Special mention should be made of the so-called tea ceremony (chanoyu in Japanese). This ceremony is one of the most original, unique and ancient arts. It has played a significant role in the spiritual and social life of the Japanese for several centuries. Tyanoyyu is a strictly painted ritual in which a tea master participates - the one who brews tea, pours it, and those who are present at the same time and then drink it. The first one is the priest performing the tea action, the second ones are the participants of the action who join it. Everyone has their own style of behavior, covering both the posture when sitting, and all movements, and facial expressions, and manner of speech. Aesthetics of chanoyyu, its refined ritual obeys the canons of Zen Buddhism. According to legend, it originates from China since the time of the first patriarch of Buddhism, Bodhidharma.

One day, the legend says, while sitting in meditation, Bodhidharma felt that his eyes were closing and against his will he was falling asleep. Then, angry with himself, he tore out his eyelids and threw them to the ground. An unusual bush with succulent leaves soon grew in this place. Later, the disciples of Bodhidharma began to brew these leaves hot water The drink helped keep them awake.

In fact, the tea ceremony originated in China long before the advent of Buddhism. According to many sources, it was introduced by Lao Tzu. It was he who in the 5th century. BC e., legends testify, proposed a ritual with a cup of “golden elixir”. This ritual flourished in China until the Mongol invasion. Later, the Chinese reduced the ceremony with the "golden elixir" to a simple brewing of dried leaves of the tea bush.

In Japan, the art of chanoyu has reached its logical conclusion.

This religion penetrated, as already noted, into Japan in the 6th century, when Buddhist monks began to penetrate the Japanese islands. Buddhist scriptures written in Chinese were the first to appear in Japan. The traditional forms of Japaneseized Buddhism have some peculiarities of their own.

As already mentioned, the founder of Buddhism (Buddha) was born in the VI century. BC e. in the princely family of Shakiev (Powerful), he was named Siddhartha, and when he came of age, he was given the name Gautama. That is, the Japanese accept the legend of Gautama completely. As well as the fact that Gautama's father kept his son-heir away from worldly affairs, drove him on a gilded chariot, hiding from the eyes of strangers. The young prince did not know worries, bathed in luxury and did not know real life. One day, however, he saw a poor old man, another time a cripple, a third time a dead man, and a fourth time a wandering hermit. What he saw shocked Gautama and changed his fate. He abandoned a rich inheritance, left his wife and son, and at the age of 29 became a wandering ascetic.

According to the Japanese interpretation, Gautama spent six years wandering, living on alms. One night, sitting under the Bo tree (Bodhi, which means “knowledge”) in deep thought, he understood the meaning of life - enlightenment descended on him. Gautama learned the four holy truths: life is fundamentally suffering; the cause of suffering is the passions, needs, desires of people; to get rid of suffering, one must stop all desires; this can only be done by avoiding reality and achieving the “highest enlightenment” - nirvana.

From the time Gautama became a Buddha (Buddha in Sanskrit means “enlightened”, “enlightened”, and the Japanese also borrowed this concept), they began to call him Shakya-Muni (saint from the Shaki family).

later life The Buddha devoted himself to preaching his teachings. He died at the age of 80. Followers, including those in Japan, began to endow him with various supernatural abilities: he could be invisible, fly through the air, walk on water, hold the sun and moon in his hands, etc. Gradually, the Buddha acquired other divine qualities in people's ideas .

The main thing in Japaneseized Buddhism is a departure from everyday reality. Buddhism preaches renunciation of passions, proclaims the futility of worldly worries, and calls for peace of mind.

A Buddhist, as follows from the canons, should flee from samsara (the material, sensual world) in order to move into the world of nirvana. According to the teachings of the Buddha, samsara is an illusory world, and nirvana is the real world. Reality, as follows from the tenets of Buddhism, is the movement of specific particles - dharmas. Everything in the world is formed from a combination of dharmas. Buddhist scholastics number from 70 to 100 varieties of dharmas. There are also certain groups of dharmas: the dharmas of being and non-being (that which is born and disappears, and that which exists forever); dharmas of excitement and peace (that which is subject to passion and fuss, and that which strives for calm); dharmas of mental states (feeling of a favorable, unfavorable and indifferent attitude to the environment); cognitive dharmas (sensation, perception, representation); dharmas of consciousness and subconsciousness (abstractions controlled by consciousness and that which is not controlled by consciousness).

Dharmas, according to Buddhism, never disappear, but only combine into various structures. In this regard, human death is understood as the disintegration of one structure of dharmas and the appearance of another in the form of a person, animal, insect, plant, etc. Life, according to Buddhism, is a chain of endless rebirths. To ensure a “good rebirth”, not to be reborn, let’s say , into a snake or an insect, one must observe the precepts of Buddhism. The idea of ​​a person's place in the world is set forth in numerous messages of the Buddha. Their essence is clearly seen in the Buddha's address to his disciples before his death.

“Let the teaching illuminate the path of life for you! Rely on it; don't trust anything else. Be your own light. Rely only on yourself; don't rely on others. Take care of your body, take care of its cleanliness; do not give in to temptations; don't you know that temptations will bring you suffering? Take care of your soul; know; that it is eternal; Are you not convinced that forgetfulness of it, your pride and selfishness will bring you incalculable suffering? Be attentive to everything that surrounds you; don't you see that it's all eternal "self"? Don't you know that all this will eventually fall apart and be dispelled? Do not be afraid of suffering, follow my precepts and you will get rid of them. Do everything with your soul - and you will be my faithful disciples.

My friends... Do not forget that death is only the disintegration of the body. The body was given to us by our parents. It is nourished by food, so sickness and death are inevitable. But you know that Buddha is not a body, it is Enlightenment. The body will disappear, but the wisdom of enlightenment will remain forever. Enlightenment will live with you in the form of Dharma. Anyone who has seen my body has not yet seen me. I was seen by the one who knew my teaching. After my death, my Dharma will be your teacher. Follow this Dharma and you will be faithful to me.”

Of course, early Buddhism was somewhat different from the one that penetrated Japan. So, in early Buddhism, the emphasis was not on worldview issues, but on the norms of human behavior. These norms did not deny what was contained in already tested codes of life acceptable to this or that ethnic group. As a result, Buddhism quickly won numerous adherents. His victorious march from India to South and East Asia began in the 3rd century. BC e. At the turn of the new era, Buddhism spread in China, in the 4th century. in Korea and in the VI-VII centuries. established in Japan.

Naturally, such a huge religion in terms of the number of adherents could not maintain unity and rather soon began to split into sects. The most significant split occurred in the 1st century, when two directions were defined within the framework of Buddhism: Hinayana and Mahayana.

Confucianism in Japan

Usually, Confucianism is understood as a religious and philosophical system that arose in China 2500 years ago. However, at the time of the victorious spread of this system in various countries of Asia, including Japan, there was no separate word in Chinese for the concept of “religion”: the hieroglyph jiao (in Japanese ke) used in such cases also meant religion , and teaching. It was in this understanding that Confucianism was perceived by the Japanese.

Writing in ancient Japan

=^_^= ancient japan=^_^= Yumi (弓) - Japanese bow (part 1) The art of archery in medieval Japan was known under the general term shagei ("the ability to shoot a bow"), although nowadays it is better known as kyu-jutsu (" the art or technique of the bow") or kyu-do ("the way of the bow"). For the medieval Japanese warrior, the meaning of the words "war" and "bow and arrow" (yumi-ya) were synonymous. People spoke of the god of war Hachiman as yumi-ya-no-hachiman; the left hand in Japanese is yunde (yumi-no-te - "the hand in which the bow is held"). In general, the Japanese have always considered the left hand to be more important than the right. Interestingly, if a person did not have a little finger on his left hand, then it was assumed that he would no longer be able to wield a sword well. Apparently, this is the origin of the custom of cutting off one's own little finger on the left hand as atonement for a serious offense. This tradition has been preserved among the Japanese yakuza mafia to this day. A sharp rise in interest in the bow among the ancient Japanese is observed in the second half of the Yamato period (300-710), which was caused by the appearance of horses brought from the continent at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th centuries. This caused a revolution in tactics and weaponry. Infantry armed with axes, spears and short swords are replaced by horsemen with bows and long swords. However, the ite archer, also called yumi-tori ("bow holder") or uma-yumi ("mounted archer"), was indispensably a noble warrior in ancient Japan. The bushi military aristocracy and the kuge court nobility were trained in the use of the bow from childhood. The size of the army in ancient Japan was also measured by the number of bows, that is, the number of noble well-armed horsemen. For comparison, in medieval Europe the army was counted by the number of spears, that is, the number of knights whose main weapon was a spear. During the 10th and early 11th centuries, the growing availability of horses led to further changes in combat tactics, which were now largely determined by the ability of warriors to shoot arrows at full gallop, and at the last moment change course to regroup. The ability to wield a bow came to be considered so important that the term kyusen-no-ie came to mean "family of the samurai", although it literally means "family of the bow and arrow." Ancient yumi bows were simple, that is, they were made from a single piece of wood. However, even then that unique asymmetric shape developed that cannot be found anywhere else in the world: about two thirds of the length of the bow is above the handle, and only one third is below. This allowed the equestrian archer to hold a large bow in an upright position and not touch the horse’s neck at the same time. yumi-shi bow makers used a large slotted yudame wooden block, one end of which lay on the floor and the other was raised about 0.5 m above the ground. made of hemp, Chinese nettle or silk (silk was usually used for ceremonial bows), and waxed to make the surface hard and smooth. Strings varied greatly in quality, from strong, strong bowstrings for combat bows to soft and flexible strings (kusune) used primarily for sporting and hunting bows. At the ends, the shoulders of the bow (kata) thinned out, forming horns (otokane), to which the bowstring was attached. The horns were sometimes covered with metal; when fired, the string struck them, making a sound often used to give a signal. For example, when the emperor needed water for washing in the morning, three of his servants signaled this by making a ringing sound on their bows. It was possible to estimate the strength of a bow by counting how many people it takes to pull it. A bow that could only be drawn after being bent by two people was called a sannin-bari. A spare gen string was worn in a quiver or on a special reed or leather tsurumaki reel, often richly decorated. Nearly all traditional bows were varnished to protect the glued parts from moisture so that they would not weaken. Outside of battle, on the road or during storage, for protection, the bow was placed in a cloth bow tied at the ends. Of course, the composite bows of Asian nomads were also known in Japan, but the Japanese rarely used them. According to this design, only short bows were made. The probable reason for this fact is that the horns and tendons needed for such bows came from the slaughter of cattle, and few cattle were kept, because most of the Japanese were Buddhists and it was disgusting for them to eat meat and generally touch anything, which comes from dead animals. Like most Asiatics, the Japanese drew back the string with the thumb of their right hand, keeping it bent under the arrow; index and middle fingers rested on the nail of the thumb. This requires the arrow to be on the right side of the bow from the archer's point of view, rather than on the left side as when drawing the string with the index and middle fingers. Unlike the Chinese, the Japanese apparently did not use stone or ivory rings to protect their thumbs, instead they wore a leather yugake glove. Gloves worn during training often covered only the index and middle fingers, and had an enlarged thumb reinforced with cornea or skin where it meets the bowstring. During the fight, when such a glove would interfere with the handling of a sword or even arrows, a pair of more ordinary gloves was worn, again reinforced, but only with a small piece of a second layer of skin on the inside of the thumb of the right hand. The two middle fingers of the glove, the middle and ring fingers, often for some reason differed in color from the others. the ends of the left arm were extended straight, and the right hand was near the ear. Another style, used by foot soldiers, was reminiscent of European style - when the bowstring began, the bow was held horizontally at waist level. >>>>>>>>>>to be continued

ancient japan It is a country of mysteries and mysteries. For quite a long time the country rising sun was completely closed off from outsiders. In those distant times, Japan was a rather curious sight. The most important thing is that various borrowings from other cultures (Chinese for example) and the peculiar way of traditional culture have been brewing in their juice for centuries. And when all this wealth (as well as Chinese culture) poured out on an unsuspecting researcher who accidentally got there, it caused an incredible interest to study. Today everyone will say that he knows enough about the culture of this country. But you can not know about culture and not know about history. Therefore, today we will once again delve into ancient times ...

Story

Etymological note

Jōmon period got its name from the term "jomon" ("rope trace"), the so-called technique for decorating pottery and dogu figurines with cord ornaments, which became widespread during this period. The Japanese word was used to translate the phrase Cord Marked Pottery, which was used by one of the first researchers of the Neolithic culture of Japan Edward Morse in 1879 to describe pottery from the site Omori. Prior to World War II, the equivalent term "Stone Age" was also used for the name of the Jōmon period.

Today we will take a closer look Jōmon period (縄文時代 - rope ornament era). This is the period of history from 13,000 BC to 300 AD. This period coincides, according to the archaeological periodization of the history of the countries of the West, with the periods of the Mesolithic and Neolithic. Historians believe that last ice age connected the Japanese islands with the Asian part of the mainland. Judging by archaeological finds, in the 35th - 30th millennium BC, a reasonable man moved to the islands from the eastern and southeastern parts of Asia and already knew how to hunt well, use a bow and arrow in hunting, engage in gathering, river and sea fishing and make various stone and bone tools and utensils made of baked clay. Of the domestic animals in the archipelago, dogs and pigs were known.

In those days, the population of the Japanese islands represented numerous tribal communities. They were mainly engaged in gathering, hunting and fishing. It is not known for certain whether there was a written language in those days. Some scholars - linguists agree that it was absent as a kind of system. But one cannot deny the fact that if it is not known about it, then it did not exist. IN Lately there is some evidence that it did exist (some data on the Ainu language) It is known that in those days traditional moments for Japan, such as rice cultivation* or martial arts have not yet been created.

*Rice growing- the field of agriculture, which is engaged in the cultivation and storage of rice crops. It is noteworthy that the culture of rice cultivation left a serious imprint on the social structure of ancient Japan. The facts are widely known that the salaries of samurai and daimyo followed by a measure known as ** coca or other measures of rice. The higher the salary, the higher the social position of a person.

**Koku(Japanese 石, Chinese 石, pinyin: Dàn, (read as “shí” in ancient Chinese) is a traditional Japanese measure of volume, approximately equal to 180.39 liters.

Throughout the period Jomon the ancients lived in dugouts and semi-dugouts, traditional dwellings pre-ceramic era . The dwelling was sunk into the ground, had earthen walls and floors, and a frame of wooden poles that supported a roof made of animal skins, grass and brushwood. Dugouts from the Jōmon period varied by region. Most of them are found in Eastern Japan; less - in the Western. The ancient settlers had rather small houses ( 20-30 m2) and usually a family of not 5 people or more lived in such dwellings. Evidence of such a number of inhabitants is a find at the Ubayama site ( Chiba Ichikawa *), where the burial of a family in a dugout was discovered - two men, two women and one child.

*Ichikawa(市川市) is a city in Japan located in Chiba Prefecture. The area of ​​the city is 57.40 km², the population is 475,630 people (June 1, 2010), the population density is 8286.24 people / km².

Several dwellings formed a kind of settlement. In the oldest version of Jomon, it consisted of approximately 2 - 3 dugouts. In the early Jōmon, the number of housing increased, probably gradually people got used to a settled way of life. Housing was built around the square at approximately the same distance. This area was the center of social and religious life of the settlement.

Religion

The most truthful sources about the beginnings of religion among the first inhabitants of the Japanese islands are a kind of grave goods. It is he who allows us to say that the ancients believed that a person after death enters the afterlife and his essence leads his stay there. The inventory included various things that the deceased used during his lifetime. It could have been tools, scallops, and so on. Most often, shell bracelets and belts made of deer antler are found in burials. The first were made from large shells glycimeris (shellfish) or rappana, in the middle of which they made a hole for the hand and polished to a shine; the latter were made from a fork of a deer antler and covered with complex ornamentation. Jewelry had not only an aesthetic, but also a ritual and magical function. Bracelets were usually worn by women, and belts by men. The quantity and richness of the decor of decorations indicated not social, but gender and age differentiation.

The peculiar custom of pulling out or sawing teeth also speaks of age differentiation. During the life of a young man, a certain number of incisors or fangs were removed, which marked his entry into a group of adults. The method and order of pulling out teeth was different in time and in regions. There was also a custom of filing four incisors of the upper jaw in the form of small tridents or bidents. The implementation of such operations required appropriate surgical skills.

Another artifact associated with the religious beliefs of the inhabitants of those times are ceramic female figurines * dogu.

*Dogu or " jōmon venuses". The oldest example of such a figurine was found at the Hanawadai site (Sakura, Chiba), which dates from the early Jomon. Depending on the style of execution, dogu are classified into several types: flat, cylindrical, embossed with legs, with triangular faces, owl-like, with ocular eyes. Almost all figurines depict women with a large, possibly pregnant, belly. As a rule, they are found in a broken state. It is believed that dogu symbolized the feminine, family, fertility and were used in rituals associated with the cult of fertility. Associated with the same cult phallic symbols- Sekibo stone clubs, stone swords and knives, which personify the masculine principle, power, authority.

It was in those distant times that the mythological pantheon of the Shinto religion appeared, and the religion itself in its early germ. It was then that the first legends about the mother goddess began to appear. Her appearance is considered a milestone in the foundation of the imperial dynasty (equal to God and being the very embodiment of the gods), which has never been interrupted in history and all wars.

The name of the first emperor is associated with the first, in many respects legendary, attempt to unite the disparate Japanese tribes. So it is believed that, having sat on the throne, Emperor Jimmu undertook big Adventure to the east, passing the Inland Sea, arrived in Naniwa (Osaka), and moved to Yamato Province(Nara prefecture). However, in Yamato he met stubborn resistance from the local prince Nagasunehiko and his overlord, Prince Nigihayahi-no-Mikoto. The emperor sailed in a roundabout way along the southeastern coast and landed in the province cues(Wakayama prefecture). His companions were: the raven Yatagarasu and people who voluntarily followed the heir of the great deity. He undertook a campaign through the mountains, again entered into land of Yamato and subjugated the local leaders. Then moved the troops against Nagasunehiko. According to legend, at a time when the decisive battle was in full swing, a golden kite flew in and landed on the bow of the Emperor, blinding everyone who looked at him. The enemies fled in fear.

To be continued...

The first settlers on the territory of the future Japan appeared in the Paleolithic times. Actually, Japan in its modern sense did not yet exist, since the Japanese islands separated from the Asian peninsula only in the Mesolithic era as a result of extensive melting of glaciers. This phenomenon was subsequently called the rot and is described in many ancient cultures. Thanks to him, Japan took on the shape that we see now on the map. The most significant and interesting epoch of these ancient times for us is the Neolithic, which for Japan dates back to the 8th millennium - 300 BC. e. This stage is characterized not only by fishing and hunting, traditional for the ancient tribes, but also by agriculture. It was it that contributed to a sharp jump in human development: various tools of labor appear, a person begins to lead a sedentary lifestyle, various spheres develop and become more complex. social life. For Japan, this period is characterized by the appearance of ceramics, the specific “corded” ornament of which gave the name to the whole culture - “jomon”. Farming was traditionally considered a women's occupation, while hunting and fishing were left to men, therefore, as the role of agriculture in the life of the Japanese increased, so did the authority of women in the community. Gradually, this led to a certain change in social roles, and women began to take a place in society equivalent to the positions of men. This is evidenced by archaeological finds in the places of former places of worship, as well as in the burials, they find many characteristic figurines - “dogu”, which are an exaggerated image of a pregnant woman. As the researchers suggest, these artifacts symbolized the cult of the hearth and fertility, denoted women and all the typical female functions: motherhood and keeping the hearth. They were necessary elements of many rituals aimed at increasing fertility, as well as designed to protect the community from various troubles and diseases. A characteristic feature of the dogu found in the burials is the absence of their right hand, which is explained by the desire of the ancient Japanese to provide them with the easiest transition to the afterlife, where they had to protect the dead. Such figurines testify not only to the increased authority of women, but also to the fact that, among other things, women in ancient Japanese society also performed rituals, which indicates their significant influence in one of the dominant areas in the life of ancient peoples - in the field of religion.

The presence of the rudiments of a religious worldview among the ancestors of the Japanese during this period is also evidenced by the results of studies of burials. It was common to bury the dead in the so-called shell mounds, a kind of kitchen waste. But, of course, this does not indicate the presence of a cult of the dead. What is interesting here is that they buried in a strictly defined position - the "embryo", strictly orienting the head of the deceased to the side of the world. Tso what side it was, you can trace the evolution of the religious beliefs of ancient people. So, the deceased could be placed with his head to the west, east and, less often, to the north. According to researchers, the last two options are remnants of the most ancient ideas, as they symbolize those parts of the world where the sun has not yet risen. But this arrangement was soon replaced by another, more traditional for all ancient communities, that is, by orienting the deceased with his head to the west, where the sun had already set and where, therefore, the afterlife is located. In addition, other features of the burials - such as the painting of the body of the deceased in red, as well as the already mentioned crooked posture of the corpse, indicate the existence of the perception of death as a rebirth, reincarnation into a totem animal, designed to protect the tribe worshiping him. Last fact testifies to the wide spread of totemism at this stage in the development of the proto-Japanese community. Another interesting observation that the bodies in the burials were crippled in one way or another (as a rule, they had layered arms or legs) is explained by the Ancient people's fear of the dead and the desire to prevent any possibility of their return to this world. The complex of these ideas in one form or another will enter Shintoism. In addition to the development of ideas about the afterlife and totemism, great importance the ancient Japanese gave different kind of magic. Researchers have found indisputable evidence of the spread of this type of beliefs of the ancient peoples. Cave drawings, depicting successful hunting or fishing, are nothing more than proof of the existence of imitating magic. The thing is that ancient people had a very low degree of abstraction, and for them there was practically no difference between what was invented and embodied in the drawing and what actually exists. Quite the contrary: they believed that with the help of such images they gain power over reality and can ensure a successful outcome. Gesture magic was also widespread. So, for example, a young man and a girl close to each other, in case of parting, tied knots on their clothes, which symbolized their mutual fidelity. If the knot was untied, then this meant breaking and breaking the oath, which was equivalent to a crime. The Japanese also possessed another very widespread magic - the magic of the word, traces of which can still be traced in the belief that the word has some kind of power, or "soul". Examples of such magic are all sorts of conspiracies, love spells, spells, and so on.

The population of the Japanese islands at that moment consisted of the so-called earthen spiders, or cavemen, as well as mountain dwellers who existed separately from them. The latter had pronounced features of the Ainu, which is why the entire period of the Jomon culture was called the "country of the Ainu". One of the problems of modern ethnography is the question of the origin of this nation. Although some researchers dispute their relationship with modern population Japan, but the majority, whose point of view we will adhere to, are still inclined to see in them the ancestors of the Japanese. This is just one of the problems associated with these people. No less shocking are discoveries concerning its origin. Archaeological data clearly indicate its relationship with the peoples of Australia and Indonesia. The most close to the Ainu, however strange it may seem, are the Australians, which is also confirmed by the data of comparative linguistics.

The next stage after the Jomon culture was the stage that got its name from the location - "yayoi". Having replaced the Ainu culture, it existed until 300 AD. e. At this time, a large number of migrants from the mainland were observed, who brought with them bronze and iron, hitherto unfamiliar to the indigenous inhabitants of the islands. According to its distribution, this culture is divided into two areas: western and eastern, which have significant differences.

First, for western center dissemination of culture bronze age-. islands of Kyushu - the manufacture of swords is characteristic, which, in addition to their immediate functions, also served as an object of worship, being considered as the receptacle of God. In addition to swords, mirrors were also made in this area, which also performed a magical function in various ancient rituals. It is believed that mirrors were given such importance primarily because of their ability to reflect evil and various misfortunes, but there are other options for explaining the role of mirrors in ancient Japanese culture: they were considered both as symbols of the sun and as an intermediary between a person, his soul, reflected in the mirror, and the universe. The last idea was borrowed from Chinese settlers along with mirrors: the Chinese believed that the mirror opens the way to the universal law - Tao. Another significant artifact was objects made from jasper, and jasper itself as such. According to beliefs borrowed again from the Chinese, it was believed that jasper averts evil demons from a person. Despite the fact that almost all of these elements of the cult were adopted from another nation, they still occupy a significant place in Japanese culture, being sacred talismans, symbols of royal or imperial power. The sword, mirror and jasper still symbolize the sacred power of the ruler.

Secondly, in the eastern area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe distribution of the Yayoi culture, bronze bells were widely distributed, bearing a special name - "do-taku". They were hung in temples and ancient sanctuaries, as a rule, on the branches of sacred trees. It was with their help that it was considered possible to communicate with the deities, for which every time during prayer it was necessary to ring such a bell. For archaeologists, the “dotaku” found are also valuable because they have preserved paintings depicting scenes of everyday life of the ancient population of Japan, which helps to expand our knowledge about this area of ​​​​their life.

Despite the fact that the Japanese themselves learned how to extract copper and make various alloys from it, most of their products were made from remelted Chinese. On the other hand, agriculture developed significantly, which contributed to the settlement of the tribes, and, consequently, the social structure changed significantly. From the Chinese chronicles we learn that the proto-Japanese society existed according to the following scheme: the largest unit was the community, or "kuni", which means country. The next link is “mura”, or a village, which was a community of house communities - “shotai kyodotai”, consisting of several dwellings “ta-taena”. Along with this type of dwelling, which was a dugout, there was another one - “takayuki ", built on piles. These structures were used to store crops, and later served as a model for Shinto shrines. We have reliable information about what such structures were, since one of these temples has survived to this day in Japan. This is surprising, but this was made possible by the tradition of renovating temples every 20 years, which developed in the country around * the 7th century. The temple at Ise shows us a classic example of a takayuki shrine. The fact that grain storage facilities acquire sacred significance is quite understandable if take into account the role that agriculture played in people's lives at that time.Gradually, the place where the harvest was stored began to be understood not only as a simple barn, but also as a receptacle for a god. At first it was considered the dwelling of the goddess of fertility and cereals, and then it became traditional for other gods and goddesses of the Shinto pantheon. In particular, the already mentioned Ise temple complex is dedicated to one of the main Japanese deities - the goddess Amaterasu.

All this was managed by the head of the community, who also performed the functions of a priest. The head of the agricultural community was also a military leader, as indicated by his possession of a sword and a spear as symbols of power. In addition, this hypothesis is supported by linguistic data: the hieroglyph "zo-kucho", which denoted the head of the community, consists of two parts, each of which has an independent meaning. "Zoku" is part of another complex character "kazoku" - "family", and "zokucho" means both "head", I "commander" and "warlord", as a result of which the term "zokucho" consisting of these two mouths means the head of not only farmers, but also warriors in case of war. In ancient Japan, there was a strict system of punishment for "sins", which were divided into "earthly" and "heavenly". The latter implied a heavier degree of responsibility and included violation of land boundaries, damage to agricultural structures, attempts to take possession of someone else's field, and other crimes typical of an agricultural community. The “earthly” sins included incest, bestiality, causing harm to a person and his health, practicing “sorcery”, etc. These prohibitions, traditional for ancient communities, were later included in the set of Shinto commandments, called “Engi shiki”.

The development of the economy, the complication of the social structure led to the separation of the nobility, which was reflected in the methods of burial of people belonging to different social strata. Wealthy members of the community were buried in specially designated places, leaving traditional talismans, implements and weapons in the graves so that the dead could use them in the afterlife, while ordinary members of the community were simply taken out of the habitable space and left to be eaten by wild animals. In addition to free members of the community, another link appeared in the social structure, which became possible thanks to numerous wars between tribes - slaves. At first, slaves were considered the property of the entire community, but gradually wealthy farmers began to acquire their own personal slave servants, which, however, "did not become widespread, since slaves in Japan were very rare and highly valued.

Ethnologists involved in the formation of the Japanese nation found out that during the period of the strongest flow of migrants, representatives of the majority of the population migrated to the Japanese islands. southern territories: Negroids, Indonesians, Indo-Chitans, Chinese, Mongoloids, Koreans and Tungus. They formed numerous tribes, between which there was a constant struggle for the possession of territories. As a result of these endless clashes, a mixture of all these nationalities took place, which eventually gave rise to the Japanese nation. By the beginning of our era, only five tribes continued to exist: kumaso, or ha-yato (in Shikoku), tenson (in Kyushu), id-zumo, yamato and ezo ( island of Honshu). Around the end of the third century AD, a turning point occurred in the intertribal struggle - the formation of one of the first tribal unions led by a woman named Himiko. It is this moment that is considered to be one of the starting points for the formation of Japanese statehood. Almost nothing is known about the woman who led the Yamatai union. The ancient inscription of her name consists of two parts: "hi", which means "sunny", and "miko", i.e. "shaman", which indicates the functions that she performed in society. Such an interpretation is confirmed by archaeological evidence, according to which at that time the rule was traditionally carried out by two people: a man and a woman, as a rule, brother and sister. Thus, it is possible to draw a completely justified conclusion that Himiko played the role of a clergyman, helping to rule her brother commander. This reign was extremely complicated both by economic difficulties (there are mentions of a terrible famine in the chronicles) and political turmoil (the attack of the Kumaso tribe with the support of the Korean ruler), but the agreement concluded with the Chinese emperor helped to overcome all these difficulties. After Himiko's death, a man ruled for some time, according to some assumptions, her brother, but this reign was short-lived, as it gave rise to discontent among other community members, who still had a significant influence on domestic political events. As a result of the uprising, the reign of a girl who is believed to be Himiko's daughter began, but such facts still remain unconfirmed. After the burial of Himiko, a hill was built, which entered the history of culture as one of the first barrows, which marked the onset of a new stage in the development of ancient Japanese civilization - the barrow culture.

The culture of this period in archeology also has a second name - the kofun culture. on the territory of the Japanese islands, it was common until the 7th century. The distinctive feature that gave it its name was new type burials, in which a barrow was poured over the graves, which were something like a dugout. Otherwise, it did not differ much from the previous stage, at least at an early stage of development: along with metal products and tools, wooden ones were also preserved, and the struggle between communities. The defeated tribes were obliged to pay tribute, and their rulers took an oath of allegiance to the winner and were henceforth considered his slaves. Slavery was purely nominal, as such "royal slaves" retained all their powers and still ruled over their tribes. In addition, this name soon disappeared altogether, finally securing the status of the defeated rulers as governors of the central government.

The Yamato tribal union that had developed by the 4th century still haunts researchers of this period. The fact is that the completion of its formation is very vague, which gave rise to several hypotheses about how this happened. On this moment only three of the many options are most likely, but none of them can be considered the only true one. And although all three are quite different and even contradict each other to some extent, there are still supporters of each of them.

Geographically, the tribal union was located on the island of Honshu, its origin is presumably explained as follows: the influence of northern Kyushu, the "eastern campaign" of the legendary king Jimmu, and the conquest by settlers from the mainland. The second hypothesis was and remains, despite the facts that refute it, incredibly popular in Japan. It was Jimmu who was considered the founder of the Japanese empire, and even the date was called - 660 don. e. It was this year that was considered the year of the foundation of Japanese statehood, and for a long time there existed in Japan official holiday"foundation of the empire", which was given great domestic political importance. Now this hypothesis has been refuted, since it has been proven that Emperor Jimmu, although he was a real historical figure, still could not lay the foundations of the Japanese state, since he lived six centuries later than the indicated date.

The conquest by another, more developed people finds many satisfied convincing arguments. In particular, one of the evidence was the archaeological finds of Japanese scientists. When studying the burials of that era, it was found that the nature of the objects that accompanied the deceased to the afterlife in the early barrow period differs sharply from what was left in the graves in later periods. If the originally buried utensils testified to the sacred nature of the royal power, his religious authority as the main shaman, then later these signs disappeared and were replaced; signs of the military status of the ruler, similar to those found on the territory of Korea, which, according to this hypothesis, was conquered by the same nomadic people.

In reality, the formation and development of Japanese statehood took place in a slightly different, more natural way. The Yamato tribal union gained more and more influence, conquering the surrounding lands and taxing them with tribute. The conquered territories were divided into "agata" districts, local government was left to the former communal leaders, with the status of "agata nusi" assigned to them, which means "head of the agate". The head of this union, who did not personally carry out military campaigns, since he was, first of all, a clergyman, received part of the conquered lands as personal property, as well as part of the tribute received from the enslaved peoples. Under one of the rulers of this time - King Suining - there was one rather significant change in the order of burial. The fact is that at that time it was considered quite natural after the death of the head of the community or any other wealthy farmer to bury his servants with him so that they would continue to serve him in the next world. And they were buried alive. According to one of the legends, Suining heard screams from the ground while walking, which frightened him very much. When it was explained to him that these were “only” the servants of one of the recently deceased, this shocked him even more, and he ordered to stop such a practice once and for all. Since then, the number of such human victims has significantly decreased, and then with the advent of a special type of funerary ceramics - khaniva - the burial of the living ceased altogether. Khaniva are clay images of people and objects necessary for existence in the afterlife, but this will be discussed later, in the section on culture.

The most frequent object of attack by the Japanese was the Korean peninsula, which for a long time could not be conquered completely. An attempt was even made to intermarry with the Korean rulers, which ended successfully, and in 300 the Korean-Japanese alliance was formed, which increased the influx of immigrants to Japan. It was the Korean and Chinese migrants who founded the city of Osaka, then called Naniwa. The settlers of this and many other cities brought to Japan more developed forms of handicrafts and agriculture, which greatly contributed to the development of the Japanese economy. In the 4th century, the Japanese violated the treaty with Korea and, under the leadership of King Tuai, made a devastating attack on Silla (one of the states that existed on the territory of modern Korea). Constant attacks and unbearable tribute stirred up the Korean tribes, provoked an uprising against the Japanese conquerors. During this struggle, the Japanese were defeated, and Tuai was killed as a result of a conspiracy led by his Korean wife. Jing-gu (that was the name of the woman) helped the Koreans conquer the population of Yamato and herself became the helm of power. When she had a son, named Ojin, he was proclaimed ruler, under which she took the place of regent, since the ruler was a minor.

From the moment Ojin entered into full possession of his lands, the beginning of a new period in the history of Japan was counted - the time of the reign of the Korean dynasty, or, in other words, “five kings of Wa. After Odzna, the kings Hansho, Inge, Anko and Yuryaku also ruled, whose years of rule are known (456–479), which cannot be said about the rest of the representatives of the dynasty. The only thing that can be added is that the reign of the entire dynasty chronologically fit into the framework of everything one - V, - century. In archeology, this period is known as the era of the late Kurgan culture. It was at this time that objects of a completely different nature began to appear in the burials than they had been until now. Now the entire inventory of burials testifies to the consolidation of ideas about the ruler, first of all, as a warrior. Scientists find swords and other attributes of military status, characteristic of other cultures of this type.

In order to achieve the recognition of her son as the full ruler of Japan, Jingu did everything possible measures. Repeatedly, she sent an embassy to China in order to obtain from the emperor an official document that would legalize the power of the Korean invaders in the eyes of the Japanese people. The authority of China at that time was very high, so there is nothing surprising in such actions. To her regret, she never managed to achieve this for her eldest son, Ojin, but on the other hand, similar aspirations for her youngest son, Hansho, were crowned with success, albeit not completely. 438 - important date in the history of Japan. It was then that the next Jingu embassy returned with a positive answer: the emperor of China deigned to give legitimacy to the new government in Japan, declaring Hansho who ruled there "jian juan", or general, which in Japanese sounds like "shogun". Henceforth, the rulers of Japan, or "Kings of Wa" (Wa is the Chinese name for the Japanese people), were entrusted with an almost sacred mission to bring peace to the entire East. Yuryaku found the greatest use for this appointment, who did not fail to interpret it in his own interests and pursued an active foreign policy, seizing the surrounding lands, and thereby brought the process of forming a centralized Japanese state closer to completion. The very Yamato tribal union, which we have already mentioned so many times, became the core of this state.

The last in the dynasty was King Buretsu, who died without leaving heirs. One of the first who tried to take advantage of this situation, but did not yet proclaim a new dynasty (which will happen later), was the viceroy of the supreme ruler in the province in which Fukui Prefecture is now located. He attempted to become king on the grounds that he was allegedly the grandson of the founder of the Korean dynasty, Ojin. Despite the impressiveness of such statements, his campaign failed. Trouble reigned in the country, which lasted more than 20 years, as a result of which a new government was established in the country, which will be discussed below.

During the reign of the Korean dynasty, the influx of emigrants to Japan increased, which led to changes in the social structure of the country. One of the important factors was that the Korean-Chinese settlers, having firmly settled on Japanese soil, occupied their niche in society. To designate the entire group of foreigners there was a special term - "be". Since they all had different professional skills and were engaged in different types activity, then very soon within this group there was a division into peculiar castes, each of which received its own name. The process of naturalization of Koreans began long before this period: the first "bae" were farmers who were subjugated as a result of military raids. As the most ancient representatives of this social level they were already divided into wealthy and ordinary members of the group. The richest deserve more high status, therefore, priests and servants for the royal family were recruited from them: imbe, mikoshirobe and minashirobe. Poorer people, but also given settled on these lands, served as guards, water carriers and cleaners: respectively, tonomori, moitori and kani-mori. Tonomori guarded the territories that belonged to the royal family, as well as the residence of the kings, but the rulers also had their own personal guardians, whose functions were performed by the saeki-be group. It is impossible to call them guards, since their tasks included scaring away evil demons during the king's trips, as well as during some holidays. For this, the saekibe was always accompanied royal family, ran ahead of the palanquin and "barked" at everything that came across their path. It was believed that in this way you can scare the spirits and prevent trouble. Such “dogs” showed particular zeal in places traditionally considered dangerous to humans, or, according to ancient peoples, endowed with great magical power: forests, crossroads, crossings, etc.

One of the most influential was the family group in charge of the treasury - sogabe. In addition, groups that united artisans who made weapons had no less influence. In addition to production, their functions also included the storage of an arsenal.

"Be" were not considered subject to the local ruler: all they owed the state -4- was taxes. The ruling elite that existed within each group exercised self-government, relieving their fellow tribesmen from the effect of Japanese laws, which were very severe. So, an ordinary Japanese could be made a slave for the slightest offense. To denote this shameful status, there was a whole system of signs. Firstly, the slaves were given a kind of tattoo around their eyes, and secondly, they no longer had the right to wear adult clothes and adult hair, which only emphasized the humiliation of their position. Among the slaves, there was also a division into private and public, but in general there was not much difference between them, slavery was not typical for Japan, and therefore the slaves performed the functions of domestic servants, served as poultrymen, grooms and shepherds - in general, they performed a little more dirty "and hard work than free community members, and, of course, did not receive any payment for their work.Slavery did not acquire a mass character, and the attitude towards slaves was quite human, so that Japan cannot be called a slave-owning country, like, say, Greece or Rome.

The process of social differentiation was gaining more and more momentum, which led to the streamlining of the management system of various social groups. This happened under Tsar Inge, when the kabane rank system was created. A person who had this or that status received a surname, depending on what status he belonged to, a position with clearly defined functions and a certain number of slaves, which emphasized his place in society. The highest levels belonged mainly to representatives of the royal blood and were called "kimi", which means "ruler". The next link - "inagi" - ruled the regions, followed by "suguri", who can be considered as village elders. The supreme ruler disposed of the distribution of ranks, but this does not mean that he could appoint to this or that position whomever he pleased. No, he could only recognize the grass on the power of this or that family (udzvr), firmly established in the region and for a long time exercising management functions there. Only the heirs of the previous ruler could be granted power: otherwise, the clan could begin to challenge the right of the supreme ruler himself to such actions, which, in the end, could lead to the overthrow of the king’s power. Thus, the fact of the formation in Japan of feudal classes that considered the lands where they lived their property and hardly tolerated the ruler's interference in their affairs.Uji were divided into three types: royal family, rest indigenous people, but not of the royal family, and settlers, which largely determined the degree of permissible disobedience to the king. Such, in in general terms, a characteristic of the social structure of Japanese society in the 5th century.

After the death of Buretsu and the failure of the self-proclaimed grandson of Ojin, an internecine struggle for supreme power began in the country. The main opponents in this battle were two clans: Otomo and Soga. Unlike the first grouping, the Soga clan included wealthy Korean emigrants, it was they who won. The first thing they changed in the old system of government was the control over the provinces. If earlier the power in the regions belonged to local wealthy families, which the king only confirmed by giving them ranks, now the Soga put their own people in these positions, who were completely subordinate to them. This change allowed for an end to civil strife in the periphery, and also reduced the threat of rebellion in the provinces. Wealthy family clans were now obliged to obey officials, and their former possessions turned into strongholds of the new power - miyake, which led to new stage in the development of the Japanese state.

The next stage in the establishment of order in the country and the establishment of Sog in power was the accession of the protege of this group - Kimmei, who ruled from 539 to 571. He continued the liquidation policy begun by his patrons; separatist tendencies on the ground. For this purpose, the confession of Buddhism was introduced instead of Shintoism, the official religion of the previous government. In addition, it was the Shinto priests, whose authority in the provinces was very high, that were the stronghold of the struggle for independence.

In order to consolidate the country, a population census was conducted and taxes were systematized. From now on, the peasants were considered the property of the state and were obliged to work out corvée and pay quitrent in kind. Thus, the final establishment of feudal orders in the country took place. The family groups that enjoyed the greatest influence distributed administrative functions among themselves, which greatly contributed to their measured coexistence. Nominally, the Sumeragi share was in power, but the Soga family, who was in charge of finances and kept the royal regalia: a sword, a mirror and jasper, really ruled the country. Religious functions were performed by the Nakatomibe group.

In 502, Cora, with the support of a kind of royal guard - the guards of the tonori - seized power and installed their own king, or rather, the queen. Queen Suyoko served only as a cover for the person who really ruled at that time and held the official post of regent - Shotoku-taishi. Under him, Confucianism began to actively penetrate into Japan, which is reflected even in his name: “shotoku” means “highest virtue”, and “taishi” is the title of the crown prince. Thus, Confucianism, like Buddhism, became a tool in asserting the position of Soga. In addition, the Confucian system of organizing the administrative apparatus also pleased the new ruler, and in 603 was introduced new system ranks, copied from the Chinese sample.

In foreign policy the main problem was the conquest of a position independent of China. To this end, numerous negotiations were undertaken, which, however, did little to convince the Chinese emperor. The main benefit of these negotiations was the knowledge that the ambassadors brought with them to their homeland: China, as a more developed country in all respects, served as an example for Japan. To raise his country's prestige on the world stage, Kimmei changed its name and changed the name of his own status: It was then that the well-known self-name of Japan "Nihon" - "the country where the sun is born" first appears. The ruler of Japan himself was no longer called "tenshi", which means "son of Heaven", but "tzno", i.e. e., "heavenly sovereign." All these populist methods could not, of course, change the situation in the country and contribute to the improvement of life. GOPEOD and frequent epidemics; doomed Soga's policy to failure.

The era of mounds was marked not only by significant socio-economic and political changes, but also by the development of culture. The emergence of writing, magnificent architectural ensembles, sculptural works - these are the main achievements of Japanese culture of that time. Japanese researchers call this period "Asuka" - after the name of the river on the banks of which the royal palace- the center of the country's development.

The largest event in the field of religious worldview was the adoption of Buddhism. Despite the fact that only external forms were borrowed, it still significantly influenced the life of the Japanese people. Shintoism, which already existed in Japan, was developed system ancient pagan ideas, which absorbed fetishism, totemism, magic and the cult of ancestors, and fully met the requirements of tribal power. When with the advent of the new government there were tendencies towards the creation of a single state, it became necessary to change religion. There are different versions of the photo, when exactly Buddhism entered Japan. The most convincing is the one according to which this happened in 502, according to which Buddhism was in jieeeeya and Korea there missionaries. After listening to the adherents of this foreign teaching, glorifying Buddhism as the best of religions, and convinced of its usefulness in the unification of the country, the government decided to recognize Buddhism as the official religion. As a result, that version of the Buddha's teaching came to Japan, which was widespread in Korea and China, i.e. "Mahayana", which means "great vehicle" in contrast to the common "in more southern countries variant "Hinayana", or "small vehicle". Distinctive feature the accepted variety is the recognition of the existence of bodhisattvas - people who commit themselves not to achieve enlightenment and not to go into nirvana until you reach enlightenment all beings ”The founder of the doctrine, Buddha Shakya Muni, was revered only as the greatest teacher, but not as a deity, which different from other religions of salvation: Christianity and Islam. But this does not mean that there were no gods in Buddhism. He had his own pantheon, which included Hindu deities, and when Buddhism came to Japan, he absorbed all the Shinto deities, which contributed to its spread. At first, Buddhism was perceived as a special kind of magic, since the consciousness of the Japanese was not ready for the level of abstraction that this teaching offered. Therefore, in Buddhist temples came to ask the gods to save them from illness and other misfortunes, just like in Shinto. Then Shintoism and Buddhism, as it were, “divided spheres of influence”: Buddhist ministers began to deal with death rituals, and Shinto - life, that is, birth, weddings, agricultural rituals and various holidays. This attitude is explained by the Buddhists' peculiar attitude to death, according to which the soul is immortal and after death a person does not die, but only passes to another link in the wheel of samsara, which symbolized existence as a chain of endless reincarnations. Only those who led a righteous way of life and observed all the precepts of Buddhism manage to break this chain and achieve nirvana - "non-existence". This description only in general terms explains the main provisions of Buddhism and cannot, of course, give a complete picture of this amazing religion. In addition to the inner essence of Buddhism, the Japanese were also attracted by the outer side: solemn rituals, magnificent decoration of temples, clothes of clergymen.

As already noted, Confucianism was also actively penetrating Japan at that time, but its influence was not as large-scale as that of Buddhism, and affected only the social sphere, serving as the basis for the reform of the administrative apparatus.

When Buddhism arrived in Japan, it brought with it new forms of art that greatly influenced existing architecture and sculpture. Coming from a country with a higher level of progress, he greatly contributed to the development of Japanese building techniques. If earlier they built on piles to strengthen the structure, now they began to build on the foundation. Thus dwellings of the takayuky type were displaced, leaving their mark only in the form of Shinto shrines. During this period, they begin to build new dwellings with curved roofs, imitating Chinese architecture. Subsequently, this form will prevail and become a hallmark of Japanese architecture.

The new government paid considerable attention to the promotion of Buddhism, as a result of which temple buildings and monasteries dominate in the buildings of that time. Let's take a closer look at what a Japanese temple is. You need to start with the fact that the Japanese almost never built free-standing sanctuaries: it was always a whole complex. It included many rooms, each of which played a strictly defined role in the ensemble. This includes: main temple(kondo), a chapel (kodo), a tower that serves as something like a Christian chapel (koro), a building for storing sacred texts (kyozo), a pagoda of several tiers, a treasury (shosoin) and an external gate (samon). The first temple complexes, built according to Chinese and Korean models, shook the Japanese imagination with their size and clear layout. In a country where the semi-dugout tataena remained the main type of dwelling, the majestic buildings of monasteries and temples made an indelible impression.

The principle of building complexes will be taken as the basis of ori: the construction of cities, which in Japan at that time did not yet exist. In the 7th century, the construction of Buddhist monasteries reached an unprecedented scale. In just half a century, more than five hundred temples were erected, which served as centers for the dissemination of writing and culture. In addition to their religious duties, the clergy were also involved in compiling chronicles, thanks to which we are well aware of the events of those times.

The surviving buildings made of wood are a unique example of the Art of Japanese masters. The accuracy of Japanese carpenters is striking, especially considering that at that time they worked with wooden tools, creating unique patterns. wooden architecture. The temples were richly decorated with external and internal decoration.

Sculpture of that time is of little interest, since almost everything was created according to Korean models. Copying of ready-made images of the Buddha significantly slowed down the development of the original Japanese sculpture. Nevertheless, even in such conditions, talented works of art were created. One of the most famous sculptors of that time was Tori Bussi, who created many bronze statues, now kept in one of the first Buddhist complexes, moreover, which has come down to our days - in the temple of Horyuji. More independence was wooden sculpture, whose works had a great national flavor and proper Japanese understanding of the images of the main Buddhist deities. With the development of sculptural creativity, these features only intensified, which, naturally, was reflected in the images: more and more more statues were created on the basis of the Japanese ethnic type, and the idea of ​​the Buddha as the patron of Japan, although different from the canons, was captured in the solemn appearance of the Teacher, similar to the image of the emperor.

In the history of any country, the emergence of writing is a significant stage in the development of culture. The value of written sources is immeasurably higher in the transfer of spiritual experience and cultural heritage than oral communication. In Japan, like “many other things, writing was brought by the preachers of Buddhism, therefore, the basis of Japanese writing is the Chinese system of hieroglyphs. Initially, literary creativity in Japan was oral: there was even a special professional group of storytellers who had great authority among the people. With the advent of writing, these legends, which, as a rule, were stories about the deeds of some other noble family that could pay for the services of a storyteller and keeper of family history, began to be written down, which marked a new stage in the development of Japanese civilization. This event dates back to around the 5th century. In addition to such records, there are many other evidences of the penetration and development of writing in Japan. Initially, the letter was considered something magical, and according to popular belief, the object with the inscription was endowed with supernatural power. Later, these beliefs partially lost their force, especially when the management of various business records. Records at the state level were kept in Chinese for a long time, although already in the 6th century the Japanese alphabet - katakana - began to appear. At the same time, the first monuments of Japanese writing began to appear, telling about the deeds ruling family: "Chronicle of the Imperial House" ("Teiki") and a collection of myths and fairy tales "Ancient Words" ("Kyuji").

Japanese civilization is still striking in its mystery

Formation of Japanese Civilization

The ancient Japanese civilization did not have a significant impact on the ancient and medieval culture of other regions. Its significance for world culture lies elsewhere. Having developed on the basis of the most heterogeneous and different stages of elements a kind of art, literature, worldview, Japan was able to prove that its cultural values ​​have sufficient potencies both in time and in space, even if they remained in force. insular position countries unknown to contemporaries in other countries. The task of the historian of Japanese antiquity is, in particular, to understand how the foundations of what we now call Japanese culture were laid, which, after a centuries-old period of accumulation of the cultural heritage of other countries, is now making an ever-increasing contribution to the development of universal culture.

The main periods of the history of ancient Japanese civilization

1. Paleolithic(40000-13000 years ago). There are few Paleolithic monuments, most of which were discovered after the war.
2. Neolithic - Jomon culture(13,000 years BC - III century BC). Most of the population lives in the northeastern part of the island of Honshu. The Jōmon culture (named after the type of rope-decorated pottery) spread from Hokkaido to the Ryukyu.
3. Eneolithic - Yayoi culture(III century BC - III century AD). Named after the type of pottery found at Yayoi. There is a large migration from the Korean Peninsula of groups of the Altaic language group, which brought with them the experience of land rice cultivation, sericulture, technology for the production of bronze and iron. There is an assimilation of the local Austronesian population, which led to the appearance of proto-Japanese.
4. Kurgan period - kofun jidai(III-VI centuries). Named after a large number mound-type funeral structures. There is a formation of a homogeneous state - Yamato.
5. Asuka period(552-646). The name was given to the location of the residence of the Yamato kings in the Asuka region (Central Japan). This period is characterized by the formation of Buddhism and the strengthening of the state.
6. Early Nara(646-710). At this stage, there is a massive borrowing from China - writing, bureaucratic structures, management theories and practices. A period of great reforms begins to transform Yamato into a "civilized" state on the Chinese model: the creation of the first legislative codes, a system of state ownership of land and an allotment system of land use.
7. Nara(710-794). The name was given to the location of the first permanent capital of Japan - the city of Nara. The name of the country is changed to "Nihon" ("where the sun rises"). The first own written monuments appear - the annalistic mythological codes "Kojiki" and "Nihongi". The internal struggle between the service nobility, immigrants from China and Korea, and the local aristocracy is escalating, which leads to the weakening of Buddhism and the strengthening of Shinto.

Settlement of the Japanese islands

Clay figurines. Jomon period. VIII-I millennium BC

Japanese civilization is young. Young and the people who created it. It was formed as a result of complex and multi-temporal ethnic mergers of settlers who overcame the water barrier separating the Japanese islands from the mainland. The earliest inhabitants of Japan were, in all likelihood, Proto-Ainu tribes, as well as tribes of Malayo-Polynesian origin. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. an intensive migration of proto-Japanese tribes is observed from the southern part of the Korean peninsula wa, who managed to largely assimilate the population of southern Japan (Japanese, according to the latest research by S. A. Starostin, reveals the greatest relationship with Korean).

And although in that era all the tribes that inhabited the territory of Japan were at the level primitive communal system, even then, probably, one of the leading stereotypes of the worldview of the Japanese was laid, which is visible throughout the history of this country - this is the ability to assimilate the skills and knowledge that come as a result of contacts with other peoples. It was after assimilation with local tribes at the turn of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. cultivation of irrigated rice and metal processing begins.

The yayoi era

The period lasting six centuries (until the 3rd century AD) is called “yayoi” in Japanese historiography (after the quarter in Tokyo where the remains of this culture were first discovered). The Yayoi culture is characterized by the creation of sustainable communities based on irrigated agriculture. Since bronze and iron penetrate Japan almost simultaneously, bronze was used mainly for the manufacture of cult items: ritual mirrors, swords, bells, and iron for the production of tools.

Yamato era

Clay figurine. End of the Jomon period. 2nd century BC.

The ability to assimilate foreign models becomes especially noticeable along with the emergence of statehood dating back to the 3rd-4th centuries. AD At this time, there is an aggressive campaign of the union of tribes of Southern Kyushu in Central Japan. As a result, the so-called state of Yamato begins to form, the culture of which is characterized by unprecedented homogeneity.

The period from the 4th to the beginning of the 7th century. It is called kurgan (“kofun jidai”) after the type of burials, the structure and inventory of which are distinguished by features of strong Korean and Chinese influences. Nevertheless, such a large-scale construction - and more than 10 thousand mounds have been discovered at present - could not have been successful if the very idea of ​​mounds was alien to the population of Japan. The Yamato mounds are probably genetically related to the dolmens of Kyushu. Among the objects of the funerary cult, the clay plastics of the khaniva are of particular importance. Among these brilliant examples of ancient ritual art are images of dwellings, temples, umbrellas, vessels, weapons, armor, boats, animals, birds, priests, warriors, etc. Many features of the material and spiritual life of the ancient Japanese are restored from these images. The construction of barrow-type structures was obviously associated with the cult of ancestors and the cult of the Sun, which was also reflected in the monuments of early Japanese literature that have come down to us (mythological and chronicle codes "Kojiki", "Nihon shoki").

Ancestor worship in Shinto

The cult of ancestors is of particular importance for the original Japanese religion - Shintoism, and therefore for the entire culture of Japan. Along with the openness to foreign influences noted above, the cult of ancestors is another powerful driving force in the development of Japanese civilization, a force that ensured continuity in the course of historical evolution.

At the state level, the cult of ancestors was embodied in the cult of the sun goddess Amaterasu, who is considered the progenitor of the ruling family. Among the cycle of myths dedicated to Amaterasu, central location occupies the story of her hiding in a heavenly cave, when the world plunged into darkness and remained in it until the gods, using magical techniques, managed to lure the goddess out of her refuge.

Detail of a clay figurine. III-II millennium BC

The pantheon of early Shinto included deities - the ancestors of the clans that occupied leading place in the social structure of Japanese society during the period of formation of the myth as a category of state ideology. The ancestral deities were considered polyfunctional protectors of the clans that derived their origin from them. In addition to tribal deities, the Japanese also worshiped numerous landscape deities, which, as a rule, had local significance.

Emergence of Buddhism

By the middle of the VI century. in the state of Yamato, a certain political stability was achieved, although the softening of centrifugal tendencies was still one of the main concerns of the ruling family. To overcome the ideological fragmentation sanctified by the clan and regional cults of Shinto, the Japanese rulers turned to the religion of a developed class society - .

It is difficult to overestimate the role that Buddhism has played in the history of Japan. In addition to his contribution to the formation of a nationwide ideology, the teachings of Buddhism formed a new type of personality, devoid of tribal affection and therefore more suitable for functioning in the system. public relations. The process of Buddhist socialization was never fully completed, but nevertheless, at this stage of historical development, Buddhism served as the cementing force that ensured the ideological homogeneity of the Japanese state. The humanizing role of Buddhism was also great, introducing positive ethical norms of the community, which replaced the Shinto taboos.

Clay vessel. Jomon period. VIII-I millennium BC

Construction of Buddhist temples

Together with Buddhism, the material complex that serves the needs of this religion also penetrates into Japan. The construction of temples, the production of sculptural images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, and other objects of worship began. Shinto at that time did not yet have a developed tradition of building indoor places of worship for worship.

The layout of the first Japanese Buddhist temple complexes, with their orientation from south to north, generally corresponds to Korean and Chinese prototypes. However, many design features construction, for example, the anti-seismicity of structures, indicate that temples and monasteries were built with the direct participation of local craftsmen. An important property of many of the first Buddhist temples in Japan was also the absence of a place for prayers in them, a feature inherited from the compositional construction of Shinto shrines. The interior was intended not for prayers, but for the preservation of temple shrines.

The most grandiose Buddhist religious building became the Todaiji temple, the complex of which occupied more than 90 hectares (erected in the middle of the 8th century). The temple symbolized the power of the state. In addition to purely religious needs, it was also used for secular ceremonies of national importance, for example, for conferring official ranks. The Golden Pavilion (condo) of Todaiji has been repeatedly rebuilt after devastating fires. It is currently the largest wooden structure in the world. Its height is 49, width - 57, length - 50 m. giant statue the cosmic buddha Vairocana, 18 m high. However, the “giant mania syndrome” was overcome rather quickly, and nothing like this temple complex Todaiji was not built. The desire for miniaturization becomes characteristic.

Dancer. Haniva. Kofun period. Mid III - mid VI centuries. AD

Buddhist sculpture

In the VII-VIII centuries. continental Buddhist sculpture almost completely suppresses the local iconographic tradition. Bronze Buddhist statues were either imported from Korea and China, or made by visiting craftsmen. Along with bronze sculpture from the second half of the 8th century. the production of lacquer, clay and wooden Buddhist images is becoming more and more common, in the form of which the influence of the local iconographic canon is noticeable. Compared with sculpture, monumental temple painting occupied a much smaller place in the pictorial canon.

The sculpture depicted not only buddhas and bodhisattvas. Since Buddhism brought with it a concept of personality that was more individualized than the one that Shinto had managed to develop by this time, it is no coincidence that from the middle of the 8th century. there is an interest in the portrait image of prominent figures of Japanese Buddhism (Gyoshin, Gien, Ganjin, etc.). However, these portraits are still devoid of personal traits of a person and tend to be typified.

Construction of the capital - Nara

By 710, the construction of the permanent capital of Nara was completed, which was a typical official-bureaucratic city with a certain layout, similar to the capital of Tang China - Chang'an. The city was divided from south to north by nine streets, and from west to east by eight. Intersecting at right angles, they formed a rectangle measuring 4.8 by 4.3 km, in 72 blocks of which, together with the nearest suburbs, up to 200 thousand people could live, according to modern estimates. Nara was then the only city: the level of development of agriculture, crafts and social relations had not yet reached the stage when the emergence of cities would become a universal necessity. Nevertheless, the colossal concentration of the population in the capital at that time contributed to the development of product exchange and commodity-money relations. In the 8th century Japan already minted its own coin.

Wall painting of the tomb. 5th-6th centuries

Creation of a code of laws

The construction of the capital according to the continental model was one of the important measures to transform Japan from a semi-barbarian kingdom into an "empire", which should have been facilitated by numerous reforms that began to be actively carried out from the middle of the 7th century. In 646, a decree was promulgated, consisting of four articles.

• According to Article 1, the former hereditary system of ownership of slaves and land was abolished; instead, state ownership of the land was proclaimed and fixed feedings were allocated in accordance with official ranks.
• Article 2 prescribed a new territorial division countries into provinces and counties; determined the status of the capital.
• Article 3 announced the census of households and the compilation of registers for the redistribution of land.
• Article 4 abolished the former arbitrary labor service and established the amount of household taxation in kind with agricultural products and handicrafts.

The entire second half of the 7th c. marked by increased activity of the state in the field of legislation. Subsequently, individual decrees were brought together, and on their basis, in 701, the drafting of the first universal Taihoryo legislation was completed, which served with additions and modifications as the basis of feudal legislation throughout the Middle Ages. According to Taihoryo and Yororyo (757), the administrative and bureaucratic apparatus of the Japanese state was a complex and branched hierarchical system with strict subordination from top to bottom. The economic basis of the country was the state monopoly on land.

Wall painting of the Tokamatsu-zuka tomb. 6th century AD

Building the ideological foundation of the state

During the VII-VIII centuries. Japanese state tries to ideologically substantiate the established and newly created management institutions. First of all, the mythological and chronicle codes "Kojiki" (712) and "Nihon shoki" (720) should have served for this. Myths, records of historical and semi-legendary events have undergone significant processing in both monuments. The main goal of the compilers was the creation of a state ideology, in other words, the docking of "myth" and "history": the narrative of "Kojiki" and "Nihon shoki" is divided into "era of gods" and "era of emperors". Consequently, the then position of the royal family, as well as other most powerful families from among the tribal aristocracy, was justified in the role played by the primordial deities during the “era of the gods”.

The compilation of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki marks an important stage in the creation of a national ideology based on the Shinto myth. This attempt must be considered very successful. The myth was brought into line with the realities of history, and the system of sacred genealogies up to the 20th century. played a prominent role in the events of Japanese history.

Ritual Buddhist objects. old palace Kyoto. 7th-8th centuries AD

Reducing the role of Buddhism

Simultaneously with the active involvement of Shinto in state building, Buddhism is losing its position in this area. This becomes especially noticeable after the failed coup undertaken by the Buddhist monk Dokyo in 771. To avoid the pressure of the Buddhist clergy who settled in the temples and monasteries of Nara, in 784 the capital was transferred to Nagaoka, and in 794 to Heian. Although largely deprived of state support, Buddhism nevertheless greatly contributed to the formation of a personality that stood out from the collective and constantly participated in the process of its socialization. This is its enduring significance in the history of Japan.

Chinese influence on Japanese culture

Despite the fact that the compilation of the Kojiki and the Nihon shoki pursued the same goals, only the Nihon shoki was recognized as a "real" dynastic chronicle. Although both monuments were written in Chinese ("Kojiki" - with a large involvement of the phonetic notation of the hieroglyphs "manyogana"), "Kojiki" was written by Ono Yasumaro from the voice of the narrator Hieda no Are. Thus, the “oral channel” familiar to Shintoism was used for the transmission of sacred information. Only then, according to the beliefs of the adherents of traditionalism, did the text become a true text.

The text "Nihon shoki" from the very beginning appears as a written text. In view of the active spread of Chinese writing, which created new opportunities for fixing and storing important cultural property, Japanese society faced the question of which speech - written or oral - should be recognized as more authoritative. Initially, the choice was made in favor of the first. For some time, Chinese literary language became the language of culture. He served primarily the needs of the state. Chronicles were kept in Chinese, laws were drawn up. As textbooks in public schools, established in the 8th century, the works of Chinese philosophical, sociological and literary thought were used.

Wooden Taoist ritual figures. Kyoto. 9th century AD

Medieval Japanese poetry is now known throughout the world. But the first of the poetic anthologies that have come down to us - "Kaifuso" (751) - is a collection of poems in Chinese. After some time, an anthology of Japanese poetry, "Manyoshu", was compiled, the verses of which were recorded in "manyogana". This anthology summed up the centuries-old development of Japanese poetry. The "Manyoshu" includes poems from various time layers: samples of folklore and cult poetry, author's compositions that have not yet lost touch with folk songwriting. The latter came close to individual creativity. However, the great prestige of the Chinese language led to the fact that after the compilation of the Manyoshu, Japanese poetry disappeared from the sphere of written culture for a long time. The next anthology in Japanese, Kokinshu, appears only at the beginning of the 10th century. The Kokinshu poems show both continuity with the Manyoshu and many qualitative differences. This testifies to the continuous improvement of the poetic tradition, despite the long-term displacement of Japanese poetry from the category of official culture.

Of course, the main achievements were waiting for Japanese culture ahead. The period immediately preceding the brilliant and fully independent medieval Heian culture was to a large extent a time of persistent and fruitful apprenticeship. Nevertheless, even with the most diverse borrowings, the Japanese managed to maintain continuity in relation to the past achievements of their own culture. By the middle of the IX century. Japanese culture, enriched by foreign borrowings, already possessed sufficient internal energy for independent development.