified due to various socio-economic conditions. The creation of new enterprises cannot be an end in itself. It can be justified if it improves the living conditions of the population.
The world economy as a system cannot develop without a certain order based on the norms of international public and private law that regulate economic relations between states, economic associations, legal and individuals. Compliance with established convention and customary norms is ensured by the states themselves and collective forms of control over compliance
international law carried out by various international organizations. These rules are specified and revised in accordance with the needs of the development of world productive forces and individual subsystems and elements.
The world economy is a historical and political-economic category. This is explained by the fact that each specific historical stage is characterized by a certain scale and level of production, the internationalization of economic life and the socio-economic structure. It is a complex economic system. Its subjects are transnational companies, national economies, international integration associations, which themselves are systems with their own regulation.
The relations between the individual elements of the world economy are levels. Relations between states are international level which is governed by international rules and regulations. Out-of-bounds relationships national boundaries, form a transnational level - the sphere of activity of firms and groups with their internal information systems. This area also includes a network of flows of informal activities: drug trafficking, weapons, underground migration. Many elements that make up the world economic system operate there simultaneously. Between the centers of power there are clashes, agreements, associations. There are features of an oligopoly that extend their strategy either to the whole world or to individual areas.
In socio-economic terms, the world economy is heterogeneous. Leading place it is occupied by industrialized Western countries, or, according to the definition of A. Sauvy, the First World. A special place is occupied by developing countries - the Third World, which largely retain the dependent nature of their economies on industrial countries. Eastern European countries with economies in transition and a number of other states have great specificity in their development. In general, the world economy is a complex socio-economic entity.
MIGRATION PROCESSES IN THE WORLD
Big influence on the population and its composition in many countries, their labor force is provided by external migration, i.e. emigration and immigration. They have played and are playing a multilateral role in the development of mankind, acting as a form of adaptation of man to the changing conditions of his existence.
International population migration refers to the territorial movement of the population across borders. The following types of international migration are distinguished: irrevocable, temporary-permanent (from 1 to 6 years),
seasonal, pendulum (daily, weekly moving to work in a neighboring country).
International migration is caused by reasons of economic and political, military order. The former are more or less permanent in nature, the latter are associated with coordinating political events in individual countries oh, and also with wars that give rise to forced migrant refugees, displaced persons.
Forced migration. Although forced migrations of the population are caused by non-economic reasons, they also lead to the redistribution of labor resources between countries, which affects the development of the economy of both emigration and immigration countries.
In the post-war period, larger migration flows were associated with the establishment of new state borders, the emergence of the world socialist system and the collapse of the colonial system. So, for example, according to the Postdam Agreement of the three powers - the USSR, the USA and Great Britain, the eastern border of Germany passed along the Oder-Neisse line, and the German population living earlier to the east of this line, as well as in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe, was in the vast majority resettled in what was then the GDR and the FRG. In East Asia, about 6 million people were resettled to Japan, mainly from China and Korea.
Education independent states in some cases it was accompanied by large-scale migration movements. From former colonies, which became sovereign states, as a rule, the white population that previously lived there emigrated. The formation of Israel and its military actions against neighboring states led to the deportation of about 3 million people, Palestinian Arabs. Political changes in Vietnam, Cuba, Ethiopia, Afghanistan military aggression and civil wars in a number of these States caused significant population movements.
The number of refugees increased dramatically in the 1980s and 1990s. In Africa their number approached 12 million, in Asia it exceeded 5 million. The largest number of refugees (5 million) are from Afghanistan. Large masses of Cambodian refugees - 350 thousand - live in Thailand, 100 thousand Iraqis - in Iran, 100 thousand Myanmarans - in Bangladesh. There are about 1.8 million refugees in Europe and 1 million in the US. Civil strife in the former Yugoslavia has created the deepest crisis in the refugee movement in the last decade. In mid-1992 there were over 2.3 million internally displaced persons, 0.5 million of whom sought refuge abroad. A large flow of refugees created the collapse of the USSR - over 6 million people.
The 20th century is called the century of refugees. In 1994 their number exceeded 27.4 million (1980 - 9.6 million). Forced migration has acquired a global character, affecting many countries. The bulk of forced migrants (83%) settled in developing countries.
Work migration. The main role in the modern international movement of the population is played by labor migration. Its scale is constantly growing, and almost all countries are involved in this process. Intercountry labor migration has assumed an unprecedented character, becoming a typical phenomenon socio-economic life of the modern world. Early 1993
there were about 30 million migrant workers. Taking into account the members of their families, participants in the commuting migration (frontaliers), seasonal workers, illegal immigrants the total number of labor migrants is estimated to be four to five times higher.
The possibility of international labor migration is created by national differences in wages. The need for migratory movements of wage labor from country to country is dictated by the uneven formation of relative overpopulation in the international arena. The labor force is moving from labor-rich countries to capital-rich countries. More than half of international migrants come from developing countries, 2/3 of them are in industrialized countries. The influx of new contingents of migrants to these countries is associated with qualitative disproportions in their labor markets.
Labor migration flows have undergone certain changes over a long period of time. In the last century, international migration was directed mainly to capital-poor colonies, and above all to North America and Australia. Mass immigration in certain regions of the world led to the emergence and development of migrant societies there, which gave impetus to the development of the world economic system. The movement of immigrants, means of production and financial resources contributed to education in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. groups of resettlement states, the main directions of social development of which were determined by the European powers. During this period, there were also significant movements of the population from China and India, mainly to Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean regions.
In the second half of the last century, new centers of attraction for immigrants were formed. Emigration began to go from less developed to more developed countries. The most powerful center of attraction has developed in Western Europe; as a result, it has turned from a supplier of emigrants into a center of attraction for the labor force. Already in the early 1950s, there were about 15 million migrant workers and members of their families in the EU countries. In the mid 70s major center immigration took shape in the Persian Gulf, and in the early 90s, foreigners made up 70% of the workforce there. Israel has become a kind of center of attraction for immigrants, nationalistic in nature. Its population increased by 2/3 due to migration flows and to a large extent (by 1/3) due to people from Soviet Union. In Latin America, Argentina, Brazil and Venezuela, with 5 to 8 million immigrants, have become the centers of attraction for the labor force. In Africa, South Africa and Côte d'Ivoire have become centers of attraction for the labor force.
The main suppliers of labor in Asia were India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Lebanon in the Middle East. Jordan, Turkey, in Africa - Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Ghana, Mali, Chad, Guinea, Mozambique, in North America- Mexico, in Europe - Poland, Portugal, Italy, Ireland. In the 1990s, the countries of Southern Europe - Greece, Italy, Spain - turned from countries of net migration into countries of net migration.
Impact of migration on host countries. International population migration plays an important role in the demographic development of individual countries and regions. As a result of migration flows, a number of industrialized countries leveled the narrowed reproduction of the population. In the 1980s, the share external migration in the general population growth of such countries as Canada, Australia, France, exceeded 25%, the USA - up to 50%. On the other hand, significant emigration led in a number of countries to the process of depopulation, which was observed in Ireland, Greece, and Portugal in the 1960s, despite the high population growth in these countries. In the second half of the 80s, Lebanon lost 1/10 of the population, Mexico - about 1%. The famous French demographer A. Sauvy equated emigration with mortality.
International migration has a major impact on the age and sex structure of the populations of donor and host countries. Among immigrants, people of working age predominate. The share of immigrants in the labor force is usually higher than in the population. In the mid-1980s, foreign workers made up a significant part of the working-age population in Western European countries, especially in Switzerland (17% in 1987), West Germany (8.1%), and France (8.6%).
In theory, the free movement of labor between countries leads to the equalization of wages and an increase in the gross world product. IN real life all major benefits from labor migration accrue to host countries. It is not easy to assess their scale, since not all of them can be quantified. They consist of savings on the training of specialists in the host countries. The value of products and services, respectively, created by immigrants in the host country, tax revenues. Immigrants, especially illegal ones, contribute more to the country's income than they receive from the public sector. Immigrants are younger than the average population, and they fund part of the social costs of permanent residents.
Different categories of immigrants have a different impact on the reproduction of the gross domestic product. The "brain drain" exerts a noticeable influence on the economic development of the industrial capitalist countries. This category includes scientists, engineers, doctors. In the 1950s and 1960s, the "brain drain" went mainly from some developed countries to others, mainly to the United States. Since the 60s, the emigration of scientific, technical and other highly qualified specialists began to be carried out from developing countries, and in the 90s - from Eastern Europe.
At least 2/3 of the influx of "brains" falls on the United States. The share of immigrants among specialists is 17% there, including 40% of engineers and computer specialists, a large number of technical teachers at universities and colleges. According to estimates, the net gain for the United States from attracting one "average" humanities scientist to the country in the 70s was 230 thousand dollars, a scientist in the field of social sciences - 235 thousand dollars, an engineer - 253 thousand dollars, a doctor - 646 thousand dollars. As a result, the US savings only in the field of education and scientific activities amounted to at least 15 billion dollars. The profit received by Canada in the process of exploiting the minds of emigrants is 7 times more than the volume of its assistance to developing countries. In Britain, the benefits of attracting foreign
specialists are three times the size of its economic assistance to the countries of Asia and Africa.
An analysis of the situation in the United States shows that the influx of immigrants is not associated with an increase in competition in the labor market and an increase in unemployment among the indigenous population. Moreover, indirectly through the expansion of demand and directly through the development of new entrepreneurship, it stimulates the creation of new jobs. Immigration does not significantly affect the average wage level and income differentiation. Only in some cases increased competition within certain professional and qualification groups leads to some reduction in wages. Immigrants are usually used in the so-called secondary segment of the labor market, which is characterized by difficult working conditions, low wages and lack of opportunities for professional growth. These circumstances limit the social mobility of migrants and create the basis for their segregation. In the primary sector of the labor market there are only migrants related to scientific and technical workers. Usually their assimilation takes place quite gently in the society of the recipient countries. And only the deterioration of the economic situation usually leads to an aggravation of contradictions between the indigenous and newcomers.
Socio-economic consequences of migration. The impact of migration on sending countries is not being adequately addressed. Research has shown that international migrants generally have an average income-earning potential in their home country. Most often they do not belong to the poorest strata. The lowest income groups in poor countries lack the prospects, funds and information to engage in international migration on a large scale, although there have been instances of the opposite trend. Often, as a result of emigration, countries lost the most skilled labor force, and the resulting vacancies were replaced by less trained workers, which affected the efficiency of production. Similar cases were typical for Egypt, Jordan, Yemen, Lesotho and other countries. Thus, according to estimates for the 70s, the Philippines lost over 12% of trained specialists, South Korea- 10%. 90% of newly trained doctors in Zimbabwe have gone abroad since 1980.
Emigration often causes heavy damage to the intellectual potential of donor countries, which is the most valuable substance of any society. The essence of this problem lies not so much in the number of specialists leaving abroad, but in their significance. The departure of one or another informally leading researcher can paralyze the work of a creative team. Brain drain exacerbates imbalances scientific and technical development of the main subsystems of the world economy and individual countries.
Migration of the labor force, based on differences in levels of economic development, at the same time contributes to the weakening of a number of problems of the countries of emigration. In particular, for a number of countries, especially small ones, emigrants' remittances play an important role as a source of their foreign exchange earnings. IN major countries– India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Philippines they account for 10-27% of export earnings. Emigrant workers are characterized by a high rate
savings. Their average propensity to save ranges from 35% for Turkish emigrants to 70% for Pakistanis. The average propensity to transfer to the country of origin is lower, ranging from 11-50%. It decreases as the length of stay of an immigrant in the host country increases.
Remittances stimulate domestic demand, which can lead to higher output and employment. In a number of countries with narrow domestic markets, they can increase inflationary pressure and cause an increase in imports. Studies for Bangladesh and Pakistan have shown that only a small proportion of remittances is spent on productive investment. In the social sphere, the positive effect of migration is usually associated with an increase in the well-being, if not of the entire society, then at least of some part of it. When temporary migrants communicate with more advanced technologies used in countries of immigration, higher standards of work ethics can have a positive impact.
The international migration of labor resources has little effect on the redistribution of income in the world economy, and even more so on the leveling of levels of economic development. The labor force is still an immobile factor of production compared to capital, which moves more freely in the world economic system. This situation is predetermined primarily by the policy of the industrial capitalist countries, which has a pronounced immigration character. Starting from the 1970s, Western countries began to tighten measures to restrict immigration, almost in parallel with this, Western countries, and above all the United States, launched a campaign for the freedom of movement of people as part of the policy of protecting human rights. Increased selectivity of admission based on goals foreign policy and solutions to their economic problems. Immigration rules are being revised to encourage the influx of scientific and highly qualified individuals. In this regard, the proposals of a number of countries to develop a mechanism for compensation for the use of labor immigration seem justified. Send an application with the requirements right now to find out the cost and the possibility of writing.
The theory of three stages of the migration process, developed in the 1970s - 1980s. A.A. Rybakovsky. It proceeds from the fact that irrevocable migration is a process that is a series of migration events fixed in space and time. This fixation is carried out at the time of registration (in the past - registration) of migrants. Each single resettlement is fixed (registered) twice: first as a departure and then as an arrival. Formal milestones (departure and arrival registration) divide the migration process into three stages (phases): initial, main and final.
At the first, preparatory stage, the formation of migration mobility, certain migration attitudes, and psychological readiness for resettlement takes place.
Migration mobility is a state that characterizes the ability of an individual to migrate, formed as a result of the accumulation of migration experience (a set of movements in which a former migrant participated). Mobility depends on the number of resettlements made, the duration of residence in the exit area or the place of resettlement. It is largely related to the participation of the population in other types of migration, in tourism, in commuting, and in trips for seasonal work. A combination of different circumstances can lead to the fact that persons with less migratory mobility will be among the potential migrants, while well-established new settlers with many experiences of movement behind them will become part of the permanent population. Nevertheless, persons with greater migratory mobility, as a rule, also have a greater psychological readiness for resettlement. A person with extensive migration experience is more likely to decide to relocate if he is not satisfied with the living conditions in the last place of residence than someone who was born in the area and lived there all his life.
The second stage of the migration process is the main one and represents the actual resettlement of the population. It acts as a mass process, the "bricks" of which are individual events - the facts of departure and arrival. Moreover, for each participant in migration processes, departure and arrival are a single event associated with a change in permanent place of residence. But for events taken in their mass and localized in space and time, the departure and arrival of migrants are not identical processes, even in terms of the composition of the participation of migrants. Therefore, the migration of the population can be considered both from the side of its participants, and from the side of those territorially defined populations of people who receive and send migrants. On a specific territory, a series of events - arrivals and departures - take place in each period of time. Each of these series constitutes one side of the migration process. In this understanding, the migration process is presented as the interaction of two oppositely directed, relatively homogeneous series of events.
Domestic and foreign studies of the structure of migration flows made it possible to identify certain patterns in them. Thus, due to the increased migration mobility of men compared to women, the proportion of men in migration flows is always higher than in the composition of the population of both exit areas and places of migrant settlement. Men outnumber women in migratory flows even if their share in the country's population is much lower than that of women. In areas whose population is formed by migrants, the proportion of men is higher than in areas whose population is formed by internally resettled persons. Not only men, but also people of working age have increased migration mobility - they make up the main share in the flows: They also have a higher proportion of single people. The predominance of non-family men among migrants leads to the fact that in areas of new development, where the population is increasing to a large extent due to migrants, a deformed age and sex structure is created. The increased proportion of men, people of working age and single people in migration flows compared to the country's population as a whole - these are the most common socio-demographic features of the migration structure. They are due to different migratory mobility of different socio-demographic characteristics of population groups. Other features are geographical: the migration flow is divided depending on the location of the places of exit and places of settlement of migrants. Moreover, the more territories there are in migration interaction, the more complex the migration flows are structurally. The power of migration flows depends, as a rule, on two conditions: on the population of the areas between which the migration exchange is carried out, and on their location. The larger the population of the territories between which the migration exchange is carried out, the more powerful the migration flows; the closer the territories are located, the more intense the migration links between them.
The third and final stage of the migration process is an increase in the survival rate of new settlers. Settlement is that part of the migration process, the beginning of which is the transformation of a migrant into a new settler, and the end - in the transition of a new settler into the composition of old-timers (the border of the transition of new settlers into the permanent population in Russia is about 10 years). Sometimes, instead of the term "survival", the term "adaptation" is used. Meanwhile, these concepts are different, just as the phenomena they reflect are different. Survival - an objective social process of changing the existing way of life by improving the new social environment through social activity; in contrast, adaptation is the process of adapting a person to new living conditions for him. Moreover, activity in this case is entirely on the side of the subject. Naturally, adaptation to new conditions is dual in nature, just as human nature is dual: on the one hand, this is an adaptation of a person as a living being, and on the other, as a person, a social phenomenon.
Source: Demographic Dictionary / Ed. A.A. Rybakovsky; Center for Social Forecasting. M., 2003. S. 173-176.
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