Economy of Argentina - Countries of the World. Economy of Argentina and its role in the world economy

Argentina is the second largest country in Latin America. Argentina is characterized by a favorable economic and geographical position, a variety of natural resource potential, and a broad structure of the economic complex.

Argentina is rapidly developing foreign economic relations with other Latin American states, countries Western Europe and Asia. The state has set a course for integration into the global economic, political and cultural space. One of the most important measures economic development countries are integration processes. Argentina is a member of many economic associations in Latin America (LAI, La Plata Group, MERCOSUR).

The particular relevance of this topic is explained, first of all, by the diversity and richness of Argentina in natural resources, its advantageous geographical position, comprehensively developed economic cooperation With various countries, a high level of economic development of Argentina.

aim term paper is the study of the natural resource potential of the country of its economy, geographical location and foreign economic relations.

Objectives of the course work:

1) assess the natural resource potential;

2) to study the population of Argentina and evaluate the labor resources of the country;

3) give general characteristics economic complex and the structure of foreign economic relations.

When writing this course work, the following literature was used: encyclopedias, reference books on social and economic geography, periodicals, books on geography and economics, Internet resources. Much attention was paid to articles and statistics for 2007-2008.

Chapter 1. Prerequisites for the socio-economic development of Argentina

Argentina is one of the largest and socio-economically developed countries in Latin America.

The official name is the Argentine Republic. In terms of territory - 2.8 million km 2 - it ranks eighth in the world and second in Latin America after Brazil. The population of the country is 40.482 million people. (2008).

Argentina occupies southeastern part mainland South America, the eastern part of the island of Tierra del Fuego, as well as several small islands, including Estados, Falkland (Malvinas) Islands (territory disputed with Great Britain). Argentina claims part of Antarctica. Three-quarters of its borders are land. They pass mainly along natural boundaries: in the west - with Chile and in the northwest - with Bolivia (along the Andes), in the north and northeast - with Paraguay, Brazil and Uruguay (along the rivers Pilcomayo, Paraguay, Parana, Uruguay) . Most of the land borders are the border with Chile. In the east, Argentina has a wide outlet to the Atlantic Ocean. Length coastline- 2500 km. The territory of the country is elongated in the meridional direction; its greatest length from north to south is 3,700 km, and from west to east, 1,400 km. Great length maritime borders played an important role in the development of its foreign economic relations.

Argentina is a federal republic. The capital is Buenos Aires. Official language- Spanish. Currency unit - Argentine peso(equal to 100 centavos).

Administratively, Argentina is divided into 23 provinces and a federal capital district. The provinces are divided into departments. The head of state is the president, who is elected for a term of 4 years. The current president of Argentina is Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner. The head of the cabinet of ministers is the prime minister. The highest legislative body is the National Congress, which consists of the Senate (72 people) and the Chamber of Deputies (257 people). The President of the Senate is the Vice President of the country.

In terms of socio-economic development, Argentina belongs to the group of developing countries, is included in the subgroup of new industrial countries (NIS). GDP per capita according to a 2008 estimate is $14,500. In terms of HDI development, this country belongs to the group of countries with a high HDI level and ranks 38th in the world.

Thus, Argentina is one of the largest and most economically developed countries in Latin America. She is part of the so-called big three Latin American states (Brazil, Mexico, Argentina), which have the most powerful economic potential and produce a significant part of the industrial output of the continent. Argentina takes advantage geographical position contributing to the development of its economy. The large length of maritime borders played an important role in the development of its external economic relations.

Due to the variety of terrain and features geological structure Argentina has rich mineral resources for industrial development. But there are almost no world-class deposits (as in other countries of Latin America). IN western regions there are ore minerals. The country is distinguished by reserves of uranium, manganese, copper ores, beryllium; there are lead-zinc, tungsten and iron ores. In terms of uranium ore reserves, Argentina is among the top ten countries in the world.

Table 1 - Ore minerals of Argentina, 2006

From fuel and energy resources highest value have natural gas and oil. The main deposits are confined to sedimentary rocks in the troughs of the Patagonian platform and intermountain troughs of the Andes (in the provinces of Neuquen, Medosa, Salta) and on the island Tierra del Fuego.

In 2007, oil production in Argentina decreased by 3% compared to 2006 and amounted to 33.9 million cubic meters. m. This is the minimum figure for the period since 1994. The country is at the limit of its ability to provide oil to its domestic needs. The volume of crude oil reserves in 2007 decreased by 3% and amounted to 420.2 billion cubic meters. At the moment, no more than ¼ of explored reserves are being developed, and the debit rate of many wells is low. This state of affairs is primarily due to the significant last years a decrease in investment in exploration, as well as a serious depletion of developed fields. There is also a reduction in proven oil reserves. At the end of 2007 this figure amounted to 328 million cubic meters. (in 2006 - 349 million cubic meters).

Among the producing companies, IPF (Spain) stands out, which produces 37.6% of all oil. It is followed by Pan American Energy (Great Britain, 16.7% of oil production), Chevron-Argentina (USA, 8.4%), Petrobras Energia (Brazil, 7.9%), Occidental Argentina (5.4%), Tekpetrol (5%), Vintage Oil (3.7%), Pluspetrol (2.3%), Petrolera Entre Lomas (1.8%).

In 2007 the volume of national exports fell sharply.

Table 2 - Export of crude oil by Argentina

In 2007 gas production in Argentina decreased by 2% compared to previous years and amounted to 50.8 billion cubic meters. m. At the end of 2007 natural gas reserves in Argentina are estimated at about 438.8 billion cubic meters, of which 190 billion cubic meters. - unconfirmed. In recent years, there has been a tendency to reduce stocks by about 8-10% per year. If the current rate of production is maintained, these reserves will last the country for 8-9 years.

The main gas producing provinces in 2007 Neuquen (51.9%), Salta (13.3%), Santa Cruz (9.1%), Tierra del Fuego (8.6%), Chubut (6.2%) and Mendoza (4.5%) ). The most productive fields are Cuenca Neuquina (58.6%), Austral (18.2%), Noroeste (13.4%) and Golfo San Jorge (9.7%).

Argentina ranks second among Latin American countries in per capita gas consumption (after Venezuela). This figure has already exceeded 750 cubic meters per person. in year. There are more than 6.2 million consumers of natural gas connected to the network in the country. scheduled by the end of 2008. The country's government plans to further expand the distribution network. Its active development is directly related to the construction of new gas pipelines and an increase in the capacity of existing pipelines.

Argentina stands out for its reserves of non-metallic minerals, including sulfur. There are quite numerous deposits of various building materials (marble, granite, etc.). There are small reserves of brown coal in Patagonia.

At the same time, the geological knowledge of the territory as a whole is low. But one of the main problems in the development of Argentina's industries lies not so much in the absence of certain types of raw materials (although there is a shortage of coking coal, bauxite, potash salts, etc.), but in their extremely unfavorable location (mainly in outlying, sparsely populated areas). So, for example, in Patagonia (30% of the country's territory) there is a combination of sources of mineral raw materials and fuel, water and forest resources. This area already accounts for half of the mining industry. However, only 3% of the country's population lives in this area.

The natural basis for economic development was, first of all, the rich land resources of Argentina. In the structure of the land fund, agricultural land occupies about 70% (but pastures predominate). Plowed a significant part of the territory of the Pampas. A favorable combination of agro-climatic resources determined the country's specialization in MRT in grain farming and animal husbandry on natural pastures.

Among water resources Argentina, the main role belongs to the rivers. The river network is better developed in the northeast, where two high-water rivers merge at the common mouth of La Plata. Parana is the second (after the Amazon) river in South America in terms of length and basin area. Major rivers Argentina have a rain type of food. The main economic hydropower potential belongs to the rivers of Patagonia, originating in the mountains, as well as the rivers of the Paraná and Uruguay basins. But it is only used most of this potential.

Thus, the Argentine Republic has rich land, agro-climatic and mineral resources, the presence of which contributes to the development of such industries as ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical industry, energy, etc.

Argentina is a typical migrant country: its population was formed under the influence of mass European immigration. Until the beginning of the XVI century. The territory of Argentina was inhabited by Indian tribes, their number was small, but the ethnic composition is quite diverse. The Spanish colonization of Argentina began in the 16th century, and, as elsewhere in Latin America, it was accompanied by a massive and brutal extermination of the indigenous population. The settlement of Argentina by the Spaniards was slow: by the middle of the 18th century. about 400 thousand people lived here, and by 1810 - by the time independence was achieved - only 500 thousand people. The descendants of the Spanish colonists - the Creoles - formed the core of the future Argentine nation. The development of capitalism and the involvement of Argentina in the international division of labor was accompanied by massive European immigration, which marked the beginning of a new and decisive stage in the formation of the Argentine nation. From 1857 to 1940, about 7 million people entered the country. European immigration to Argentina almost stopped after the global economic crisis 1929-1933: Economic hardships caused immigration to be restricted. A significant number of European immigrants (about 800 thousand people) entered Argentina only in the first years after the Second World War (1946-1954).

Under current law in Argentina, anyone born in the country is considered an Argentine. Argentines make up over 90% modern population countries.

The first census in Argentina was conducted in 1869 - then 1.7 million people lived in the country. In July 2008, its population was 40.482 million.

In modern Argentina, the population is increasing mainly due to natural increase. Unlike most Latin American countries, in Argentina it is low - 1.068% (2008).

The age structure of the population of Argentina has always been distinguished by a higher proportion of able-bodied residents, which was determined by the composition of immigrants, among which able-bodied persons predominated. The reduction in the rate of population growth is also reflected in the dynamics of its age structure, which is changing towards a decrease in the proportion of young ages and an increase in the proportion of older ones. At the beginning of the XXI century. children under 14 years old made up 29% of the population, and the elderly (over 65 years old) - 10%. At present, these figures are 25.8% and 11%, respectively. Average life expectancy increased from the early 1980s to 2008 for men from 65 to 73 years and for women from 72 to 79 years.

The dominant religion in Argentina is Catholicism. Catholic Church plays a significant role in the country. It publishes newspapers and magazines and, having large funds, influences political life. Only a Catholic can be elected President of Argentina. The ratio of the country's Catholic population to adherents of other religions is shown in Figure 1.

Picture 1 - Religious composition the population of Argentina.

For Argentina long time the predominance of men was characteristic, which was also determined by the predominant immigration of the male population. With a decrease in immigration, their share gradually decreased, and by 1960 the ratio of men and women was equal, and according to the 1980 census, the number of women already exceeded the number of men by 1 million. As of 2008, this figure has reached 1.2 million.

The economically active population of Argentina is over 52% of all residents. The sectoral structure of the economically active population of Argentina, compared with other Latin American countries, is characterized by a relatively low share of employment in agriculture (1%) and a significantly higher share in industry (23%) and the service sector (76%) (2008).

The distribution of the population is distinguished by two main features: high concentration in the coastal region of Pampa and a high degree of urbanization. In general, Argentina is a sparsely populated country: average density population - 14 people per 1 km 2. Features of settlement are associated with the specialization of the economy, and with natural conditions. The mountainous regions, the waterless spaces of the Chaco, Patagonia, where the population density is less than 1 person per 1 km 2, are very poorly or almost completely uninhabited. Territories with a predominance of animal husbandry in the economy are rarely populated - such, for example, provinces as La Pampa, La Rioja, Catamarca, etc. Industrial areas have the highest density, especially those adjacent to Buenos Aires and in the lower reaches of the Parana River - more than 100 person 1 km 2, as well as areas of cultivation of intensive crops, such as the provinces of Tucuman, Misiones.

In modern Argentina, more than 90% of the population lives in cities, and more than 40% of the citizens live in one city - Buenos Aires. The capital sharply dominates in terms of the degree of concentration of the urban population. Buenos Aires, with 12 million inhabitants, is one of the dozen largest agglomerations in the world.

The rural population of Argentina has always been small; not without reason is it sometimes called an agrarian country without peasants. This is largely due to the dominance of large land ownership, which closes access to land, and the predominance of livestock specialization in agriculture, which requires relatively few laborers.

Ethnic composition The population of Argentina is presented in the following chart:

Figure 2 - Ethnic composition of the population

In terms of socio-economic indicators of life, Argentina is ahead of many Latin American countries: only 3% of the population over 15 years old is illiterate. Infant mortality is 12 per 1,000 births; There are 320 inhabitants per doctor.

Economic growth contributed to the reduction of the unemployment rate to 7.8% (as of September 2008). Although the level of workers without registration of labor relations continues to remain high (40%).

And, summing up, it should be noted that immigration had a huge impact on the formation national composition population of Argentina, on the dynamics of its numbers and largely determined its demographic structure and location. Argentina is a sparsely populated country with low population growth rates, the economically active part of which (more than 50%) is mainly employed in the service sector. Argentina is characterized by a high degree of urbanization with an exaggerated role of the capital. Importance has a fairly high level of literate population (97%).

Argentina is an industrial-agrarian country - one of the most economically developed countries in Latin America. It has large agricultural resources and is one of the significant producers and exporters of agricultural products. At the same time, it is one of the most industrialized countries on the continent, with a fairly branched structure of industrial production. Argentina stands out in the region for its scientific and technical potential: training and research are concentrated mainly in universities (there are more than 70 of them in the country). ).

Argentina has a complex structure of industrial production and a high degree of development of mechanical engineering and metalworking, the country produces and exports vehicles, machinery for agriculture, metalworking machine tools, as well as equipment for nuclear energy, etc. Among the most developed industries with high export potential, it is necessary to single out the food and flavoring and mining industries, the automotive sector and metallurgy . In the structure of GDP, agriculture accounts for about 9.2%, industry for 34.1%, and services for 56.7% (2008 estimate).

The rate of GDP growth in Argentina from April 2006 to January 2009 is shown in the following chart:

Figure 3 - GDP growth rate in Argentina (April 2006 - January 2009)

Significant positions of foreign capital (mainly American) in such industries as automotive, electrical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical).

Table 3 - Main macroeconomic indicators of Argentina by years

Thus, Argentina has a diversified, more developed economy than many other countries in Latin America, in which most types of modern manufacturing activities are represented. In recent years, largely due to the attraction of advanced technologies, investments and loans from developed countries, Argentina has made great strides in creating modern industrial production, turning from an agrarian into an industrial-agrarian country.

Argentina is characterized by the predominance of the manufacturing industry (the share of mining industries is small), and heavy industry dominates in it; however, the traditional branches of the light industry and especially the food industry still occupy an important place and are of export importance. Mechanical engineering (production of means of transport), electrical engineering, tractor, automobile, electronic, etc. are relatively developed. Mechanical engineering occupies leading place on the cost of production in heavy industry. The most developed are transport engineering, agricultural engineering, the production of equipment for the food industry, and electrical engineering. In transport engineering, the automotive industry is in the lead, shipbuilding and aircraft building are developed. The location of industry is characterized by a high territorial concentration: a significant part of heavy industry is concentrated in the lower reaches of the river. Paranas, in the industrial belt between Buenos Aires and Rosario; more than half of industrial output is produced in Greater Buenos Aires. In the hinterland, mining and primary industries for the processing of raw materials predominate.

Energy Argentina is based mainly on oil and gas fuels with an increasing role of hydro and nuclear energy. In terms of oil production (33.9 million tons, 2007) and refinery capacity (35 million tons), Argentina ranks fourth in Latin America (after Mexico, Brazil, and Venezuela). Both oil and gas are extracted mainly in the south of the country, in the foothills of the Andes and in the north. Argentina has a fairly developed oil refining industry: the main centers are La Plata, Buenos Aires, Campana, Bahia Blanca, San Lorenzo, Plaza Wincul, Lujan de Cuyo, Campo Duran.

Argentina is the first country in Latin America in which nuclear energy began to develop: in 1974, the Atucha nuclear power plant (340 MW) was put into operation, then the Embalse (600 MW, near Rio Tercero), near Buenos Aires is being built " Atucha-II". In terms of uranium reserves (12 thousand tons in terms of metal), Argentina is among the ten leading countries in the world. It is known not only in Latin America, but also in the world for its scientific developments in the field of nuclear energy and the uranium industry. Thanks to its scientific achievements, Argentina exports technology and enriched uranium, and participates in the establishment of nuclear research centers in other developing countries. Scientific cooperation in this area between Argentina and Brazil is developing especially intensively, being one of the leading directions of the integration process between the countries.

Electricity generation in Argentina in 2007 increased by 3% compared to the previous year and amounted to 110,500 GWh. (in 2006 -107,300 GWh). By the end of 2007, 98 power plants with a total installed capacity of 25,000 MW were in operation in Argentina, incl. TPP with a capacity of 13.8 thousand MW. or 56% of the total capacity, HPPs - 10.1 thousand MW. (40%) and nuclear power plants - 1.9 thousand MW. (4%). The level of technical equipment and safety of the stations as a whole meets modern world standards.

The main electric power companies of the country include Endesa, which controls up to 20% of all installed capacities, Electricite de France (France), AES International (AES International), energy departments Petrobras (Petrobras), Total "(Total), "Duke" (Duke), as well as "SMS Energy" (SMS Energy) and the Argentine "Pluspetrol" (Pluspetrol) and "Capsa Capex" (CapsaCapeks).

The country has created the Unified National Energy System - Sadi (Sistema Argentinode Interconeccion), which provides 99% of all electricity supplies. At the beginning of 2008 Sadi unites 11.35 thousand km of high voltage lines, which cover almost the entire territory of the country. The last of the regions of Argentina integrated into Sadi was "Patagonia" (since March 2006).

More than half (56%) of all electricity produced in Argentina comes from thermal power plants running on diesel fuel, natural gas and coal. The ongoing decline in production and proven reserves of hydrocarbons, the growing difficulties in providing the sector with natural gas have the most negative impact on such power plants, making them increasingly dependent on expensive

imported fuel.

Unconventional electricity in Argentina is underdeveloped. There are only 22 Danish industrial wind farms in operation. Of these, 10 installations are integrated into the Antonio Moran wind park near the city of Comodoro Rivadavia, while others are distributed singly in six others. settlements. Their contribution to the country's total energy resource is extremely insignificant. in Patagonia and southern provinces countries, private owners operate low-power wind power generators. They are able to provide electricity to individual small consumers and do not have a serious impact on the situation with energy supply as a whole. Industrial power plants using solar energy, as well as tidal and geothermal power plants not used in Argentina.

Ferrous metallurgy is one of the leading branches of the Argentinean industry. In total, the enterprises of the industry produce more than 1.2% of the country's GDP, more than 17 thousand people are involved, and more than 65 thousand people are involved in related industries (casting, processing, marketing, etc.).

Ferrous metallurgy of Argentina has a highly developed technological base, which is constantly being modernized. Along with the traditional blast-furnace process, enterprises also use direct iron reduction. Steel production is carried out mainly in electric furnaces.

Full cycle plants are located in San Nicolás, Ensenada and Palpal. The first two focus on imported raw materials and partially use iron ore from the Sierra Grande deposit and coal from Rio Turbio. The smelter in Palpal uses local iron ore (Sapla deposit) and charcoal.

Steel plants operating on secondary metallurgical raw materials are mainly located in the lower reaches of the Parana River, where a whole metallurgical belt has developed (from Buenos Aires to Rosario). In 2007 the Argentine iron and steel industry was operating almost at the limit of its production capacity.

Table 4 - Production in Argentina of the main metal products, in thousand tons.

90% of rolled steel in Argentina is produced by three companies. The Siderka Metallurgical Company specializes in the production of seamless pipes for the oil and gas industry, the Siderar Company produces steel sheet, mainly for the needs of the automotive industry and the production of household electrical appliances, and the Asindar Company produces profiled cold and hot rolled steel for construction.

Significantly smaller in terms of production is the metallurgical company Altos Ornos Sapla, whose plant in Aseros Sapla produces long products.

The main consumers of the products of the metallurgical industry are traditionally construction - 40%, the industrial sector (cars, spare parts, railway, shipbuilding, household appliances, etc.) - 40%, the energy sector and agriculture - 20%.

In 2007 the volume of imports of ferrous metallurgy products increased by 26.2% (0.7 million tons) compared to 2006, while imports of metallurgical products with a higher degree technological processing(rolled products and finished products) grew by 23.3% and 22.4%, respectively.

Table 5 - Demand, consumption and export of steel in Argentina, in thousand tons

In 2007 steel consumption in the country increased by 5.5%, and the volume of exports of Argentinean steel increased by 8.1% compared to the same period in 2006.

IN mining industry mining of lead and zinc (in the north-west of the country), copper (San Juan province), silver, gold, iron ore (main deposits: Sierra Grande in the province of Rio Negro and Sapla in the province of Jujuy), beryllium and tungsten ores stand out . Oil and natural gas production is carried out mainly in the south of the country, in Patagonia (Neuquen province) and in the north (Salta province), uranium ore (Mendoza, Chubut, Salta provinces), coal

(Patagonia ).

In 1994-07. total investment in the mining industry in Argentina amounted to 13.7 billion dollars, with 2/3 of this amount received in 2004-07. As a result, the mining industry has become one of the fastest growing sectors of the Argentine economy. In recent years, the production volumes of the mining industry have been growing noticeably.

80% of the industry's products are exported. The growth of export volumes (in dollars at current prices) in 2005 amounted to. - 31%, in 2006 - 71% and in 2007. – 2%.

In 2007 the mining industry accounted for 1.8% of Argentina's GDP. Directly at the enterprises of the industry 42 thousand people were employed, 170 thousand people. worked in related industries (product processing, marketing, etc.). The average salary in mining was 5,000 pesos (over $1,600). The volume of production amounted to 3.2 billion dollars.

In 2007, the volume of exports of Argentinean mining products reached. 2.9 billion dollars (5.2% of the total volume of Argentinean exports) and yielded, at the end of the year, only to the volume of exports of soybeans and cars. Deliveries of products to the EU countries, Mercosur and other states of the Latin American region, which are traditional importers of these products, have significantly increased. At the same time, the emergence of new importing countries, such as Australia and the countries of the Pacific region, can also be noted. Yes, to share South Korea, the Philippines, Japan and China already account for over 25% of Argentina's exports of minerals and other mining products. 85% of mining exports in 2007 fell on copper and gold.

In 2007, the mining sector of the Argentinean economy became one of the most attractive for foreign and domestic investors, and Argentina was among the top ten countries in the world in terms of investment in mining. In 2007 the total investment in this sector exceeded $2.9 billion.

The main explored deposits of metallic and non-metallic minerals are not exploited. The country is implementing a large number of(more than 270 in 2007) small-scale projects that do not require large investments, however, have the prospect of a quick payback. Medium-level mining enterprises are developing.

IN chemical industry Argentina plays the main role in petrochemistry, which has a good raw material base; its products are very diverse, as a rule, petrochemical enterprises form a single complex with oil refineries.

The total volume of annual production of the chemical and petrochemical industry in Argentina is estimated at 6 million tons, of which 40% of the products are basic (basic) chemistry, 30% are semi-finished products and components, 30% are finished materials and products. At the same time, the total production of the chemical and petrochemical industry in Argentina in 2007. amounted to 4% of GDP and 9% of the country's total exports.

Products of inorganic chemistry, basic petrochemicals, semi-finished products and components, finished products, fine chemicals, dyes, additives and additives, industrial gases, plastics, agricultural fertilizers, paint and varnish products and

solvents, cleaning products, cosmetics and medical preparations.

Directly in the field of chemistry and petrochemistry in Argentina, there are 60 companies that employ more than 12 thousand people. In the production of petrochemicals and fine organic synthesis products (rubber, plastics, plastics, agricultural chemistry and fertilizers), 3.6 thousand companies are registered, which employ more than 130 thousand people.

In 2007 the chemicals industry continued to show strong signs of growth, averaging 6.8%.

This fact is explained by the presence of stable domestic demand for manufactured products in the period under review. Consumption growth

products in 2007 amounted to 20%. At the same time, an increase in export deliveries in the amount of 8.6% was recorded. Against this background, the growth of imports of chemical products also continued, incl. for basic chemical production, as well as semi-finished products (by 8.8% compared to 2006).

Table 6 - Key indicators of the chemical and petrochemical industry, in thousand tons

The main products of the petrochemical industry in Argentina in 2007. hydrocarbon compounds remained: ethylene, styrene, methanol, plastics, agricultural chemistry and oil refining products. National chemical enterprises and branches of leading foreign companies are concentrated mainly in the oil and gas producing provinces (Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Santa Fe, Neuquen).

The sulfuric acid market showed stable demand due to the limited supply of products. Supplies drinking water and products from industries such as pulp and paper, textiles, soap and detergents, and the chemical industry itself showed strong growth, which ultimately reflected in an increase in the price of products, in particular the price of sulfur, provoking a decrease in profitability and a market deficit. Sulfur prices have risen significantly, driven by strong Asian demand.

The leading manufacturers of large-tonnage petrochemical products in Argentina include Spanish company Repsol-IPF, Petrobras-Enerchia (owned by the Brazilian Petrobras), Atanor, Resinfor_Methanol, Masisa, Profertil.

In 2007, the production of various types of plastics accounted for 0.9% of Argentina's GDP. The total number of industrial enterprises in the industry is 1.7 thousand, which employ 30 thousand people. The vast majority of enterprises belong to the category of small and medium-sized businesses. Large plastics manufacturers with more than 100 employees represent only 1% of total number. The largest number of enterprises is concentrated in the capital and the nearest suburbs (77.2%), the provinces of Santa Fe (6.8%), Cordoba (5.5%), Buenos Aires (3.1%), San Luis (2, 5%).

Consumption of plastic products remains broadly stable across industries and is distributed as follows: production

containers and packaging - 45.5%, construction - 13%, electrical equipment - 6%, automotive industry - 8%, agriculture - 4%, household goods - 3.5%, finishing materials - 3%.

The main producers of plastics in Argentina are the branches of the world's leading petrochemical companies: Dow Kimika, BASF Argentina, ESSO Argentina, DuPont, Bayer, Repsol-IPF, Solvay-Indupa.

Among the Latin American countries, Argentina traditionally stands out as a developed mechanical engineering , including transport, agricultural, energy, production of equipment for the food industry, as well as machine tool building. In transport engineering, the automotive industry (Buenos Aires, Cordoba) is in the lead, shipbuilding (Buenos Aires, Ensenada), and aircraft industry (Cordoba) are developed. The automotive industry accounts for 20% of the country's GDP. In 2007 overall industrial production growth in Argentina amounted to 7.5%, the contribution of the automotive industry exceeded 33%.

The load of equipment installed at enterprises, on average across the country, was at the level of 74.9%.

The largest engineering enterprises are related to the automotive industry and the production of agricultural equipment. The industry is also represented by small enterprises that produce a wide range of metalworking and woodworking machines, welding machines, fixtures and automation elements. Most of the specialists working at these enterprises have a fairly high qualification. This allows enterprises to use high-tech equipment and constantly diversify production.

Food industry. Argentina has a developed high-tech industry for the processing of agricultural products and food production.

There are 157 flour mills in the country, and the total processing capacity is estimated at 7.6 million tons. grain per year (4.7 million tons of flour).

5.5-6 million tons are processed annually in Argentina. food wheat. Domestic consumption of flour is at a stable level - 3.2_3.3 million tons. (85 kg per person). In 2007 925 thousand tons were exported. flour (in 2006 - 538 thousand tons). In addition, 4.3 million tons were produced last year. flour (in 2006 - 3.8 million tons).

The main importer of flour from Argentina is Brazil, deliveries to which amounted to 600 thousand tons.

The main flour mills in Argentina are Andres Lagomarsino, Molinos Canuelas and Trigalia. the largest

flour-producing provinces are Buenos Aires (71 enterprises), Cordoba (39), Santa Fe (21), Entre Rios (11).

The oil refining industry of Argentina is focused on the external market. In 2007 8.2 million tons were produced in the country. vegetable oils (1.2 million tons of sunflower; 6.7 million tons of soybean; 39 thousand tons of peanut). Production of other types of oils (corn, olive,

sesame, cotton, grape, etc.) amounted to 70 thousand tons.

The country is the world's largest exporter of vegetable oils. The share of Argentina in world trade in this product is more than 20%. 90% of the products are exported. The share of Argentina in the world market of vegetable oils is: soybean oil - 50%, sunflower oil - 30%.

The main areas of milk production are prov. Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Cordoba, Entre Rios and La Pampa. There are 12 thousand dairy farms in the country.

Chocolate production in Argentina is concentrated in the hands of three leading companies - Arcor (33%), Suchard (11%) and Terrabusi (10%). Domestic consumption per capita per year - 2 kg. Annual sales in 2006 amounted to 500 million pesos.

The soft drinks market in Argentina is controlled by foreign capital. 60.5% of production is provided by Coca-Cola and 20% by Pepsi-Cola. There are 85 soft drink factories in the country. In 2006 exports and imports of soft drinks remained at the level of 1%. Domestic consumption is 70 liters. drinks per person per year.

IN leather industry Argentina has more than 100 tanneries, but is dominated by large leather uppers and upholstery and seat leather companies. The country produces 16 million skins a year.

The leather industry in Argentina produces 14-15 million skins per year, of which 80% is exported as semi-finished, finished leather and some plates for the automotive and furniture industries. The total amount of annual exports of leather products is estimated at 900 million dollars; it is supplied to 40 countries, including the USA, China, the Netherlands and Mexico, which accounted for 2/3 of Argentinean exports in 2005. At the same time, the export of finished leather products is insignificant.

IN textile industry , in addition to its main industries - woolen, linen, cotton, handicraft spinning and weaving are widespread, especially in remote areas.

Lesnaya And woodworking industry is currently one of the fastest growing and promising industries in the country. Argentina is largely self-sufficient in pulp and paper, and partially exports paper. The largest pulp and paper mills are located in Puerto Piraj, Puerto Esperanza, and Sarata.

Thus, despite the fact that a relatively small part of the country's economically active population (29%) is employed in the industrial sector of the economy, industry has a rather large impact on the country's economy (34% of GDP). Also, manufactured goods occupy an important place in Argentina's foreign trade.

A distinctive feature of Argentina's agriculture compared to other Latin American countries is the fact that it not only fully provides itself with food, but also exports it. In terms of food consumption per capita, it surpasses the rest of Latin America, and in terms of meat consumption, even developed countries. The number of people employed in agriculture is declining both relatively and absolutely.

In Argentina, latifundia dominate, and although they have undergone significant capitalist changes, this predetermines the dominance of an extensive economy - pasture cattle breeding and grain production based on the natural fertility of the soil. Most of the agricultural land (180 million hectares) is meadows and pastures, but the area of ​​cultivated land (28 million hectares) of Argentina stands out in Latin America.

In recent years, Argentina has occupied one of the leading places in the world in the field of animal husbandry , production of meat and meat products. In world meat trade, the country's share is: for horse meat - 25%, for beef - 8%, for finished beef food products - 7%, for lamb - 1.5%, for pork - 0.1%. The most important branch of animal husbandry for the country is the breeding of cattle (cattle), mainly for meat production. Argentina for many years has been one of the first places in the world in terms of its livestock (49 million heads, 2007). The main breeding area for cattle is the so-called Argentinean Pampa, which is primarily due to favorable climatic conditions and an extensive food supply.

In total, 230 thousand farms are employed in the area of ​​cattle breeding, 130 thousand farms - small cattle, 70 thousand pigs. More than 30 thousand people are employed in the industry. The total sales of meat products is 10 billion dollars. in year. There are 635 meat processing plants in the country

enterprises, of which only 288 have certificates of conformity from the National Sanitary Authority (Senasa). 18-20 enterprises account for more than half of all meat production in Argentina.

A significant part of the meat products produced (80%) goes to the domestic market. Despite an increase in domestic meat prices in 2006-07, beef consumption in Argentina remains at a consistently high level as meat is traditionally the most popular and sought after food product in the country. In 2006 consumption of cattle meat averaged 63.4 kg per person in 2007. - 67.3 kg per person (6.3% increase). At the same time, in recent years, an increase in the consumption of poultry and fish meat has been registered, as cheaper products. According to the official data of the National Statistical Office Indek, the rise in prices for the most popular types of meat in Argentina in 2007. amounted to 5.5%, however, in reality, in the country's retail network, the increase in prices amounted to 23.8%.

In 2007 The physical volumes of Argentine beef exports decreased compared to 2006 and amounted to 559 thousand tons. (in 2006 - 584 thousand tons). However, in value terms, these volumes increased by 11% compared to 2006 and amounted to USD 2.39 billion, which is explained by the growth

world prices for these products.

Table 7 - The structure of world exports of Argentinean meat

products, in million dollars

Egg consumption in 2007 amounted to 186 pcs. eggs/person Exports decreased by 12% in terms of volume and amounted to $4.1 million (in 2006 - $5.8 million). The main importing countries of egg products are Russia, Denmark, Congo, Holland, the United Arab Emirates and Japan.

At the same time, Argentina has to import poultry from Brazil (88%), Chile (3.2%) and Spain (4.3%), although purchases from abroad are declining from year to year. The volume of imports in 2007 amounted to 18.3 thousand tons. for 25 million dollars (in 2006 - 15.9 thousand and 14.5 million dollars, respectively).

In 2007 Argentina exported 180 thousand tons. poultry meat (growth 25%) by 213 million dollars, while in 2006. - 144 thousand tons. and $126 million, respectively. The main importers of Argentine poultry meat are Chile (24%), Hong Kong (8%), China (12%) and South Africa (15%), Germany (4%). Russia in 2007 delivered 25 tons of frozen poultry meat.

Argentina is one of the world's leading producers and exporters of horsemeat. There are 3 million horses in the country. In 2007 slaughter remained at the level of 2006. and amounted to more than 200 thousand heads.

IN crop production Argentina is dominated by cereals and oilseeds. The total volume of production in 2007 amounted to record 93.4 million tons (12.2% growth). 35 million hectares are used for growing agricultural products in the country. 31.2 million hectares were occupied (in 2006 - 30.5 million hectares). The rest of the land was given over to vineyards, orchards, citrus plantations and industrial crops.

In world trade in agricultural products, Argentina accounts for 11.2% - soybeans, 10.1% - corn, 7.1% - wheat, 8% - sorghum, 2.4% - apples, 21% - lemons, 20% - pears , 5% - grapefruits, 3% - tangerines and 2% oranges.

Rye, oats, barley and rice are grown from other grains. Considerable areas are occupied by crops of fodder grasses. The main production areas for these crops are the provinces of Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Santa Fe and, to a lesser extent, La Pampa, Entre Rios and Tucumán.

In recent years, soybean sown areas have increased significantly. In 2007 the planting area of ​​this crop amounted to 16.2 million hectares, which is a record figure in the country. The growth of sown areas amounted to 10% per year. The largest increase in landings was registered in the province of Cordoba, Buenos Aires, La Pampa. Over the past 10 years, soybean production in Argentina has increased 3 times, which is associated with an increase in demand for this crop in the world and, accordingly, the high profitability of its exports.

Planting volumes of sunflower, the second most important oilseed after soybeans, remain at a consistently high level. In 2007, this crop occupied 2.55 million hectares, the harvest amounted to 4 million tons.

Corn occupies 16% (3.9 million hectares) of all cultivated areas in Argentina. Production volume in 2007 amounted to 20.5 million tons.

Wheat is the second crop in Argentina in terms of sown area and the third in terms of collections (in 2006 and 2007 the sown area remained unchanged and amounted to 5.6 million hectares). In 2007 wheat harvest amounted to 15.4 million tons, in 2006. - 14.6 million tons.

The area planted with rice in 2007 was 210 thousand ha (in 2006 - 168), sorghum - 820 thousand ha (in 2006 - 700), barley - 370 thousand ha (in 2006 - 339).

90% of sunflower seeds and 40% of soybeans are processed in Argentina, which provides the country with one of the leading positions among the world's largest producers of vegetable oils, soybean meal and soy flour.

Sugar production is concentrated mainly in the northwest of Argentina in the provinces of Tucuman, Salta, Jujuy, as well as Santa Fe and Misiones. There are 23 sugar factories in the country. In 2007 sugar production amounted to 2.04 million tons. (in 2006 - 2.31 million tons).

More than 41.3 thousand hectares are occupied by tea plantations in Argentina. The main production (85%) is concentrated in the province of Misiones, the rest - in the province of Corrientes. In 2007 tea harvest amounted to 80 thousand tons. (in 2006 - 76 thousand tons). Domestic consumption remains traditionally quite low - 4 thousand tons. exported tea for 56 million dollars. (in 2006 - 50 million dollars). The main importing countries are the USA, Chile, Great Britain, Germany, Holland.

Argentina is one of the world's leading producers and exporters of pears. IN Lately Argentina is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of citrus fruits and currently ranks first in the world in their production and export (4% and 6% of world trade, respectively).

The most dynamic pace in Argentina is the production and export of lemons, which allowed the country to take a leading position in the world in the production and export of lemons and lemon juice.

The main importers of citrus fruits are Spain, Great Britain, Holland, France, Belgium.

Thus, Argentina is an agricultural country. In the international division of labor, Argentina acts as one of the significant exporters of food and agricultural raw materials (49% of the value of exports), which brings significant income to its economy.

2.4 Service industry

Transport. Argentina has a dense transport network, but mostly within the most developed area of ​​the Pampas. The total length of Argentine asphalt roads is 230,000 km, of which 38,000 km belongs to the federal authorities, and the remaining 192,000 km to the provincial authorities. In terms of the length of roads on the continent, Argentina is inferior to Brazil and Mexico, and in terms of the density of paved roads, only Uruguay. The most developed road network is in the central provinces of the country. An acute shortage of modern road communications is noted in the directions connecting the provinces of Tierra del Fuego and Santa Cruz, Mendoza with Neuquen and La Pampa, Formosa and Salta, Santa Fe with Chaco and Corrientes. 80% of existing roads are in poor condition. This situation arises due to underfunding and overloading of highways with trucks. The required investment in this sector to meet the needs of a growing economy is $35 billion over the next decade. The joint construction of roads is one of the important directions integration with neighboring countries.

Argentina ranks first on the continent in terms of length railways– 42.2 thousand km, of which 27.7 thousand km are operated by private concessionaire companies. Structure railway network reflects the long dependence of the country on the external market: it has a clearly defined radial configuration with the center in Buenos Aires.

In the 1970s and 1990s, the length of the pipeline network increased especially intensively, mainly in connection with the construction of main gas pipelines. In terms of the total length of pipelines (more than 20 thousand km), Argentina is second only to Mexico.

The entire infrastructure of the sea and river ports of Argentina is divided into five administrative-territorial zones: Northern, Northern Pampa, Central Pampa, Northern Patagonia, Southern Patagonia. The country has only one state port in Buenos Aires. Argentina's non-state ports are managed by provincial administrative and private port consortiums. Most major ports the countries are Buenos Aires (handling 41% of cargo), La Plata (15%) and Bahia Blanca (12%).

Argentina has 367 airports of various classes and purposes, 26 of which are certified for international transport. Out of a total of 82 airfields have runway more than 1500 m long with a concrete surface. Main airport- Ezeiza (near Buenos Aires).

Figure 4 - Structure of transport

Argentina (Spanish) Argentina), the official name is the Argentine Republic (Spanish. Republic of Argentina- the second (after Brazil) in terms of territory and the third (after Brazil and Colombia) in terms of population, the state of South America.

Argentina is in an advantageous economic position because:

1) It has extensive access to the ocean, so it has the opportunity to develop foreign economic relations with other countries, thanks to maritime transport.

2) The country has extensive land borders with neighboring states, with which it can conduct profitable trade relations

Foreign trade of Argentina

Argentina focuses on the EU countries - Italy, Spain, France, Germany, the Netherlands, as well as the NAFTA member states. She also continues to trade with Asia-Pacific countries, such as Japan, China, South Korea. In recent years, trade with Mercosur countries has been intensively developing. In 2007, trade with them amounted to 425,783 million dollars.

In Argentina, exports exceed imports. According to 2008 data, exports amounted to 70 billion dollars. Exported commodities included meat, wheat, corn, automobiles, gas, oil and soybeans, with Brazil, the Netherlands, Chile, the United States of America and China as the main buyers. Brazil owns 18.9%. Imports according to data for the same year amounted to 54.6 billion dollars. Argentina imports plastics, organic chemicals, industrial products, the main suppliers of which are Germany, the United States of America, China and Brazil. Brazil occupies a leading position among the importing countries (it supplies more than thirty imported products to Argentina).

Investment climate

Foreign investors in Argentina enjoy extensive government support. Today, the investor is offered tax incentives at the investment stage (complete abolition of the tax on foreign capital invested in production; reduction of value added tax); measures to stimulate exports (VAT refunds, mechanisms for the return of other payments, their deferrals); credit for the implementation of certain training programs; funds allocated for research and implementation of scientific developments and innovative technologies. In 2010, Argentina ranked fifth among the countries where foreigners prefer to bring their money. The first place belongs to Brazil 48.462 million dollars (in Mexico, for example, this figure is exactly 17.700 million dollars), followed by Chile 15.095 million. dollars invested by foreigners in the country, followed by Peru - 7.328 mil. dollars and finally, Colombia - 6.760 mil. USD Least of all investments were received by such countries as Venezuela and Ecuador.

Argentina leads among Latin American countries in terms of economic growth. Such conclusions are contained in the published report of the IMF "Prospects for World Economic Development", timed to coincide with the session of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank that opened in Singapore.

According to published data, the economic growth rate in Argentina in 2010 was 22%, in 2009 - 16%, in 2008 - 8%, and in 2007 - 6%. The average for Latin America is 4.8% and 4.2%, respectively.

The area is 2780.1 thousand km 2 (without the Falkland, or Malvinas, Islands - a disputed territory). Population 27.8 million (1980). The capital is Buenos Aires. Argentina consists of 22 provinces, the territory of Tierra del Fuego and the islands of the South Atlantic, the Federal (capital) district. Official language- Spanish. The monetary unit is the Argentine peso. Argentina is a member of the OAS (Organization of American States), LAES (Latin American Economic System), etc.

General characteristics of the economy. Among the countries of the region, Argentina is distinguished by a more complex structure of industrial production and a fairly high degree of development of mechanical engineering. GDP of Argentina $53.6 billion (in 1980 prices); its structure (%): agriculture and fisheries 12.9, manufacturing 25.3, mining 2.5, electricity, gas and water supply 3.5, transport and communications 10.9, construction 7.6, trade and service sector 14, finance 8.8, other activities 14.5.

Bo 2nd half of the 1970s industry met about 85% of the national needs for industrial raw materials and semi-finished products, almost 100% for building materials and 75% for machinery and equipment. The share of the value of mining products in the industrial production of Argentina is 4.3% (1979). State-owned enterprises (8.57% of GDP) are concentrated mainly in public services and electricity generation, as well as in metallurgy, petrochemistry and the military industry. In the 70s. intensified the penetration of foreign capital into the economy of Argentina. In 1979, the total amount of private foreign investment amounted to 5 billion dollars, of which 40% accounted for. In Argentina, there are 1400 companies owned by foreign capital, which controlled in the mid-70s. 30% of Argentina's industrial production. The structure of the fuel and energy balance (1978%): solid fuel 3.0, liquid fuel 66.3, hydroelectric power 5.0, natural gas 24.2, nuclear energy 1.5. A nuclear power plant (Atucha-I) with a capacity of 367 MW is operating in the country, a second nuclear power plant (Embalses) with a design capacity of 600 MW is being built in Cordoba, and by 1987 it is planned to commission a third nuclear power plant (Atucha-II) with a capacity of 600 MW. In 1981 Argentina produced 36.3 billion kilowatts. h electricity.

The main role in domestic transportation, incl. in the delivery of export cargoes to seaports, as well as in communication with all neighboring countries, belongs railway transport(state property); the length of railways is 39 thousand km (1980), the freight turnover is 18.6 million tons (1979). In domestic transportation, the role of motor transport is growing (the length of roads is over 1 million km, including 46.2 thousand km with a hard surface). Merchant fleet tonnage (about 40% owned by the state) 3.07 million gross per. t, incl. tanker fleet 1.04 million gross registered tons (1980). The main seaport is Buenos Aires. The length of river shipping lines is about 3 thousand km. The total length is over 12,000 km. There are five with a total length of 2221 km.

Nature. The relief of the country in the east is predominantly flat (the Gran Chaco plain, the flat interfluve of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, the Laplata lowland, the Patagonian plateau), in the west it is mountainous (the Andes chain with the highest point in South America, Aconcagua - 6960 m). The territory of Argentina is located in the tropical, subtropical and temperate zones of the Southern Hemisphere. average temperature in January (summer) in the north 28°С, in the south 10°С, in July 18° and 1°С, respectively. The amount of precipitation in the northeast is 1400-1600 mm per year, in the east of Pampa about 1000 mm, in Patagonia 100-300 mm and in Pune up to 100 mm. The main rivers are Parana, Paraguay, Uruguay (navigable), as well as Chubut, Rio Negro, Rio Colorado. Vegetation in Argentina is represented mainly by wet meadow steppes (mostly plowed), savannahs and mountain subtropical forests.

Geological structure. Within Argentina, the following main structural elements stand out: southern edge ancient in the north-east. Patagonian Epipaleozoic platform in the south, East End Andean fold system in the west and the Pre-Andean foredeep separating them. ancient formations are overlain by marine deposits of the early and middle and continental deposits of the Upper Paleozoic, and . Rocks and bottoms protrude in the uplifts of the Sierras of Buenos Aires (Sierra de la Ventana, Sierra del Tandil). To the south, within the Patagonian platform, the folded base protrudes in the Samun-Kypa and Deseado massifs, composed of Upper Precambrian and partially Lower and Middle Mesozoic metamorphites, which are intruded by Upper Paleozoic granites and unconformably overlain by Upper Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic marine and continental volcanic and clastic rocks, filling deep (up to 6 km) the Colorado and San Xopxe troughs, opening into Atlantic Ocean. In the south, the Patagonian platform is separated from the Andes by the Pre-Andean trough, which is a system of uneven ages. northern depressions are filled with Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits with a maximum thickness of 13 km, the southern depression (Mendoza, Neuquen, Magellanova) are filled with Meso-Cenozoic deposits with a thickness of more than 9 km. In the Andean fold system, Paleozoic and Mesozoic marine sedimentary and volcanic rocks dislocated, metamorphosed, intruded by granites are unconformably overlain by Cenozoic continental and volcanogenic formations. Folding movements occurred here in the pre-Triassic and Cenozoic times and were accompanied, especially in the south, where they are directed towards the Magellan Trough.

Minerals. The bowels of Argentina are poorly studied. Known deposits, gas, ores, (Table 1). In terms of oil and gas reserves, Argentina ranks third in Latin America. On the territory, 5 were identified, 4 of which are located within the depressions of the Pre-Andean trough. 243 and 52 (1981) are known in the country, concentrated mainly in the Neuquen (82 oil and 24 gas) and San Xopxe (93 and 10, respectively) basins. Oil and gas bearing sandy deposits of the Mesozoic (Mendoza, Neuquen, San Xopxe, Magellanic basins) and Cenozoic (San Xopxe and Magellan) basins. The largest oil fields are Comodoro Rivadavia, El Cayce, Barrancas, and others; gas (and gas condensate) - Loma, La Plata, Campo Duran, Madre Hones, Condor.

In terms of coal reserves, Argentina ranks 7th in Latin America. The largest coal basin - Rio Turbio (total reserves 350 million tons) - is located in the province of Santa Kpyc and is confined to the coal-bearing stratum, Paleogene, Miocene in the southern part of the Patagonian plate.

In terms of uranium reserves, Argentina ranks second in Latin America. Deposits infiltration in sedimentary rocks and hydrothermal. The largest deposit is Sierra Pintada (total reserves are 12 thousand tons, the content of U 3 O 8 is 0.12%), the deposits of Don Otto, Rodolfo and others are less significant.

The main reserves of iron ores (7th place in Latin America) are associated with the Lower Paleozoic iron ore in the northwest; similar deposits are promising in Patagonia. The most significant deposits of iron ores: Sierra Grande in the province of Rio Negro (total reserves of 200 million tons, Fe content 40%), Sapla (Sierra Sapla) in the province of Jujuy (respectively 110 million tons, 45%).

Reserves of manganese ores in Argentina are insignificant, the largest deposit is Farallón Negro (proven reserves are about 800 thousand tons, Mn content is 16%). Ores also contain gold (9 g/t) and silver (16 g/t). The area of ​​Alta de la Blenda is promising, where potential resources are estimated at 3 million tons.

A number of deposits of copper ores of copper-porphyry and molybdenum-copper-porphyry types are known in Argentina. They are associated with calc-alkaline late Cretaceous, Paleogene and Neogene ages (the largest deposit is El Pachon) and with late Carboniferous and early Permian (Bajo de la Alumbrera, total reserves of 430 million tons of ore).

The deposits are associated with the Early Paleozoic granite intrusions - the Aguilar deposit (El Aguilar), Jujuy province. The reserves are concentrated mainly in numerous small ones, among which the Los Condores deposit stands out (reserves of 3 thousand tons of WO 3). Small deposits of tin ores are located on the southern extension of the tin-ore belt.

Argentina has significant deposits, which ranks second in Latin America in terms of reserves. All known beryllium resources are concentrated in the crystalline basement - deposits of Las Tapyas (total reserves of 30 thousand tons), Las Palomas, La Esmeralda, etc. Deposits in the sierras of Pampa are also associated with pegmatites. There are also deposits in Argentina (Orheta, Diamante), (Nolasco, Ilda, etc.), (Ceppo-Tustle, Overo, Puenche), (Porvenir, Blanquita), (Irma, Tepeca, Susana), (Catamarca, Abundancia, etc. .) and etc.

Mining. Historical outline. Indigenous people extracted from the bowels and in the north-eastern part of Argentina before the 15th century. With the arrival of European conquerors in the 16th century, the extraction of these metals continued (deposits of Capillitas, Famatina, Kulampaha and Ceppo-Bajo). Since the 17th century, natural oil shows have been known in Argentina; oil production began only in 1865 in the province of Jujuy by the company "Compacna jujena de keroseno"; in 1879, the Feodosio Lypez company (province of Jujuy) launched oil prospecting operations; th half of the 19th century, ores of copper and lead began to be mined (deposits of Capillitas, Famatina, Gualilan, Paramillos de Uspallata, El Tontal, etc.), at the beginning of the 20th century also ores

Due to a significant increase in oil prices, the share in GDP increased. In terms of the cost of production (2.1 billion dollars, in terms of prices of mineral raw materials in 1975) of this industry, Argentina in 1979 took 4th place in Latin America (after , ). In the structure of the industry, the 1st and 2nd places are occupied (1979) by the extraction of oil (89%) and natural gas (5.6%), then the extraction of non-ferrous (2.0%), black (1.2%) and noble (0.6%) metals, (0.2%), coal (0.5%) and non-metallic ores (0.9%), excluding building materials. The leading position in the industry belongs to the public sector. In 1979, a law on the mining industry was adopted, which sets the goal of further development of the industry both at the expense of state appropriations and private capital. At the same time, access to this sector of foreign capital is facilitated. In 1977-79, the mining industry (including oil and gas) accounted for 38.9% of all foreign investment. The prospects for the mining industry are associated with an increase in the extraction of oil and gas, iron ores, as well as with the development of deposits of ores of copper (the El Pachon deposit), uranium (the Sierra Pintada deposit) and other minerals.

A significant part of the mining industry is consumed within Argentina. At the same time, Argentina imports a large amount of raw materials for the metallurgical industry, coal, and metals. Oil imports are declining. The share of mining products in Argentina's exports is insignificant - 0.9% (1979), incl. mineral fuels 0.6%, ores and metal concentrates 0.2%, salt, sulfur, clays, etc. 0.1%. In 1979 Argentina exported mining products worth $69.6 million. The main importers are Great Britain, Germany and Latin American countries (mainly Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay). The share of mining products in Argentina's imports in 1979 was 21.2%, incl. mineral fuels 15.7%, metal ores and concentrates 4.6%, other 0.9%. Imports of goods of this group were estimated at 1421.3 million dollars (1979).

Oil and gas industry. In terms of oil production, Argentina ranks third among Latin American countries, behind Venezuela and Mexico. Due to the oil and gas produced in the country, about 93% of the country's needs are met. The oil industry of Argentina was formed as an independent branch in 1908 in connection with the beginning of the industrial development of the Comodoro-Rivadavia field. According to the first national oil law, one part of this field was transferred to the state company "Yacimientos petrolnferos fiscales" ("YPF"), the other - to the foreign monopoly "Royal Dutch-Shell" and the local "Astra". Later, the development of deposits began in the provinces of Mendoza, Rio Negro, Neuquen, Jujuy, Salta, and others. Gas has been produced in Argentina since 1922.

Until 1958 "YPF" mainly controlled oil production in the country. After 1958, the penetration of foreign monopolies into the oil industry of Argentina intensified, whose activities were intensified in connection with the law of 1967 (any private companies were allowed to conclude not only "contracts for services", but also concession agreements for the exploration and production of oil in undeveloped areas for a period of 25-30 years). In 1977, the Argentine government reorganized the company "YPF" into a joint-stock company with a controlling stake in the hands of the state.

In 1980, YPF accounted for 68% of the oil produced in Argentina, the remaining 32% - for 19 private firms (national and foreign), operating either independently or under contract (the largest of them are ATOSO and Cities Service). The company pursues a policy of actively attracting foreign firms to exploration for oil and gas and the development of oil fields. The cumulative production of oil amounted to 468 million tons, gas - about 183 billion m 3 (1980); the number of active flowing wells is 497, mechanized - 6325. The density of the produced oil ranges from 740 to 930 kg/m 3 . In 1978-80 private foreign and Argentinean companies intensified their activities in the northern part of Argentina and on the mainland. The French company "Total-Cie", the West German "DEMINEX", the Argentinean "Ar-Franca" and "Bridas S. A. petrolera" are exploring for oil on the shelf near Tierra del Fuego, the companies "Shell Hydrocarbons B. W.", " Shell Co. Argentina de petryleo" and "Petrolar S. A." - in the Strait of Magellan and on the shelf near the city of Rio Gallegos, the firms "Louis Ingenieuring S. A.", "Petrolar S. A.", "Tekint S. A." oil fields in the province of Salta. In 1980, a record number for all previous years was drilled in Argentina - about 970, with a total penetration of 2.0 million meters. Average depth wells drilled in 1977-80, about 2000 m. Active exploration was carried out on the shelf near Tierra del Fuego.

Gas fields are located at a great distance from the centers of consumption, so the state gas company "Gas del Estado" is building long gas pipelines. Argentina has several gas pipeline systems that deliver gas to places of consumption. The Southern Gas Pipeline System transports gas from the fields in the Strait of Magellan, San Xopxe (Chubut and Santa Kpyc provinces) and Neuquen (Neuquen and Rio Negro provinces) to the cities of Bahia Blanca and Buenos Aires. It includes three main gas pipelines and installations for the collection, purification and pumping of gas. The total length of the system is over 8.5 thousand km. The system of Tierra del Fuego connects the individual deposits of the island. In 1979, a 37-kilometer-long gas pipeline was laid (24 km of which run into the sea), which connects the gas pipeline system of Tierra del Fuego and Yuzhnaya. The Northern System (1767 km) transports gas from Bolivia and the fields of the Central Pre-Andean Basin (Salta and Jujuy provinces) to Buenos Aires. In 1981, a gas pipeline (1081 km) began to operate, connecting the western gas fields with the central and eastern regions. Oil and oil products are transported through several pipelines. The main ones include the Plaza Uincul-Bahia Blanca oil pipeline (length 665 km) and the Campo Duran-San Lorenzo product pipeline (1480 km). The capacity of 13 oil refineries operating in Argentina is estimated at 114,000 tons per day. About 75% of the capacity belongs to "YPF", the rest - to the American companies "Shell" and "Esso".

coal industry. Industrial coal mining began during the 2nd World War 1939-45. In the 50s, 100-300 thousand tons were mined annually, in the 60s. - 400-500 thousand tons, in the early 70s. - up to 600 thousand tons of ordinary coal, from the beginning of the 80s. production fluctuates around 500 thousand tons. The share of coal in the production of energy raw materials in Argentina is about 1.1%, in consumption 2.5%. Coal is mined by the state company "Yacimientos carbonferos fiscales" ("YCF") at the Rio Turbio mine, where 6 mechanized longwalls operate, 5 of them are equipped with, one with a narrow-grip twin screw. There is a capacity of 750 thousand tons per year. The heat of combustion of coal is 25 MJ/kg, the ash content is 11%. Low labor productivity (less than 1 ton per shift per worker) and remoteness from consumption centers (the cost of delivery is 40% of its cost) reduce the economic feasibility of development. Coal is also used by power plants to add to imported coals in the charge during coking.

Extraction of other minerals. Ores of uranium, iron, tungsten, lead, zinc, tin, gold, silver, beryllium and many non-metallic minerals are mined in the country.

The main deposits of uranium ores are located in the provinces of Mendoza and Cordoba. Argentina is one of the few developing countries that conducts its own mining and enrichment of uranium ores. Since 1977, the Sierra Pintada uranium ore deposit in the province of Mendoza has been developed. There are three plants producing uranium concentrates. Works related to the prospecting and mining of uranium ores and the production of concentrates are controlled by the State Atomic Energy Commission.

A significant part of the iron ore in Argentina is mined at the Sapla (Sierra Sapla) deposit in the province of Jujuy (about 250 thousand tons). In 1974, the development of the more promising Sierra Grande field in the province of Rio Negro began by the Hierro Patogyniso de Sierra-Grande company. Isla Colorado has a 68% Fe pellet plant. The commissioning of the mine at full capacity (3.6 million tons per year) will meet the country's demand for iron ore by 50%.

Since 1978, manganese ore has been mined at the Farallón Negro deposit by the state company Yacimientos mineros de agua de Dionicio. The development is carried out by underground method (chamber method with goaf backfilling). A mine with 5 working horizons has 3 shafts: one vertical and two inclined. The mined ore is flotation enriched to a concentrate with a content of 44% Mn. Annual production (1980) 25 thousand tons of Mn. Own extraction of manganese ores satisfies 1/3 of the needs of Argentina in manganese.

The main extraction of lead-zinc-silver ores in the country (respectively 32, 33 and 0.082 thousand tons in 1980) is carried out at the Aguilar (El Aguilar) deposit by the Compacna minera Aguilar company, controlled by the US monopoly St. Joe Minerals Corporation. The same company is preparing for the construction of a mine with a capacity of 100 thousand tons of copper per year at the El Pachon deposit.

Geological Survey. Scientific institutions. Personnel training. Seal. The Mining and Geological Service of Argentina is carried out by the State Secretariat of Geology and Mining of the Ministry of Economy. Scientific research is carried out at the National Institute of Geology and (1964) in Buenos Aires, the Institute physical geography and Geology (1936), at the Museum of Mineralogy and Geology (1904) and universities. Mining and geological personnel are trained at universities in the cities of Buenos Aires, Mendoza, Bahia Blanca, Tucuman, at the Graduate School of Petroleum Engineers at the University of Mendoza, at the Petroleum Institute of the State Oil Company "YPF" in Buenos Aires, at the Institute of Geology and Mining and at the School of Mining in Jujuy, at the University of Tucuman, etc.

Argentina is located on the other side of the equator. This is not to say that the birthplace of gauchos and tango brings to life romantic dreams of heaven on earth. No, of course not: just Argentina is one of those few places where people are able to exist in harmony with each other and nature, work for decent remuneration, without turning work into an end in itself, and enjoy every moment that promises pleasure. Which, in general, is the most worthy life.

It's hard to believe, but at the beginning of the 20th century, Argentina was considered almost the richest state in the world, leaving far behind North America With Northern Europe both in terms of gross national product, and in terms of gigantic exports - meat, grain, wool ... There was such a saying: "Rich as an Argentinean."

Here live, next to the natives, thousands of Europeans who tried to find prosperity in the picturesque foothills of the Andes - southern Italians, Basques who moved from the Pyrenees, Galicians and Catalans, pedantic Germans and Austrians with the Swiss, Irish with Scots, Russians with Jews ...

Indigenous Density Indian population then it was already very insignificant, but there were never Africans in the country.

Thus, an absolutely white country appeared, incredible in the conditions of South America, Catholic in spirit, Spanish in the way of expressing thoughts and more or less European in style of life.

Then, a century ago, each newcomer chose a warm place for himself, in accordance with his own ideas about the right life. Frost-resistant Scots, for example, climbed into the delightful Patagonia, with non-melting glaciers and marvelous lakes, closer to the 37th parallel, sung by Jules Verne in Captain Grant's Children. And with mountain stubbornness and obvious success, they began to breed sheep and build roads.

Relatively few descendants of the conquistadors (no more than 10-15% of the country's population) disappeared into modern settlers. The Galician accent is still heard everywhere. On a par with Catalan, Italian and German.

Russians and Jews, dispersed in small numbers throughout the country, settled in the mass in the capital, in which, as in any self-respecting capital, representatives of the most diverse nationalities, including those rare for Latin America, are noticeable. For example, the Syrians.

The current president, Carlos Menem, is from the Syrians. A Muslim by birth, even though he was baptized as an adult, he was nevertheless elected head of state - an excellent illustration of the new Argentinean constitution, democratic and tolerant, allowing even the president not to be a hereditary Catholic.

Like many other countries, Argentina has its own Switzerland. Differing from Switzerland near Moscow (Zvenigorod) or, say, oriental (in Lebanon) in that they live there, to everyone's surprise, native Swiss.

In the 19th century, the Helvetic Confederation was apparently so hungry and restless that poor people were drawn to a distant continent in search of a better life. And found it in the Andes, among mountain landscape, transparent lakes and relic pines, where the city of San Carlos di Bariloche stands today, a two-hour flight from Buenos Aires. Accustomed to hard work and unspoiled good climate, they made their living by fishing, skiing and, obeying national inclinations, slowly developed tourism.

The Bariloche area was finally mastered at the beginning of the 20th century. There and today - solid Swiss, in the third or fourth generation. Architecture - chalet. Favorite food is chocolate.

Chocolate, unlike wool or grain, is not exported, but eaten in huge quantities locally. Bariloche is not less than ten large chocolate shops, where Argentine Swiss roam, and in front of the entrance - a master chocolate maker of the same origin, who immediately brews a sweet product. One of the famous varieties, which has existed for the last hundred years, is called "Mamushka" (with an emphasis on the second syllable), - a living evidence of the friendship of peoples.

Today's Bariloche is amazing ski resort quite world-class, where Europeans and Americans go with pleasure in winter (it’s hot at that time and it’s not the season for skiing) and Brazilian neighbors. The climate is very similar to ours.

In Argentina, they love foreigners in general and Russians in particular. They show their benevolence as best they can, from the very first days not letting the emigrants feel that they are strangers. Despite the notorious talkativeness, Argentines are even ready to listen to a stranger.

Argentines do not like to travel abroad, preferring to travel in their own country, which is diverse and interesting enough for this. If they go on vacation abroad, they choose Paris, London or Brussels, going around, more precisely, flying around their unloved, albeit close, northern neighbors.

Young heirs are not sent to study in the USA, even English. If there are not enough funds for a European university, they try to send the child to England, France, Germany, at least for a couple of months. But even those lucky ones who happened to graduate from Oxford, most often do not settle in the Old World: patriots. Buenos Aires for any Argentine is the center of both the country and the Universe. A place where they return from distant wanderings, because there is no better place than it.

"The enveloping accordion intonations of Astor Piazzola's tango, which have not faded with age, have already entered the repertoire of classical musicians. Thunder of the football stadium, fans convinced that Argentine football is the most correct football in the world. The historical match for the chess crown of the 1927 model between Alexander Alekhine and Jose Raul Capablanca, who brought Alekhine the world title.

To the credit of Buenos Aires, its present is worthy of its grandiose past. It remains one of the most cultural centers peace. Teatro Colomb (Columbus Theatre), in which, in addition to Latin American musicians, world stars perform with pleasure: Rostropovich, Kissin and Pavarotti. In the same theater, the tango, which had just appeared, was once publicly performed for the first time.

Everything is concentrated in the capital. The population of Buenos Aires and suburbs is a third of the country's population. When the city sleeps, it is not clear. Discos that open at midnight reach peak attendance by the middle of the night. Metropolitan portenos (Buenos Aires dandies), as well as good-natured fathers of families with households (including babies), having dinner at two or three in the morning in a restaurant, is a common picture.

Various national communities prefer to group in certain areas, without making a cult out of their national or confessional affiliation. One of the streets, which is a continuous chain of cute jewelry shops, is almost entirely owned by Armenians. The Jewish community, the fourth largest after Israel, the United States and Russia, has no less than 400,000 people.

There is no siesta in Buenos Aires: it is not hot. Therefore, metropolitan residents are not as relaxed as most South Americans. The influence of the continent is reflected in a light relation to time: being late for a meeting for half an hour or an hour is not considered late at all. One of my favorite expressions: "There is no need to worry today - tomorrow will always come."

Neglect of time does not affect business activity. For example, in construction - Argentina is currently experiencing a construction boom. Shops, offices, highways are being built. The famous metropolitan area of ​​port taverns La Boca, the small birthplace of tango, is being reconstructed.

An enterprising person who wants to develop his own business will not lose by focusing on service. It is easy to compete with the Argentines, as they do not like to recycle. Having $20,000 and linking your fate with a small business, you can confidently look into the future: a small gym, a hairdresser, a massage parlor, a workshop, a cafe will provide it.

One of the most profitable types of business is tourism. Travel agencies in Argentina are clearly not enough, although there are no less sights than those of their neighbors. Everyone knows Brazil, they go there to the carnival and look at the Iguazu Falls. And these waterfalls are just on the border of Argentina with Brazil. Western Europeans visit the pampas of Patagonia and swim on cruise ships in the south - Antarctica, Tierra del Fuego, penguins.

With all the recent tumultuous political life, with changing military regimes and lost Falklands War 82nd year, Argentina today is a true bulwark of democracy. In terms of living standards, it does not catch up with the United States or Scandinavia, remaining at the level of Southern Europe, but is consistently among the top thirty countries in the world. And the Argentine peso since 1992 remains equal to the US dollar.

Argentinean salaries may not be the highest in the world (for a skilled worker - $$1,000-1,500 per month, for an engineer - $$1,500-2,500), but they are not comparable with ours, especially in the provinces. And the salary, which is nice, is paid, and on time.

Schools, like universities and hospitals, are free (federal) and paid (private). In Argentina, there is any kind of industry. Not only nuclear. And thank God. And there is excellent beer and wine, no worse than our well-known Chilean.

Subsistence minimum for an Argentine family (3 people) $750.

ARGENTINA (Argentine Republic) is a state in the southeastern part of South America.

Territory - 2.8 million km2.

The capital is Buenos Aires (Greater Buenos Aires, 10.8 million people). Other Largest cities- Rosario, Cordoba, Mendoza, La Plata.

Administrative-territorial division - 22 provinces, 1 national territory and 1 federal capital district.

Population - 32.4 million people (1991) - Argentines, mainly immigrants from Spain, Italy, Central countries. Europe.

The official language is Spanish.

Religion - the majority of the population professes Catholicism.

Monetary unit - pesos = 100 centavos.

Has diplomatic relations with Russian Federation(installed from the USSR in June 1946).

National holidays - May 25 - the anniversary of the May Revolution (1810), July 9 - Independence Day (1816).

Argentina is a federal republic. The constitution of 1853 is in force. (with changes). The head of state and government is the president (since July 1989 - K.S. Menem), elected for 6 years. Higher Legislature- National Congress, consisting of the Senate (46 members) and the Chamber of Deputies (254 members).

Political parties.

Justicialist Party - founded in 1947; unites representatives of various segments of the population. Its position is especially strong in the labor movement. Chairman - K. S. Menem.

The Civic Radical Union - founded in 1891, represents the interests of mainly the middle strata, part of the bourgeoisie. Chairman of the National Committee - R. Alfonsin.

The Union of the Democratic Center - founded in 1982, the party, which in recent years has come out on the 3rd place in terms of influence in the country, preaches a neoliberal model of economic development.

The Christian Democratic Party, the People's Intransigence Party, the Communist Party of Argentina (founded in 1918, currently undergoing a deep crisis. General Secretary - P. Echegaray) stand out as well.

Unions.

The General Confederation of Labor was founded in 1930. (In 1992, the Argentine trade unions managed to overcome the split that had taken place in recent years due to their attitude towards the socio-economic course of the government and recreate the CGT).

After the independence of Argentina from Spanish crown July 9, 1816 the political life of the country was characterized by the struggle between different groups of the oligarchy for power, numerous coups and counter-coups. Foreign capital intensively penetrated into the country, mainly English, and then American.

From 1946 to 1955 the President of Argentina was General X. D. Peron. His policy was distinguished by social maneuvering, nationalism, adherence to the so-called "third way", implying large-scale nationalization, state intervention in the economy.

In 1955 Peron was overthrown. From 1955 to 1983 military governments were in power most of the time (1955-58; 1966-73; 1976-83). The years of the last military regime in power were generally characterized by an aggravation of the internal situation, which became especially noticeable after the Anglo-Argentine armed conflict in South Atlantic April-June 1982

This conflict led to the defeat of Argentina and the occupation of the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands (which are disputed territory between Great Britain and Argentina), the British Expeditionary Force.

October 30, 1983 Argentina held general elections. The candidate of the Civic Radical Union R. Alfonsin was elected president.

In domestic policy, the government tried to find a way out of the crisis in the economy by creating new modern industries, attracting foreign capital, and intensifying business life. However, the measures taken did not bring the desired results.

In foreign policy Along with the country's commitment to "Western values," the government pursued a line of coordinating actions in the international arena with Latin American states and other developing countries, and active cooperation with the Non-Aligned Movement.

The acute economic crisis that the country is going through has also affected political situation; workers' dissatisfaction with the catastrophic rise in prices resulted in major social upheavals. At the May 1989 The general election was won by the candidate of the Justicialist Party, K. S. Menem.

The new government decided to pardon the military, guilty of human rights violations during the years of military dictatorships, as well as members of leftist paramilitary groups. In October 1989 after negotiations in Madrid, consular offices were restored, and in February 1990. diplomatic relations with Great Britain.

Thanks to this, the level of ties with other Western states, primarily with the EEC, has increased.

In foreign policy, the government of C. Menem took a course towards a more complete involvement of Argentina in the construction of a new world order, announced that the country belongs to the so-called "first world".

Argentina has withdrawn from the Non-Aligned Movement and is trying to orient itself on the position of the United States and other developed countries in the international arena.

Great importance is attached to the development of economic integration with Brazil and other countries of the region. March 1991 An agreement was signed between Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay on the creation of the South American common market - MERCOSUR.

Argentina is one of the most economically developed countries in Latin America. GDP per capita is more than double the regional average.

The country has a very diverse natural and economic potential: vast tracts of fertile lands, large energy resources (oil, natural gas, hydropower, the largest reserves of uranium ore in the region), diverse, although not very large deposits of minerals (zinc, copper, beryllium, iron ore, etc.). In terms of timber reserves, it is second only to Brazil and Chile in Latin America.

For a number of years, the government of K. Menem has been pursuing a course of economic recovery, the most important elements of which are the privatization of public sector enterprises (it is supposed to keep only defense, justice, education and healthcare under state control), tight budgetary control, opening the domestic market for competition from foreign companies, a new tax regime.

In 1991 he managed to achieve a turning point in the economic situation and, after years of stagnation, GDP growth amounted to 6.5% (one of the best indicators in the region). With US support, the Argentinean government reached an agreement with international monetary and financial organizations on the country's entry into the so-called "Brady plan" to refinance the country's external debt, which currently stands at over $62 billion.

Argentine energy has long focused on oil and gas; in the last two decades, this tilt has been partially overcome as a result of the transition (especially in the electric power industry) to the use of more diverse energy sources (hydroelectric and nuclear power plants).

The value of the extractive industry is relatively small; oil production plays the main role in it (3rd place in the region).

The level of development achieved by the Argentine manufacturing industry allows, to a large extent, to meet domestic needs for industrial products at the expense of national production.

In the structure of the Argentine manufacturing industry in recent decades, there have been noticeable changes and at present about 1/2 of the value of total industrial production falls on the metallurgical, machine-building, oil refining and chemical industries, while the share of traditional industries - food flavoring and textiles - has decreased to 1/3 .

Metallurgy is represented by the smelting of ferrous metals - mainly from imported raw materials (in 1991, 1.4 million tons of cast iron and ferroalloys, 3.1 million tons of steel), lead, zinc, aluminum, and tin were produced.

Transport and agricultural engineering, the production of simple types of metal-cutting machine tools, electrical engineering, pipes, cement, etc., have been developed.

Argentina also has industries associated with the most modern technologies (for example, electronic or nuclear industry), and they were created here earlier than in other Latin American countries.

The main branch of the agro-industrial complex is meat-packing; flour-grinding, wine-making, canning, textile, leather and footwear industries are also developed.

In many branches of the Argentinean manufacturing industry, especially the most advanced and dynamic ones, the influence of foreign capital is great.

Agriculture provides almost all domestic needs for food and industrial raw materials (with the exception of those types for the production of which the country does not have the necessary climatic conditions) and in many ways continues to characterize the position of Argentina in the international division of labor.

In terms of production of cereals (21.8 million tons in 1990/91), beef, wool, grapes, etc., the country ranks first in Latin America. It remains a major supplier to the world market of many types of food and agricultural raw materials from the temperate zone.

In the post-war period, Argentine agriculture has stagnated, due in no small part to the preservation of an archaic system of land ownership and land use. The main agricultural region of the country is Pampa.

The length of railways (used) - 34.1 thousand km; highway - 54.6 thousand km.

The main seaport is Buenos Aires.

There are 4 international airlines, 10 international airports.

The main export items are grain, meat, wool, wine, fruit, manufactured goods; imports - machinery, equipment, fuel, chemical products, equipment for power plants.

Foreign trade turnover (1991) - 18.6 billion dollars; active balance - 4 billion dollars.

The main trading partners are the countries of Western Europe, the USA, Japan, Brazil.

There are over 50 universities in Argentina, the largest of which, the University of Buenos Aires, has about 200,000 students.

Among the largest periodicals of the newspaper: "Clarin" (circulation - 480 thousand copies), "Kronika" (330 thousand), "Nation" (210 thousand), etc.

There are more than 200 radio stations and over 60 television centers.

There are government information Agency"Telenotisos americana" (Telam) and two private ones.

In 1989, Argentina embarked on revolutionary reforms that significantly reduced the degree of government intervention and control. The most important step in recent years has been the privatization of the pension system. The example of Argentina shows that even in very difficult economic circumstances, it is possible to make the transition from a pay-for-the-worker (ROI) pension system to competing private pension schemes with personal retirement accounts.

Under the CIT system, current employees collect a tax that is used to pay pensions to those who are no longer working. The total amount of social tax on employees and employers in Argentina in the past was up to 50%, which was an unbearable burden. Such taxes meant that private companies were not interested in hiring new workers. Employment in the private sector has stopped growing, and over the past two years, during the severe depression caused by the Mexican crisis, unemployment has reached 17%.

In an effort to avoid high social taxes and burdensome government control of the labor market, many workers and companies are moving into the underground economy. According to Argentine economists, a huge number (almost half) of all workers work informally or illegally.

Because so many workers did not pay social taxes, the dependency ratio, i.e. the number of pensioners per worker who actually pays social taxes, was only slightly less than one (one of the highest in the world). The result was a vicious circle: high social taxes in the legal economy led to an outflow of labor into the underground economy, which led to even higher taxes and further outflow of labor from the legal sector, etc.

The privatization program, launched in 1994, gives every worker the choice between the old system and making pension contributions (necessarily at least 111% of earnings) to one of the many private pension funds. After a sluggish start, the private system has grown rapidly, and by now more than 60% of workers have chosen one of the private pension funds.

In the near future, more than 90% of workers will be saving money for retirement through private programs. Employees have personal accounts where they accumulate funds for retirement by making contributions, as well as receiving dividends from the financial operations carried out by the fund. So far, the funds have invested primarily in government bonds, but as the Argentine economy emerges from the depression, they will invest more and more in private equity and private bonds. Such investments in private sector expand the Argentine capital market, lagging behind in comparison with other Latin American countries. High yields from pension funds should also boost savings once the Argentine economy fully emerges from the depression.

All pension funds transferred by employers are still used to pay pensions for those who are no longer working. However, despite the need to pay out old pension benefits and create new accounts for employees, the overall tax burden for employees and employers has been reduced by about 10%. The higher returns on private pension savings means that workers with personal retirement accounts can contribute less to them than under the old system, while still expecting higher pension payments. In addition, contributions to pension insurance are no longer a tax, but an investment in future retirement income, causing some workers to leave the underground economy for the legal sector. As a result, the contribution of employers to the on-load tap-changer system is increasing.

Economists usually express concerns about the transition from the RTC system to a private pension system. However, as the example of Argentina now shows, and as Chile has demonstrated with success over the past 15 years, such a transition can be made quite easily, despite the apparent double taxation, since a private system is much more efficient than an on-load tap-changer system.

Opponents continue to argue that the United States and Europe should not privatize their pension systems and scare retirees with the prospect of lower pension benefits. In fact, the transition to a private pension system in the Americas and Europe should be even easier than in Argentina, because there is a more developed capital market there, and the tax rates for continuing to pay pensions to the already unemployed, given the much lower dependence rate, are not must be so high. Moreover, delaying reform will make it increasingly difficult to implement, as the number of pensioners grows much faster than the number of workers.

Many countries in Central and of Eastern Europe currently deciding what type of pension system to choose. These countries can avoid the political and economic difficulties faced by Western Europe and most other countries by opting for a private pension system over the CTC system. Singapore, Hong Kong and other countries in Asia, where pension systems have been introduced in recent years, have taken into account the negative experience of Western Europe and avoid the introduction of the CTC system.

Economically developed countries should be ashamed that the pioneers in the privatization of the pension system were two countries that recently appeared on the economic map. In my opinion, pensioners and those working both in developed countries, and in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, would welcome privatization if they knew how successful the reform was in Argentina - a country with much more serious economic problems than those of any of the most stagnant economies in Europe.

In connection with the deep financial crisis that hit Russia at the end this summer, what plans for saving the ruble are not put forward! Among them are methods that have already been tested in other countries, for example, the notorious Argentine version of the country's withdrawal from the inflation impasse. Without claiming to be an economic analysis of the "Argentine miracle", we offer a special point of view on the reforms of the Argentines of their neighbors - the Brazilians, set out long before the current crisis.

In the early 1990s, Argentina's Economy Minister Domingo Cavalle proposed a package of reforms, the implementation of which quickly brought the country out of the crisis. Inflation was stopped, the national currency, the peso, stabilized. If in 1989 the inflation rate was 200% per month, in 1993 it did not exceed 0.7% over the same period of time. In 1992, Argentina got rid of the budget deficit, the annual GDP growth was 9%, the living standards of its 33 million people improved, and the government even had to face the problem of increased demand in the consumer market.

According to Cavalier's plan, the gold standard was introduced for the peso, and the national currency was tied to the dollar as 1:1. It was the dollarization of the economy that became the key to the success of Cavalier's reforms, since Argentines could exchange their pesos for an equal amount of dollars and transfer them to foreign banks. Which they did. According to the most general data, the accounts of Argentine citizens in foreign banks are 50 billion dollars. Pegging the national currency to the dollar helped attract this money to the country's economy. So, if at the beginning of the reforms the dollar reserve of the Argentine Central Bank was 4.8 billion dollars, then after 2 years - 12.8 billion.

But the dollarization of the peso also has its downsides. Buenos Aires is among the most expensive cities in the world, while the annual income of the average Argentine is only $6,700. Such an income is clearly not enough to live up to such high standards. For example, the average annual income of an American is $24,700, while that of a Japanese is $20,400.

According to Brazilian economists, Cavalier's reforms have other pitfalls. So, in 1989. GDP was equal to 70 billion dollars, in 1990. its growth was zero, and in 1991. it doubled and amounted to 140 billion. This situation confirms the defectiveness of the system of pegging the dollar to the national currency introduced in the country, Brazilian economist Juan Canaves believes. The fact is that the quotation of the dollar against the peso was by no means set on the basis of the indicators of the current economic situation in Argentina, but rather from populist goals. For example, the annual inflation rate in the country is 15%. Compared to the rate of past hyperinflation, this is very little. But compared to the dollar inflation rate, which is 3% per year, this is already quite a lot. But the Argentinean economy is aligned with the dollar. The different inflation rates of the dollar and the peso raise other questions.

Prices in Argentina are rising five times faster than those in the US (15:3), and this difference leads to higher prices in the country and a reduction in exports. At the same time, there is a significant increase in imports, since their prices are not so high. For example. In just 2 years after the introduction of reforms, the volume of imports increased from $4 billion in 1990 to to 15 billion in 1992, and the foreign trade deficit thus amounted to 2.6 billion dollars. As a solution to the problem of the trade deficit, the government has introduced an import tax, but this is clearly not enough, according to Brazilian market analysts.

All these disadvantages of the Argentine dollarization can make themselves felt in times of economic crisis. Namely, such times are coming today for Latin America, where the epicenter of the global financial crisis is slowly shifting. Buenos Aires is watching with interest the trip to Russia of the architect of the current Argentine economic system, Domingo Cavallo, who offered the Russian leadership his recipe for bringing the country out of the crisis. In his homeland in the early 90s, he managed to prove the effectiveness of the methods he proposed. Galloping inflation was stopped, and the Argentine peso was equated to the US dollar.

The experience of Argentina in the fight against inflation, of course, deserves the closest interest, although its copying in Russian conditions, in my opinion, is hardly possible due to a number of reasons.

First, Cavallo reformed the economy, which never lived under the dictation of the State Planning Commission. In other words, he only updated the Argentine model of capitalism, which, in the face of fierce competition on the world stage, began to lag behind due to the legacy inherited from General Juan Peron and the military juntas.

Secondly, it is important to note that Cavallo enjoyed the full support of Argentine President Carlos Menem, who for 5 years in a row retained the portfolio of Minister of Economy despite countless attacks from a great many opponents of the reform. Only after it was successfully completed, between Menem and Cavallo, whose tough course were sharply dissatisfied with the trade unions, there was a break, and they became sworn enemies.

50-year-old Cavallo graduated first National University Cordova, and then studied in the USA, at Harvard. By the time he took over the reins of the Argentine economy, the country had beaten every conceivable inflation record.

Suffice it to say that from March 1989 to March 1990. year this level amounted to an astronomical figure - 20200 percent! Having received a salary, the Argentines literally ran to the nearest exchange office to convert it to dollars. At that time, the country was in circulation currency unit the austral, which over the 6 years of its existence has devalued at an unprecedented pace - inflation has reached 5.1 million percent.

The first two economic ministers in Menem's cabinet were unable to cope with inflation. And then in January 1991. Cavallo, who by that time was acting minister of foreign affairs and cult, was thrown to this front.

He began by holding many meetings with representatives of the business community and enlisted their support. This was followed by a law on monetary reform, which established a fixed exchange rate for the peso (1 peso = 1 US dollar) and eliminated wage indexation, which was directly dependent on inflation.

At the same time, the Central Bank began to print money in strict accordance with the dollar supply, which was purchased to create foreign exchange reserves (a special decree stated that the main task of the Central Bank was to preserve the value of the national currency).

More than 7 years have passed since then, during which Argentina has become a country where the annual inflation rate is less than 1 percent. Funny moment: the convertibility plan began to be implemented on April 1, which in Argentina is called “the day of the naive”. However, this did not prevent the work of a very serious working body created by Cavallo - the committee on currency management. A broad privatization plan was implemented in the country, affecting everything from natural monopolies to zoos and cemeteries.

Another merit of Cavallo was that under him the national treasury ceased to be a "trough" of those who had connections in the government. The Ministry of Finance was forbidden to finance any economic projects if the required amounts made a hole in the national budget.

In other words, entrepreneurs were given to understand: if you want to finance this or that project, look for money abroad. Thanks to this, the budget deficit has been shrinking from year to year and by the year 2000 should be reduced to the long-awaited zero.

To date, the entire money supply circulating in the country is equivalent to the foreign exchange reserves of the Central Bank, which have increased from 6 to 23 billion dollars. During the implementation of the Cavallo plan, bank reserves in Argentina increased from $6 billion to $72 billion.

The economic growth of the country over the past 7 years has been stable at 7 - 8 percent per year, with the exception of the period when the whole of Latin America experienced Negative consequences crisis in Mexico, called the “tequila effect” (after the popular local drink - cactus vodka).

All this confirms the correctness of the course taken at the beginning of the decade by Cavallo, but by no means guarantees that the application of his experience in Russia will bring similar results. It is worth remembering that the President of Ecuador, Abdala Bukaram, who eventually lost his post, took advantage of Cavallo's advice last year. The program developed by Cavallo to reform the Ecuadorian economy led to an explosion of popular discontent, resulting in the resignation of the government. True, the national economy had recovered by that time.

Opponents of the economic miracle worker from Buenos Aires argue that his methodology is most suitable for small countries such as Bulgaria or Estonia. However, Argentina itself cannot be called “small”.

Sergei Sereda “ARGENTINA: her example is science to others” BUENOS AIRES, Izvestia newspaper, No. 178-98.

Materials of the immigration bureau "Agency VISA-SERVICE".

Lika Vorobieva "Pros and cons of Argentine dollarization". Foreigner #28:98g

Irina MAK, Ada SHMERLING “Finding the motherland in the rhythm of tango”, Foreigner #41:97.

Gary S. BECKER, “C Project Syndicate”, 1996, Central European University.

Mikhail SOKOLOVSKY (based on the materials of the magazine. Time.). Internet - magazine "Mirror Weekly" 1998.

Argentina benefits from rich natural resources, a highly literate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector, and a diverse industrial base. As one of the richest countries in the world 100 years ago, Argentina for most of the 20th century suffered from periodic economic crises, constant financial and current account deficits, high inflation, which caused the country's external debt to rise and capital outflows. The growth of domestic and foreign debt and the banking crisis have reached highest point in 2001 and entered the most serious economic, social and political crisis in modern history countries. Interim President Adolfo Rodríguez Saha defaulted - the largest in history - on the government's foreign debt in December 2001, and immediately resigned just days after taking office. His successor, Eduardo Duhalde, announced that the peso would be pegged 1 to 1 to the US dollar for ten years from 2002. The economy bottomed out in 2001 with real GDP 18% less than in 1998 and almost 60% of Argentines the poverty line.

Over the next six years, Argentina's real GDP grew by an average of 8.5% annually. During these years, the government of the country actively took advantage of the previously unemployed production capacity and labor force, boldly restructured debt and reduced the debt burden, took advantage of the opportunities of the international financial market, and expansionary principles of monetary and tax policy. Inflation also increased in those six years, however, by the beginning of 2007, during the government of President Néstor Kirchner, who introduced price restrictions for companies, export taxes and restrictions, its pace began to decrease.

Cristina Fernandez De Kirchner was elected president after her husband in late 2007. In 2008, the rapid economic growth of previous years began to slow down sharply due to the global economic crisis, as well as the government's policy of curbing exports. In 2009, the country experienced an economic downturn, but then in 2010, the economy of Argentina began to grow again. Yet the government's expansionary fiscal and monetary policies run the risk of increasing domestic inflation.

On this moment The Republic of Argentina is considered one of the main developing economies. In turn, the size of the economy and its growth allow Argentina to be part of the G20. Argentina is an industrial-agrarian country. GDP per capita at purchasing power parity of currencies 14.2 thousand US dollars (in 2008, 2nd place in Latin America, after Chile).

Structure of GDP (in 2008): Agriculture - 9.9%. Plant growing (wheat, corn, sunflower, fruit), animal husbandry (beef cattle breeding, meat and wool sheep breeding).

Industry - 32.7%. Mechanical engineering (including transport, agricultural, machine tool building), food (including meat-packing, grain-grinding), metallurgy, mining, oil refining, petrochemical, woodworking.

Services - 57.4%. Tourism, trade, etc.

External debt - 129 billion dollars (in 2008).

Agriculture in Argentina

Food production is traditionally one of the main sectors of the economy (8-9% of GDP), with a relatively high level of which Argentina stands out among Latin American countries. Argentina's agriculture almost completely satisfies its own food needs, while being one of its leading exporters. Especially developed is the production of grains (grain and oilseeds), which leads the export of the country. In particular, soybean production (together with beans, potatoes, oil, flour and biofuels) is (like gasoline production) a major export activity. The country ranks second in South America and third in the world in soybean production and export. Almost 100% of soybeans produced are of transgenic origin. In addition, deforestation for soybean fields has led to deforestation in the north of the country.

Agricultural land occupies 138 million hectares in the country, but only a fifth of it is cultivated. The remaining areas are occupied by meadows and pastures.

Animal husbandry plays a leading role in the country's agriculture. Cattle breeding, which brings raw materials for the meat industry, is a particularly important sector, numbering about 48 million head of livestock in 2010 (one of the first places in the world), although in recent years, soybean cultivation has forced less valuable land to be converted to this industry. The protective duties introduced in 2005 led to a 15% decrease in the number of livestock.

Dairy production amounted to 10.1 million tons in 2009 and continues to grow, with 20% of milk being exported. The return of milk from a cow has increased significantly in recent years. However, dairy farmers have to compete for land with crop producers. About 45% of processed milk goes to cheese production. Dairy farming zones have developed around Buenos Aires, in the south of the province of Santa Fe and in some areas of Córdoba. Beef is the basis of the diet of the population. In 2011, 2.5 million metric tons of meat were produced on a carcass weight basis. Agriculture also specializes in sheep breeding, which is the second major industry.

Additionally, the production of vegetables and fruits, which account for 3% of exports, is of some importance. Important centers for the production of apples and pears are in the rural areas of Patagonia, in northeastern regions sugar, citrus fruits and tobacco are produced, livestock breeding is developing in the east, an industry that was moved to the Wet Pampas after the development of land for soybeans and other crops. In the Argentinean Mesopotamia, citrus fruits are grown, and in Cuyo there are large olive plantations, in addition, eggs and especially wine are produced here. The region is the first wine producer in Latin America and the fourth in the world (16 million hecaliters per year).

A distinctive feature of Argentina's agriculture compared to other Latin American countries is the fact that it not only fully provides itself with food, but also exports it. In terms of food consumption per capita, the country surpasses other countries in the region, and in terms of meat consumption - developed countries.

Fishing. The Argentine Sea sits above a long offshore platform that is extremely rich in marine resources. It extends for 550 km to the 52nd parallel and is 1,890,000 km2. Initially, fishing developed as a secondary industry, and due to the crisis in the population of hake, the main marine product in Argentina, caused by unregulated fishing in the 1990s, its exports decreased from 3% to 2%. 2010 was a record year for fish exports (worth $1.33 billion). Until now, the country consumes no more than 5-7% of the fish caught, since the diet of Argentines is tied to meat.

Forestry. To date, the territory forest areas Argentina is 33 million 190 thousand hectares, the country has lost about 70% of its forests over the past 100 years. Logging and furniture production, mainly from pine and eucalyptus, is expanding. The centers of production are the provinces of Mesopotamia. Exports exceed 2% of the total.

Industry of Argentina

Industrial production is the main sector in terms of contribution to GDP, about 23% of the volume (2005). In addition, the industrial sector is the main one in terms of generating employment for the population (together with trade and the public sector). According to the 2001 Census, 12% of the population worked in the sector and this figure continues to grow. The contribution of construction to GDP is 5% (2005).

Since 2003, the industry has entered a phase of renewal, the growth of which depends mainly on the high dollar. Although industrial production was oriented towards change, the automotive industry brought about 7% of exports, and metallurgy - 3%. Other important industries are textiles, footwear, food, chemicals, paper, forestry and woodworking.

Argentina is characterized by the predominance of the manufacturing industry, and it is dominated by heavy industry; however, the traditional branches of the light industry and especially the food industry still occupy an important place and are of export importance. The location of industry is characterized by a high territorial concentration: a significant part of the industrial enterprises of heavy industry is concentrated in the lower reaches of the Parana River, in the industrial belt between Buenos Aires and Rosario; more than half of industrial output is produced in Greater Buenos Aires.

Greater Buenos Aires is one of the most important industrial zones of the country, where most of Argentina's industrial activity is concentrated. Other important centers are Cordoba, Rosario, Tucumán, Mendoza, San Luis and Tierra del Fuego, which promote the decentralization of industry.

Mining industry. The second line of Argentina's exports is gasoline, natural gas, petrochemical products, which account for 20% of total exports. The main deposits are in Patagonia, Cuyo and the northeast; the province of Neuquen is located in the center of the hydrocarbon production zone. A network of oil and gas pipelines transports them to Bahia Blanca, the main pool of petrochemicals, as well as to the industrial conurbation between Rosario and La Plata, in the middle of which is Greater Buenos Aires.

In terms of oil production, the country ranks fourth in Latin America. Production fully meets the needs of the country. Argentina is among the top ten countries in terms of uranium reserves. The country is known for its scientific developments in the field of nuclear.

The country's ferrous metallurgy is the oldest on the continent, but it is developing rather slowly, with a large load on capacities due to a lack of raw materials. Of the non-ferrous metallurgy industries, the following are developed: the production of lead, zinc, copper, and aluminum based on domestic and imported raw materials.

Historically, mining in Argentina has been insignificant, but in the last ten years it has begun to grow, mainly due to ores: gold, platinum, zinc, manganese, uranium, copper and sulfur. Mineral resources are concentrated near the Cordillera for 4,500 km. The export of mined raw materials brought in 200 million dollars in 1996, and in 2004 - 1.200 million dollars, which is more than 3% of the total volume.

Mechanical engineering occupies a leading position in terms of the cost of production in heavy industry. The most developed are transport engineering, agricultural engineering, the production of equipment for the food industry, and electrical engineering. In transport engineering, the automotive industry is in the lead, shipbuilding and aircraft building are developed.

Among export industries special place is occupied by the meat-packing industry, a traditional and country-specific industry. Argentina is one of the most significant producers of meat, mainly beef, and its exporters.

Of other branches of the food industry, the production of vegetable oils, in recent years - soybean, flour-grinding, oil-pressing, and wine-making have been of export importance. Fruit and vegetable, canning, sugar industries, and beverage production are oriented to the domestic market. One of the typical branches of the Argentinean industry is leather and footwear.

Foreign trade of Argentina

Export development 1991-2007. Since the introduction of the “Law on Currency Convertibility” in 1991, Argentine exports, both agricultural and industrial, have shown significant growth (there was a tripling of 2001 volumes in the amount of 26.500 million dollars), simultaneously with against the backdrop of a favorable climate, new directions appeared and the trade balance was evened out. So the main directions of trade are Mercosur, European Union and NAFTA, but trade exchanges with China, Russia, India and other countries have allowed the country to increase investment in the world market.

In the primary sector of the economy, agricultural products dominate in terms of volume, but also the secondary sector - mining and energy - have been increasing in volume since the 1990s.

Manufactured goods, food, beverages and tobacco appear as the main ones. Durable goods (automotive industry) and engineering in general have reduced their share of exports over the past decade. Natural resources necessary for advanced production in the field of conventional and high technologies. The composition of exports in 2006: Production of agricultural origin (Spanish: Manufacturas de Origen Agropecuario (MOA)) - 33%; Production of industrial origin (Spanish Manufacturas de Origen Industrial (MOI)) - 32%; Raw materials (Spanish Productos Primarios (PP)) - 19% and the remaining 16% - Fuel and Energy (Spanish Combustible y Energia (CyE)).

The composition of imports is divided by importance into intermediate goods, means of production, items and accessories of means of production, consumer goods, passenger vehicles, fuels and lubricants. These imports come from Brazil (the main trading partner), USA, Germany, Italy, Japan and Spain. In percentage terms, imports are distributed as follows: intermediate goods - 35%, means of production - 25%, items and accessories of means of production - 17%, consumer goods - 12%, passenger vehicles - 6%, fuels and lubricants - 5%.

Exports in 2008 amounted to 70.589 million dollars, and imports - 57.413 million dollars. Mercosur continues to be the top trading partner, with 23% of shipments going to and 16% of deliveries coming from. Since the beginning of the financial crisis in 2009, exports have fallen to $56.060 million and imports to $35.214 million. International trade:

Exports - soybeans, oil and gas, cars, wheat, corn, non-ferrous metals. Main export partners (for 2010): Brazil - 21.2%, China - 9.1%, China - 7.0%, USA - 5.4%.

Imports - machinery and equipment, vehicles, chemical products, metals, plastics. Main import partners (for 2010): Brazil - 34.5%, USA - 13.8%, China - 11.4%, Germany - 5.0%.

Argentine trade with Russia

The structure of Russian exports in 2010 was dominated by products of the chemical industry (mainly mineral fertilizers) - 89.1%. About 10% was the export of machinery and equipment. Argentina supplied mainly (87.2%) food products and agricultural raw materials. Textiles, leather and chemical goods accounted for 11% in the structure of imports to the Russian Federation. Trade turnover amounted to 1.1 billion dollars and decreased by 17% compared to 2009. However, over the decade, trade turnover has increased more than 10 times.

Argentina Tourism

In comparison with neighboring countries, tourism is not poorly developed in Argentina. This is perhaps the only area (if you do not take into account the not bad demand for computer specialists in various areas of the economy) in which you can still find work at the present time.

For tourists, Buenos Aires, which is called the Paris of South America, will be of particular interest. The city is famous for its many museums, including National Gallery, in 34 halls of which, hundreds of works by many Argentine artists are constantly exhibited, as well as famous paintings by Van Gogh, Picasso, Rodin, Renoir and others. Buenos Aires impresses with its modern and ancient architecture, its numerous cathedrals. The Colon Theater is one of the best opera houses peace. The acoustics of this hall is considered ideal. It is believed that the historical birthplace of tango is Buenos Aires. Numerous restaurants are located literally on every corner of Buenos Aires. Argentina - real paradise for meat lovers. Local wines, especially red ones, are very good. Just a few hundred kilometers from this metropolis, the world of virgin nature begins. The grandiose cascades of waterfalls, which are not inferior in size to Niagara, literally fascinate tourists. In numerous National parks Argentina is home to a tenth of the species of living beings that live on our planet, including 2,500 species of fish, as well as over fifty thousand plants. In the west of Argentina, tourists will be interested in the picturesque foothills of the Andes. Huge blue, thundering glaciers, among the picturesque nature, amaze with their grandeur. Argentina also has high-altitude resorts that are in no way inferior in terms of service, nature and climate to the Swiss Alps.

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work, materials from the site were used.